Ph.D. Thesis (Geology) - Shabeer Ahmed - 2018

Ph.D.
Thesis
STUDY OF TECTONIC EVOLUTION OF STRUCTURES AND

THEIR HYDROCARBON POTENTIAL USING SEISMIC DATA,
SOUTHERN SINDH MONOCLINE, PAKISTAN
A THESIS SUBMITTED TOWARDS THE PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF

THE REQUIREMENT FOR THE AWARD OF DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
IN GEOLOGY.
Shabeer Ahmed
Centre for Pure and Applied Geology,

University of Sindh, Jamshoro - PAKISTAN.
2018
1
i
DEDICATION
To my parents, teachers and
wife (Mrs. Almas Shabeer Abbasi)
Special Salute and Prayers for my father
(Sher Muhammad Abbasi)
Shabeer Ahmed
ii
iii
Acknowledgments
Up and above all glory to Almighty God, Creator of heavens and earth who blessed me
with the health and knowledge for completing this thesis. I pay a special gratitude to my
supervisor Honorable Prof. Dr. Sarfraz Hussain Soalngi and my co-Supervisor Prof. Dr.
Imdad Ali Brohi for giving an initiative to this study. His inspiring guidance, dynamic
supervision and constructive criticism, helped me to complete this work. He has been a
continuous source of encouragement the whole time. Especially, I acknowledge Mr.
Muhammad Nawaz Bugti (Visiting Professional of American Association of Professional
Geologists) and Mr. Anwar Ali (Geophysicist, Kuwait Foreign Petroleum Exploration
Company, Kuwait) for providing me license and training on Schlumberger Petrel software.
I greatly acknowledge Prof. Dr. Parveen Usmani and Dr. Rafique Ahmed Lashari who have
never hesitated to discuss and to give their valuable suggestions. Directorate General of
Petroleum Concessions is greatly acknowledged for providing the seismic and well data.
Hope has been the key for me during the entire period of my Ph.D. research and thanks to
Almighty Allah for giving me such a hope. Heartfelt thanks go to my supervisor, Professor
Dr. Sarfraz Hussain Solangi for his consistent help and guidance over the years and his
kind suggestions have really helped me in completion of this thesis. Finally, I am deeply
thankful to my mother, my father and my wife whose unconditional love and support
always encouraged me in tense moments of my life.
Shabeer Ahmed
iv
Abstract
Structural styles evolved in various tectonic settings are extremely important and most
prolific for the accumulation of hydrocarbons. Variety of structures, structural styles and
hydrocarbon structural traps are broadly associated with the unified mechanism of their
formation in different plate tectonic settings. World’s major hydrocarbon fields and major
portion of hydrocarbon potential is located in extensional basins. The area selected for the
study is also characterized by extensional structures and because of that many hydrocarbon
fields have already been discovered from Southern Sindh Monocline. As Sindh Monocline
is producing 30% of country’s oil and 12% of country’s gas production is from Sindh
Monocline. There are number of structures and structural styles found in extensional basins
of the world but Some structures hold better prospects than others and the identification of
these structures using seismic data is a big challenge as well.
On the basis of overall results the conclusions of the study can be made as: Study area is
largely characterized by normal faults. Basic structures of study area has been classified into
nine types as Large normal faults Small normal faults, Spoon shape normal faults, Master
normal faults, Rider normal faults, Folding, Flexure, Vertical faults and Listric shovel.
Structural styles have been classified into six types as Horst and grabens, Dominos, Crotch,
Synthetic and antithetic faults, Negative and Flashlight structural styles. New type of
structural style i.e. “Flashlight structural style”, is reported first time from extensional basin
during current study. The structures with in the study area revealed evidence for three major
structural episodes first one associated with the rifting during Late Jurassic to Early
Cretaceous, modification and reactivation of earlier structures during the Middle Cretaceous
and inversion and reactivation during Early Eocene. Present day trap was also formed in third
episode. Large normal faults have more chance of success as compared with other structural
styles. The migration of hydrocarbons from source rock (Sembar Fm) to reservoir rock
(Lower Goru Sands) probably have been greatly facilitated by faults and juxtaposed
lithology.
v
Table of Contents
Dedication .......................................................................................................................... ii
Certificate ........................................................................................................................... iii
Acknowledgement ............................................................................................................. iv
Abstract ................................................................................................................................v
Table of Contents .............................................................................................................. vii
List of Figures ................................................................................................................... xii
List of Tables .................................................................................................................. xvii
List of Publications ........................................................................................................ xviii
Abbreviation ......................................................................................................................xx
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
1.1 Background 1
1.2 Study Area 2
1.3 Hydrocarbon Potential of Structural Styles in Extensional Regimes 5
1.4 Aim and Objectives 7
1.5 Thesis Format 8
CHAPTER 2
Geological Setting of the Study Area
2.1 Sedimentary Basins of Pakistan 11
2.2 Geological Setting of Indus Basin 12
2.2.1 Upper Indus Basin: 13
2.2.2 Central Indus Basin: 13
2.2.3 Southern Indus Basin: 13
2.3 Structural Model of the Southern Indus Basin 15
2.4 Tectonic Setting of Sindh Monocline 16
2.5 Generalized Stratigraphy of Study Area 17
vi
2.5.1 Sequence of Jurassic Age 17
2.5.1.1 Chiltan Formation 17
2.5.2 Sequence of Cretaceous Age 18
2.5.2.1 Sembar Formation 18
2.5.2.2 Goru Formation 18
2.5.2.3 Parh Limestone 19
2.5.2.4 Pab Sandstone 19
2.5.3 Cretaceous – Tertiary Unconformity 19
2.5.4 Sequence of Paleocene Age 19
2.5.4.1 Gaj / Nari (Undifferentiated) 19
2.5.4.2 Alluvium 20
2.6 Hydrocarbon Potential of Sindh Monocline 21
2.7 Petroleum System 22
2.7.1 Sembar- Goru Play 22
2.7.1 Trapping Mechanism 24
2.8 Exploration History of Sindh Monocline 24
CHAPTER 3
Previous Work
3.1 Global Tectonic Perspective: Southern Sindh Monocline 27
3.2 Driving Mechanism of Continental Rifting 28
3.3 Supporting Models for the Extensional Tectonics of Indian Plate 29
3.3.1 The Wernicke Model 29
3.3.2 The Lister Model of Continental Extension 29
3.3.3 The McKenzie Model 30
3.4 The Model of Extensional Evolution of Southern Indus Basin 31
3.5 Structures and Structural Styles of Extensional Basins 33
3.6 Role of Extensional Structures on Hydrocarbon Potential 37
3.6.1 Capel and Faust basins, offshore eastern Australia 38
vii
3.6.2 Albertine Graben of the East African Rift System 39
3.6.3 Argyll field, western margin of central graben, North Sea 40
3.7 Tectonic Control on Structures and Hydrocarbon Potential of Sindh Monocline 43
3.8 Structural Styles and Discovered Structural Traps of Sindh Monocline 43
3.9 Petroleum System and Hydrocarbon Potential of Sindh Monocline 45
3.10 Exploration History and Studies Over SSM 46
3.11 Major Discoveries and Structural Closures of the Study Area 48
CHAPTER 4
Data Bank and Methodology
4.1 Seismic Data Used for the Study 52
4.1.1 2D Seismic Data: 52
4.1.2 3D Seismic Data: 54
4.1.3 Well Data: 57
4.2 Seismic Data Processing 57
4.3 Seismic Data Interpretation 58
4.3.1 Stratigraphic Analysis 59
4.3.2 Minimizing misties in seismic data 59
4.3.3 Picking of Horizons by tying of synthetic with Seismic Data 60
4.3.4 Structural Analysis 61
4.3.5 Age of Structuration and Flattening of Horizons 61
4.3.6 Marking of Horizons using VSP 62
4.3.7 Acoustic Impedance Attribute for Picking Horizons 63
4.3.8 Seismic Velocities 65
4.4 Plate tectonic models GPlates Software 68
4.5 Basin Modelling 69
4.5 Softwares Utilized for Data Interpretation and Analysis 70
viii
CHAPTER 5
Structures and Structural Styles in Southern Sindh Monocline
5.1 Structures in Southern Sindh Monocline 71
5.1.1 Large Normal Fault 73
5.1.2 Small Normal Fault 76
5.1.3 Spoon Shape Normal Fault 77
5.1.4 Master Normal Fault 79
5.1.5 Rider Normal Fault 79
5.1.6 Folding Structures 80
5.1.7 Flexure 82
5.1.8 Vertical Fault 84
5.1.9 Listric “Shovel” Fault 85
5.2 Structural Styles in Sothern Sindh Monocline 86
5.2.1 Horst and Graben Style 87
5.2.2 Dominos Structural Style 92
5.2.3 Crotch Structural Styles 94
5.2.4 Synthetic and Antithetic Structural Styles 95
5.2.5 Negative Flower Structural Styles 96
5.2.6 Flashlight Structural Style 97
CHAPTER 6
Tectonic Evolution of Structural Styles of Southern Sindh Monocline
6.1 History and Tectonic Episodes of Indian Plate 100
6.2 Tectonic Evolution of Structures in Southern Sindh Monocline 112
6.2.1 Episode 1 (Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous ~ 167 Ma) 112
6.2.2 Episode 2: Modification and Reactivation (Middle Cretaceous ~ 90 Ma) 115
6.2.3 Episode 3: Inversion and Reactivation (Early Eocene ~ 50 Ma) 118
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CHAPTER 7
Role of Structures in Hydrocarbon Potential of Southern Sindh Monocline
7.1 Traps in Extensional Basins 123
7.2 Estimation of Age of Trap Formation in SSM 124
7.3 Basin Modelling: Estimation the age of Hydrocarbon Migration 125
7.4 Structural Styles and Closures in Jabo Field 126
7.4.1 Jabo-01: 127
7.4.2 Jabo-02: 128
7.4.3 Jabo-03: 130
7.4.4 Jabo-04: 132
7.4.5 Jabo-06: 133
7.5 Petroleum System of Jabo Field Area 135
7.5.1 Top Khadro: 135
7.5.2 Top Upper Goru 136
7.5.3 Top Lower Goru (A Sand) 136
7.5.4 Top Turk Shale 137
7.5.5 Top B Sand 138
7.5.6 Top Badin Shale 139
7.5.7 Top Middle Sand 140
7.5.8 Top Sembar Formation 141
7.6 Exporation History of Jabo Field 142
7.7 Role of Structures and Structural Styles in Migration of Hydrocarbons in SSM 143
7.8 Discovered Traps and Hydrocarbon Potential of the Area 145
7.8.1 Khaskheli Oil Field 145
7.8.2 South Mazari Field 146
7.8.3 Zaur Field 146
7.8.4 Ghunghro Field 147
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CHAPTER 8
Discussion
8.1 Structures and Extensional Tectonic Setting 148
8.2 Structures and Structural Styles in Extensional Tectonic Settings 149
8.3 Structures in Southern Sindh Monocline (SSM) 152
8.4 Structural Styles in Southern Sindh Monocline (SSM) 153
8.5 Tectonic Evolution of Structures of SSM 157
8.5.1 Episode 1 (Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous~167 Ma) 159
8.5.2 Episode 2 Modification and Reactivation (Middle Cretaceous~90 Ma) 159
8.5.3 Episode 3 Inversion and Reactivation (Early Eocene~50 Ma) 160
8.6 Estimation of Age of Trap Formation in SSM 161
8.7 Estimation the age of Hydrocarbon Generation and Migration 162
8.8 Role of Extensional Structures in Hydrocarbon Potential 163
8.8.1 Structural Architecture of Important wells of Study Area 163
8.8.2 Role of Normal Faults in Hydrocarbon Potential of SSM 165
8.8.3 Role of Horst Structural Styles in Hydrocarbon Potential of SSM 166
8.8.4 Role of Graben Structural Styles in Hydrocarbon Potential of SSM 167
8.8.5 Role of Structures and Structural Styles in Migration and Trapping of
Hydrocarbons 168
8.9 Role of Structures and Structural Styles in Migration of Hydrocarbons in SSM
169
CHAPTER 9
Conclusions and Recommendations
9.1 Conclusions 170
9.2 Recommendations for Future Work 171
References 172
Appendices 183
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List of Figures
Fig. 1.1 Study area with in Southern Sindh Monocline (Modified After Raza et al.,
1989) 4
Fig. 1.2 Huge hydrocarbon fields of the world (Modified After Mann et al., 2003) 7
Fig. 2.1 Sedimentary Basins of Pakistan (OGDCL Report-2009) 11
Fig. 2.2 Sedimentary Basins of Pakistan (Modified after Kadri, 1995) 14
Fig. 2.3 Proposed schematic tectonic models illustrating stages of evolution of
Southern Indus 16
Fig. 2.4 Generalized Stratigraphy of Study Area 20
Fig. 2.5 Location of various wells of Jabo field 23
Fig. 2.6 Wireline correlation of various wells of Jabo field 24
Fig. 2.7 Recoverable reserves of Pakistan and SSM 26
Fig. 2.8 Gas reserves of Pakistan and SSM 26
Fig. 3.1 Map showing the location of SSM at the intersection of Indian plate,
Arabian plate and Eurasian plate (Map generated using GPlates)……………………….28
Fig 3.2 Distribution of Mesozoic flood basalts and their ages implicated for the
sequential rifting of the Indian plate from Gondwanaland 31
Fig. 3.3 Proposed schematic tectonic models illustrating stages of evolution of
Southern Indus Basin 33
Fig. 3.4 Location of Extensional Basins (Map generated using GPlates) 36
Fig. 3.5 Structural styles of Capel and Faust basins, offshore eastern Australia 39
Fig. 3.6 Structural styles of Albertine Graben of the East African Rift System 40
Fig. 3.7 Structural styles of Argyll field, western margin of Central graben, North Sea 41
Fig. 3.8 Configuration of Southern Sindh Monoclines 50
Fig. 4.1 Map of location of exploration blocks and wells 53
Fig. 4.2 Basemap showing location of 2D seismic lines and wells 54
Fig. 4.3 Basemap showing Jabo 3D inlines and cross and location of Jabo wells 55
Fig. 4.4 Basemap showing Mehran 3D inlines and crosslines 56
Fig. 4.5 Processing flow applied on the seismic data used for the study 57
Fig. 4.6 Misties resolved between different domain seismic lines 60
Fig. 4.7 Seismic Data Interpretation Flowchart 62
Fig. 4.8 Interpreted seismic line by VSP of Jabo well-06 63
Fig. 4.9 Acoustic Impedance analysis is shown over the reflector of Ranikot, Khadro,
Upper Goru and Lower Goru 64
xii
Fig. 4.12 A. Interval to RMS Velocity (Generated by K-Tron VAS) 66
B. RMS Velocity to Interval Velocity (Generated by K-Tron VAS) 67
C. Interval Velocity to Average Velocity (Generated by K-Tron VAS) 67
Fig. 5.1 Types of structures found in Southern Sindh Monocline formed under
extensional tectonic setting 73
Fig. 5.2 Large normal fault interpreted on 2D seismic Line PK86-1200 74
Fig. 5.3 Large normal fault interpreted on 3D seismic Line of SSM 76
Fig. 5.4 Small normal fault interpreted on seismic Line PK95-1804 77
Fig. 5.5 Spoon shape normal fault has been identified on 3D seismic data 79
Fig. 5.6 Master and rider normal faults identified on 2D seismic Line PK92-1678 80
Fig. 5.7 Small folding identified on the 3D seismic data of SSM 81
Fig. 5.8 Folding has been identified and interpreted on 2D seismic line PK92-1686 82
Fig. 5.9 Flexures structures interpreted on 3D seismic data from SSM 83
Fig. 5.10 Flexures structures interpreted on 2D seismic line PK86-1200 84
Fig. 5.11 Vertical faults have been identified interpreted on 2D seismic data from SSM 85
Fig. 5.12 Listric “shovel” fault identified on 2D seismic data from SSM 86
Fig. 5.13 Tree diagram showing structural styles and their possible associated
structures 87
Fig. 5.14 Horst and grabens on 2D seismic Line PK95-1804 from SSM 89
Fig. 5.15 Family of horsts and graben 90
Fig 5.16 Family of horst and grabens and interpreted on 3D surface seismic data of the
SSM, in which three normal faults formed three graben blocks and one horts
block 91
Fig. 5.17 Dominos structural styles interpreted on 2D seismic Line PK85-1341 from
SSM 92
Fig. 5.18 Dominos identified on 2D seismic Line PK85-1341 from SSM 93
Fig. 5.19 (A) Location of South Mazari Field (B) Structure of South Mazari well on
seimic Line (After (Wasimuddin and Ahmad, 2002) 94
Fig. 5.20 Family of crotch identified on inline 7560 and cross line 8712 of 3D seismic
data acquired by British Petroleum (Modified after Iqbal, 2002) 95
Fig. 5.21 Styles of synthetics and antithetic faults have been identified and interpreted
on 2D seismic Line No.PK92-1680 and PK92-1678 96
Fig. 5.22 Styles of flower type of structures formed due to association of type 3 spoon
shape normal faults have been identified and interpreted on 2D seismic Line
No.PK92-1680 and PK92-1678 97
xiii
Fig. 5.23 Type 7 Flexures collectively formed a new Flashlight type of structural style 98
Fig. 6.1 Mesozoic flood basalts in surroundings of Indian Plate (Chattarjee et al.,
(2013) 100
Fig. 6.2 (A) Map showing the initial rifting of Indian plate from Gondwanaland
(B) Velocity magnitude of Indian plate from 170-130 Ma and
(C) Graph showing the angular velocity of Indian plate from 170-130 Ma 101
Fig. 6.3 Map showing distribution of different mantle plumes in surroundings of
Indian plate (Modified after Chattarjee et al., 2013) 103
Fig. 6.4 (A) Initial rifting of Indian plate from Gondwanaland
(B) Velocity magnitude of Indian plate from 130-90 Ma and
(C) Angular velocity of Indian plate from 130-90 Ma 105
Fig. 6.5 (A) Map showing the initial rifting episode of Indian plate
(B) Graph showing velocity magnitude of Indian plate from 90-50 Ma and
(C) Graph showing the angular velocity of Indian plate from 90-50 Ma 107
Fig. 6.6 (A) The location of Deccan traps (Map and
(B) The Location of Seychelles and Laxmi ridge 109
Fig. 6.7 Summary of nine major tectonic evolutionary stages of the Indian plate during
its 9000 km-voyage from Gondwanaland to Asia. Rectangles represent
diagrammatic cross-sectional views of plates and microplates, which
originally comprised Gondwanaland. They show sequential rifting of the
Indian plate from Gondwanaland and its subsequent collisions with the
Kohistan–Ladakh Arc (KL Arc) and Asia (Chatarjee et al., 2013) 111
Fig. 6.8 Summary of nine major tectonic evolutionary stages of the Indian and the
deposition of different formations with in the study area 112
Fig 6.9 (A) Position of Indian Plate ~ 130 Ma ago
(B) Base map of 3D seismic data showing the location of interpreted line
(C) Current Position of Structures and
(D) Structures formed during episode 1 114
Fig. 6.10 (A) Position of Indian Plate ~ 90 Ma ago
Fig. 6.11 (A) Position of Indian Plate 50 Ma ago
xiv
6.12 Evolution of Structures in Extensional Tectonic Setting in Southern Sindh
Monocline, Indus Basin, Pakistan 121
Fig. 7.1 Flatenning of horizons and structural balancing at different formations (For
Location of Jabo 6 well see Fig. 4.2) 125
Fig. 7.2 Basin modelling of Jabo field area (Jabo-06 taken as case study) 126
Fig. 7.3 (A) location of Jabo-01 well on Basemap of 3D Seismic data
(B) Interpreted Structural architecture trap of Jabo-01 exploratory well 127
(C) Structural architeture of Jabo-01 well in 3D visulization 128
Fig. 7.4 (A) location of Jabo-02 well on Basemap of 3D Seismic data (B) Interpreted
Structural architecture of Jabo-02 well 129
Fig. 7.4 (C) Structural architeture of Jabo-02 well in 3D visulization 130
Fig. 7.5 (A) Location of Jabo-03 well on Basemap of 3D Seismic data (B) Interpreted
Fig. 7.6 (A) location of Jabo-04 well on Basemap of 3D Seismic data
(B) Interpreted Structural architecture of Jabo-04 well 132
Fig. 7.8 Depth Contour map of Top Khadro showing also location of Jabo wells 1-9
(Contour Interval 25m) 135
Fig. 7.9 Depth Contour map of Top Upper Goru showing also location of Jabo wells
1-9 (Contour Interval 15m) 136
Fig. 7.10 Depth Contour map of Top Lower Goru (A Sand) showing also location of
Jabo wells 1-6 (Contour Interval 20m) 137
Fig. 7.11 Depth Contour map of Top Turk Shale showing also location of Jabo wells
Fig. 7.12 Depth Contour map of Top B Sand showing also location of Jabo wells 1-6
Fig. 7.13 Depth Contour map of Top Badin Shale showing also location of Jabo wells
Fig. 7.14 Depth Contour map of Top Middle Sand showing also location of Jabo wells
Fig. 7.15 Depth Contour map of Top Sembar showing also location of Jabo wells 1-6
Fig. 7.16 Different possible patterns of migration of hydrocarbons through faults in
SSM 144
xv
Fig. 7.17 Different possible patterns of migration of hydrocarbons through horst and
graben structures in SSM 145
Fig 8.1 Different Structures and structural styles in extensional settings of the world
151
Fig. 8.2 Classification Scheme of Structures and Structural Styles for Fushan Basin
152
Fig. 8.3 Catalogue of structures found in Southern Sindh Monocline 153
Fig. 8.4 Structural styles and their possible basic building structures 154
Fig. 8.5 Catalogue Structural styles found in Southern Sindh Monocline 157
Fig 8.6 Flatenning of horizons and structural balancing at different formations and
estimation of age of trap formation 161
Fig. 8.7 Basin modelling of Jabo field area (Jabo-06 taken as case study) 163
Fig. 8.8 Chart showing the status of wells drilled on the closure of normal faults in
SSM 166
Fig. 8.9 Wells drilled on horst block in SSM 167
Fig. 8.10 Wells drilled closure of graben in SSM 168
xvi
List of Tables
Table 4.1 Details of 2D seismic lines and their corresponding acquisition parameters 52
Table 4.2 Coordinates of Jabo 3D Seismic data 55
Table 4.3 Coordinates of Mehran 3D block 56
Table 4.4 Values of Mean Average Velocity 68
Table 6.1 Velocity magnitude and angular velocity of Indian plate from 170 to 130 Ma 102
Table 6.2 Velocity magnitude and angular velocity from 130 to 90 Ma 104
Table 6.3 Velocity magnitude and angular velocity of Indian plate from 90 to 50 Ma 106
Table 8.1 Details of wells drilled in SSM 164-165
Table 8.2 Details of wells drilled on the closure of normal faults in SSM 165
Table 8.3 Details of wells drilled on the closure of horst block in SSM 166
Table 8.4 Details of wells drilled on the closure of graben in SSM 167
xvii
List of Publications
1. Abbasi, Shabeer Ahmed, Sarfraz Hussain Solangi and Muhammad Hassan

Agheem. Study of Structural Styles and Their Hydrocarbon Potential in the
Southern Sindh Monocline, Pakistan with Integration of Seismic and Well Data.
Second International Workshop on Tethyan Oogenesis and Metallogeny in Asia,
China University of Geosciences, Wuhan, Hubei, China. Extended Abstract
Volume. Pp.14-16 (2015) Link: http://www.iwtoma.org/en-us/index.html
2. Abbasi, S. A., Solangi, S. H., Nazeer, A., Asim, S., Habib, W. and Solangi, I. A.
An Overview of Structural Style and Hydrocarbon Potential of Jabo Field, Southern
Sindh Monocline, Southern Indus Basin, Pakistan. Sindh Univ. Res. Jour, (Science
Series) Vol. 47(2), pp.347-354 (2015).
Link: http://sujo.usindh.edu.pk/index.php/SURJ/article/view/641
3. Abbasi, S.A., Solangi,S. H., and Anwar, A. Seismic Data Interpretation: A Case
Study from Southern Sindh Monocline, Lower Indus Basin, Pakistan. Mehran
University Research Journal Vol. (34)2, pp.107-115. (2015)
Link: http://publications.muet.edu.pk/article_detail_abstract.php?p_id=1067
4. Naseer, M.T., Asim S., and Abbasi, S.A. Spectral Decomposition and Seismic
Attributes for Clastic Reservoir Analysis of Miano Gas Field, Southern Indus
Basin, Pakistan. (Published in Sindh University Research Journal (Science Series)
Vol. 47(1), pp.451-456 (2015).
5. Ahmed, S., Solangi, S.H., Brohi I.A., Khokhar, Q.D., and Lashari, R.A. Study of
Stratigraphy and Structural Styles in the subsurface of Southern Sindh Monocline,
Pakistan: Using Seismic and well Data. (Published in Sindh University Research
Journal (Science Series) Vol. 46(4),439-446 (2014).
xviii
6. Bilal Aslam, Shazia Asim, Shabeer Ahmed Abbasi and Sarfraz Hussain Solangi
Near-Surface Asia Pacific Conference, Waikoloa, Hawaii, 7-10 July 2015: pp. 464-
467 Rock Physics modeling; attribute application and seismic inversion study in
Miano, Lower Indus Basin of Pakistan (doi: 10.1190/nsapc2015-124)
xix
Abbreviations
SSM = Southern Sindh Monocline
SL = Sri Lanka
I = India
LR = Laxmi Ridge
S = Seychelles
M = Madagascar
TOC = Total Organic Content
AER = East African Rift
VSP = Vertical Seismic Profiling
E&P = Exploration and Production
VAS = Velocity Analysis System
UTP = Union Texas Pakistan
V mag = Velocity Magnitude
Ang V = Angular Velocity
xx
CHAPTER 1
Introduction
1.6 Background
Structures evolved in various tectonic settings are extremely important and most prolific
for the accumulation of hydrocarbons (Harding and Lowell, 1973; Munir et al., 2014;
Abbasi et al., 2014 and 2015). Variety of structures, structural styles and hydrocarbon
structural traps are broadly associated with the unified mechanism of their formation in
different plate tectonic settings (Harding and Lowell, 1979). According to Chilingar et al.,
(2005) the identification of structural traps is one of the critical but important task in
hydrocarbon exploration as the majority of the world's hydrocarbon resources have been
discovered on the closure of structural traps. According to Reymond and Gonnard, (1962)
the impact of tectonic theory was so important for the hydrocarbon explorationists that the
former exploration concepts were disrupted and basins were then classified in a genetic
way related to their tectonic settings. Badgely, (1965); Harding and Lowell, (1979)
reported that the type of deformation and tectonic history of specific region can only be
determined by the correct identification and type of structures and structural styles. Dewey,
(1982) linked the relation of structures and structural styles formed due to tectonic forces,
while studying on the tectonic evolution of structures and their hydrocarbon potential in
the British Isles and reported the understanding of the tectonic history of any area is a
powerful predictive tool for the exploration of hydrocarbons. Jinqi, (1996) described the
role of plate tectonics on the hydrocarbon migration, accumulation and disappearance of
hydrocarbons while working on the Longman Mountains, Sichuan Basin, Tibet Plateau.
Mann et al., (2003) classified the world major basins in their tectonic genetics of the global
877 large hydrocarbon fields as continental passive regimes, continental rift regimes,
collisional regimes, strike slip regimes and subduction regimes. Finally, the conclusion was
made that the second most important structural traps contributing giant fields of the world
are in extensional regimes and are formed extensional tectonic settings. Peacock (2007)
worked on the applied structural geology to reduce exploration risk and classified basins
in to three tectonic regimes in which basins occur as strike-slip or wrench regimes,
convergent or compressional regimes and divergent or extensional regimes.
1
Fossen (2010) also supported this fact that many of the world’s hydrocarbon resources have
been discovered on the closure of structural traps controlled by normal faults and are in
regions which are characterized by the extensional tectonic setting.
The reason of interest in the study of tectonic evolution of structures and their hydrocarbon
potential in the Southern Sindh Monocline (SSM), Pakistan is also related to the fact that
many hydrocarbon fields have been discovered on the closure of normal faults
characterized by extensional tectonic setting (Kadri, 1995; Kazmi and Jan, 1997 and
Memon et al., 1999). According to Pakistan Energy Year Book (2015), 28% (434.78
Million US Barrels) of crude oil and 12% (7.63 TCF) of gas of the Pakistan is produced
from the SSM. Studies carried on the tectonic setting, structural styles, petroleum system
and discovered fields of the study area is discussed below.
1.7 Study Area (SSM)
The area selected for current study is the southern part of Sindh monocline, Southern Indus
Basin of Pakistan. According to Memon et al., (1999) and Zaigham, (2000) horsts and
grabens type of structural styles were formed in the Southern Indus Basin due to
extensional tectonics experienced by Indian Plate during its rifting stage from Madagascar.
Few examples of horsts and grabens are Kandhkot Mari horst, Jaccobabad-Khairpur horst,
Nagarparkar horst and Panoaqil graben (Fig.1.1). Study area is vital and focused region of
Southern Indus Basin which is producing a significant number oil, gas and condensate
fields from the closure of structural traps. Organic rich Sembar shales were deposited
during Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous is the main source rock, Early Cretaceous Lower
Goru is reservoir rock and the Late Cretaceous Upper Goru shale provided excellent seal.
Lower Goru sandstones are the main hydrocarbon producing reservoir rocks in Sindh
Monocline which were formed because of erosion from Indian Shield during the Early
Cretaceous (Hussain et al.,1991; Kadri, 1995; Kazmi and Jan, 1997). According to Kemal
et al., (1991) the extensional tectonics during the Cretaceous time created tilted faults
which were in existence when the hydrocarbons were generated and these extensional
related structures were responsible for trapping of hydrocarbons in Lower Goru sandstones
of Sindh Monocline. Later the anti-clockwise rotation of Indian Plate complicated the
earlier extensional structures and redistributed the hydrocarbons. Studies on the
identification of structures in the subsurface of Sindh Monocline using seismic data were
2
carried out by Abbasi et al., (2014) and (2015) and Munir, et al., (2014). They have
identified normal faults collectively forming horst and graben type of structures which is
evidence and confirmation of that the Sindh Monocline is characterized by extensional
tectonics.
Structural styles with in the Sindh Monocline have also been studied by Kemal et al.,
(1991); Hussain et al., (1991); Mehmood-ul-Hassan, (1994); Memon et al., (1992);
Meyerhollz (1998); Memon et al., (1999); Ahmad and Malick, (1998); Ahmad, (1999) and
Zaigham et al., (2000) and it was suggested and recommended by them that there is still
strong need to study the structures, structural styles, traps, master and growth faults. Alam
and Ahmad, (2002) carried out study on the Zaur field located in Sindh Monocline and
described that the small faults and splays have divided the Zaur field into several
compartments. It was also suggested that 3D seismic data of Sindh Monocline and its
surrounding areas can be more useful for the significant study subsurface structural traps.
Wasimuddin and Ahmad, (2002) also carried out study on the South Mazari field and
interpreted the structure of the field as a large crotch (two normal faults culminating at one
point) on 3D seismic data. Jamil et al., (2012) worked on Pakistan’s major petroleum plays
and concluded that major plays in Pakistan are almost structural and highlighted the success
rate of tilted fault blocks in Sindh Monocline. It was also suggested and recommended to
facilitate academic researchers for further studies on the structural traps of the area.
Extensive studies have been carried on the Southern Part of the Sindh Monocline by the
different hydrocarbon exploration and production companies on their blocks for the
exploration of hydrocarbons but still there is strong need to study the tectonic evolution of
structures and their importance in the migration pathway and trapping of hydrocarbons
with in the study area.
It was also suggested by Alam et al., (2002); Zaigham et al., (2000); Munir et al., (2014)
Khan, (2010); Khan et al., (2014); and Abbasi et al., (2014) & (2015) that the SSM is an
interesting and most important region in Southern Indus Basin in context of hydrocarbon
discoveries but if different domain 2D, 3D seismic data and well log(s) studies are
integrated in order to identify better architecture of structures, structural styles, their
tectonic evolution and their role in the hydrocarbon potential of the area which will
ultimately result in more discoveries in the regions.
3
Fig.1.1 Study area with in Southern Sindh Monocline (Modified After Raza et al., 1989)
4
1.8 Hydrocarbon Potential of Structural Styles in Extensional Regimes
Mann et al., (2003) carried out research on tectonic settings of the world’s 877 huge
hydrocarbon fields and classified the tectonic setting of the giant fields in six classes as
continental passive margins (304 giant fields), continental rifts (271 giant fields),
collisional margins produced by terminal collision between two continents (173 giant
fields), collisional margins produced by collision between two continents (71 giant fields),
strike slip margins (50 giant fields), subduction margin (8 giant fields). As continental
passive margins include 35% of the world’s giant fields, continental extensional regimes
form the second most common tectonic setting contributing 31% of the world’s giant
hydrocarbon fields. Hence the rift and passive categories collectively account for two-third
of all 877 giant fields of the world. Hence, it can be concluded that the second most
important structural traps contributing giant hydrocarbon fields of the world are located
and formed in extensional tectonic regimes (Fig. 1.2).
Most popular model for extensional regimes was proposed by McKenzie (1978) which
has proposed structural styles formed in extensional tectonic settings. Until 1980s
structures formed in extensional tectonic regimes and their role in hydrocarbon potential
had received very less attention. Later, many researchers like Lister et al., (1986); Watts et
al., (1982); Mann et al., (1983); Harding, (1984) and Keen et al., (1989) and many other
researchers carried out research on extensional tectonics and its related structures and
structural styles. Later, extensive work on structures, structural styles and hydrocarbon
structural traps in extensional tectonics has been carried out by many other researchers.
According to Sclische (1995), the majority of structural styles in extensional tectonic
settings are associated with normal fault system and have not been focused in the context
of hydrocarbon potential in depth. Mazur and Wenderoth, (2005) carried work on tectonic
evolution of Central European Basin which is characterized by extensional tectonics and it
is identified by seismic reflection profiles that normal tilted faults are common structural
traps which are playing important role in hydrocarbon potential of the area. Al-Kindi
(2006) carried work on structural evolution of Salakh Arch, Oman which is also
characterized by the extensional tectonics and he described that the structural styles in the
Salakh arch like normal faults which have played major role in the accumulation of
hydrocarbons of the region. Enachescou (2006) worked on structural setting and petroleum
5
potential of the Orphan Basin of Newfoundland based on the seismic data interpretation
and integration with the wells logs, he described the structural setting of the basin and its
petroleum potential indicating that the Newfoundland has undergone extensional episodes.
Hulten (2008) suggested that basins related to the extensional tectonics play an important
role in the spectrum of basin types. Extensional tectonic is widely recognized as an
important factor that has shaped oil and gas fields. The importance for structural styles is
well documented throughout the world giant oil and gas fields.
Abeinomugisha and Kasande (2009) carried out study of the tectonic evolution and its role
in the hydrocarbon accumulation in Albertine graben, East Africa. It was concluded that
the Albertine graben has been characterized by extensional tectonic resulting in a variety
of structures. Fault closures against basin bounding faults have proved prolific for
hydrocarbon trapping. He also reported that the prevailing tectonic setting not only played
a vital role in the source and reservoir rock deposition but in the development of structural
traps which have provided migration ways for the hydrocarbon migration. Sahoo and Gogi,
(2011) carried out work on different structures and their importance on petroleum systems
of North Asam shelf, Upper Assam Basin, India and described that longitudinal faults
originated in the extensional regime of the basin played a major role in entrapment of
hydrocarbons in the area. Further, it was reported that the normal faults in the area are
acting as conduits for migration of hydrocarbons. Biswas (2012) carried out work on
petroleum exploration in India and described that the tectonic setting and collision history
of Indian plate created favorable conditions for generation and accumulation of
hydrocarbons and almost oil and gas fields are located within extensional related horst-
grabens structural traps.
6
Fig. 1.2 Huge hydrocarbon fields of the world (modified after Mann et al., 2003)
1.9 Aim and Objectives
The main aim of this research is to identify different structures and structural styles in the
subsurface of Southern Sindh Monocline and to explain the tectonic evolution of prevailing
structures and their role in hydrocarbon potential. To achieve above mentioned aim the
research project will focus on the following specific objectives:
• Analysis of seismic data of different domains and preparation of synthetic
seismogram which will be generated with the help of density and velocity logs
for efficiently marking of reflectors of major geological horizons on seismic
data.
• Identification of structures and structural styles and preparation of catalogue of
structural styles occurring in extensional tectonic setting.
• To explain the tectonic evolution of interpreted structures and to correlate with
the different tectonic episodes of Indian plate and
• To assess the suitability of structural styles in extensional basins in the context
of hydrocarbon potential in Southern Sindh Monocline and elsewhere in the
world in general.
7
To achieve above aim and objectives, seismic and well log data is used for the
identification, interpretation, and analysis of structural styles in study area. According to
Badley (1985) seismic method is one of the most important geophysical approaches which
is widely used in oil and gas exploration industry for the investigation of subsurface
horizons and structures. The modern Seismic data processing and interpretation techniques
have revealed comprehensive picture of subsurface structures and structural styles. During
the current study many 2D, 3D seismic lines and well data was obtained from L.M.K.R
(Land Mark Resources), Islamabad by the consent of DGPC., Ministry of Petroleum &
Natural Resources, Pakistan.
1.10 Thesis Format
Following on from the introduction, Chapter two reviews in details of the geological setting
of the study area. This commences with the short overview of sedimentary basins of
Pakistan focusing particularly on Southern Indus Basin and its tectonic setting and
particularly tectonic structural evolution of Sindh Monocline, stratigraphy and
hydrocarbon potential of SSM.
Chapter three describes the summary of previous work carried on structures, structural
styles and hydrocarbon potential various tectonic settings in general and structural styles
and hydrocarbon potential of extensional basins in global perspective. An overview of
published literature on extensional tectonics, structural traps and their role in hydrocarbon
potential, exploration history and studies by various exploration companies on Sindh
monocline have also been discussed.
Chapter four describes the overview of the seismic reflection method, details of seismic
data collection, sequence of processing and seismic data interpretation, approach of data
preparation, misties and seismic data interpretation method on software and velocity
analysis, preparation of time contour maps, depth contour maps and three-dimensional
structural maps of the study area.
Chapter five brings various results with the types of structures and structural styles
interpreted on seismic data, their classification and identification. Basic structures with in
the study area have been classified in to nine different types while those basic structures
collectively formed six different structural styles. All basic structures and structural styles
have been discussed in detail separately.
8
Chapter six deals with the tectonic evolution of structures by the approach of flattening of
horizons versus development of structures. Supporting models for the extensional tectonics
of Indian Plate, the Wernicke model, the Lister model of continental extension, the
McKenzie model, the Zaigham model of extensional evolution of Southern Indus Basin,
tectonic evolution of interpreted structures and structural styles and their relationship with
the different episodes of movement of Indian Plate from its journey after rifting from
Gondwanaland to Eurasian plate.
Chapter seven describes the hydrocarbon potential of structures and structural styles in
extensional basins in general and particularly in Southern Sindh Monocline. The Suitability
of structures and structural styles in extensional basins in the context of hydrocarbon
potential, common structural traps in extensional tectonic settings, global examples of traps
and their hydrocarbon potential, role of structural traps in generation, migration and
accumulation in Southern Sindh Monocline, different structures, Structural styles and
ultimately their role in hydrocarbon potential of the study area. Exploration history of Jabo
field which is the major field with in the study and their hydrocarbon production parameters
have also been discussed.
Chapter eight is based on the discussion of results in context of up to date work carried on
the structural styles in extensional tectonic settings and their role in hydrocarbon potential.
Chapter nine concludes the dissertation and presents a list of key points drawn from the
overall study. Conclusions were made on the structures, structural styles with in the study
area. Important structures and structural styles in context of hydrocarbon potential of the
study area and final recommendations and suggestions for future work are also included at
this stage.
9
CHAPTER 2
Geological Setting of the Study Area
Pakistan is located at the intersection of the Indian, Arabian and Eurasian plates. The vast
sedimentary basins of Pakistan are composed of rocks ranging in age from Pre-Cambrian
to Recent having all requisites for generation and accumulation of hydrocarbons in many
structural and stratigraphic traps (Kadri, 1994; Memon et al, 1998, 1999; Khan et al., 2014;
Abbasi et al., 2014, 2015, Siddiqui, 2016).
The location of Indus basin is on the Indian plate’s western corner and has a large
sedimentary deposit on both onshore and offshore covering about 796,095 Sq. Km area.
The Indus offshore is the next largest submarine fan in the world and it resembles with the
hydrocarbon producing Niger basin, Mahakam and Nile deltas. Southern Indus Basin in
Pakistan has two major hydrocarbon rich areas first one is Sindh Monocline where number
of exploration blocks including Badin block, has been extensively investigated for
hydrocarbons while the other important hydrocarbon bearing area is in Laki and Kirthar
ranges in the west of Sindh Monocline. Most of the discoveries from both regions have
been from structural traps. Sindh monocline is remarkable in the context that the whole
area has unique petroleum system. The Union Texas, Pakistan initiated exploration in the
SSM and its surroundings on the 8,637 sq km area. The Khaskeli field discovery was the
first Union Texas Pakistan in 1981 on the structural closure of normal fault. Later on, 104
exploratory wells were drilled through up to1997, out of which 47 discoveries and 57 wells
were declared as dry with a 45% success rate. The total recorverable oil reserves of Pakistan
are 1102 million US barrels out of which 434 million US barrels are recoverable rserves
which is 39.38% of all over country’s recoverable reserves of oil are from SSM, while the
total recovearble gas reserves of Pakistan are 55.63 TCF and 7.63 TCF of recoverable gas
reserves which is 13% of all over country’s recoverable gas reseves is from SSM (Pakistan
Energy Year Book, 2013). For better understanding of the structures, structural styles,
hydrocarbon traps and their tectonic evolution in southern Sindh Monocline, it is important
to discuss in detail the tectonic setting of sedimentary basins of Pakistan, structural styles
and prospective structures in the context of hydrocarbon potential of Southern Indus Basin
particularly focusing on the study area.
10
2.1 Basins of Pakistan
The major basins of Pakistan are the Indus and Baluchistan. The largest basin of prime
importance is Indus Basin and the second one largest basin of the country is Baluchistan
(Kadri,1994). Peshawar Basin is uppermost while the Indus Offshore Basin is the
lowermost basin of Pakistan. According to Pakistan Basin Study Report (2009) jointly
published by the Oil and Gas Development Company Limited (OGDCL) and Ministry of
Petroleum and Natural Resources, Pakistan. The large and small or sub-basins of Pakistan
has been classified as under:
Peshwar basin, Upper Indus Basin: Subdivided into Kohat-Potwar Foldbelt Basin and
Northern Punjab Sub-basin, Pishin Foldbelt Basin, Sulaiman Folfbelt Basin, Central Indus
Basin, Baluchistan Foldbelt Basin, Makran Foldbelt Basin, Kirthar Foldbelt Basin,
Southern Indus Basin and Offshore Indus Basin (Fig. 2.1). Siddiqui et al., (2016)
introduced a new major basin which is Islamkot Paleo basin located at the SE corner of
Southern Indus Basin
Fig. 2.1 Sedimentary basins of Pakistan (OGDCL Report-2009)
11
As the study area (SSM) is the part of Southern Indus Basin therefore, it is important to
discuss the geological setting of Indus Basin, Southern Indus Basin and particularly
focusing on the SSM for the formation of structural styles and prospective structural traps
in context of hydrocarbon potential and accumulation.
2.2 Geological Setting of the Indus Basin
One of the major and more considered basin is the Indus Basin, as it has produced more
hydrocarbons reserves. The orientation of the basin is in NE-SW direction which has been
classified according to Klemme’s classification (1980) into extra continental down warp
trough Basin. The main features of the basin are Sargodha and Nagar Parkar highs (Kadri,
1994).
Tectonic events of Indus Basin were initiated in Late Protozoic, when the rifting of Indian
plate from Gondwanaland took place trailed by rifting events of Permian-Triassic to
Cretaceous age. The last episode of Mesozoic rifting occurred when Indian Plate separated
from Africa which began drifting northwards and an ultimately Collison with the Eurasian
plate occurred at the Cenozoic time (Kemal et al., 1991). On the basis of studies carried on
the structures, litho-facies and chronostratigraphic sequences, the Indus basin has been
subdivided as Upper Indus Basin is bordered in the north by the Main Boundary Thrust
(MBT) and in the south by Sargodha high, Central Indus basin is bordered in the north by
Sargodha high and in the south by Kandhkot-Jaccobabad high and Southern Indus Basin
bordered in the north by Kandhkot-Jaccobabad high in the south by Indus offshore and
Nagarparkar Indian shield to the east as shown in Fig. 2.2 (Bender and Raza, 1995 and
Kemal, 1992). According to Shah (2009) Indus Basin contains sediments ranging from Pre-
Cambrian to Tertiary with marked absence of Ordovician, Silurian, Devonian and
Carboniferous and well-developed platform deposits of Jurassic age throughout. The Indus
Basin from Potwar to Kirthar Fold belt exhibits different type of hydrocarbon traps. The
salt induced popup structures are common in Potwar, large and relatively simple anticlines
are encountered in the Sulaiman range, the Kirthar Fold belt exhibits the broad domal
structures. In SSM, a typical horst and graben structural geometry provides traps for oil
and gas (Siddiqui, 2016)
According to Ahmed (1998) the collision of Indian and Eurasian plate has given birth for
segregating of the Indus basin into three parts as upper, central and southern Indus Basin
12
respectively. The short summary of boundaries, source, reservoir rocks and major
discovered fields of the Upper, Central and Southern Indus Basin is discussed below.
2.2.1 Upper Indus Basin (U.I.B): Upper Indus Basin (U.I.B) is in the North Pakistan. It
is separated from the Central Indus Basin by the Sargodha high and its northern and eastern
boundaries coincide with the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT). It is characterized by
complex structural styles and stratigraphic sequences ranging from Pre-Cambrian to
Recent. The proven hydrocarbon reservoirs of U.I.B are Muree Formation of Miocene age,
Sakesar limestone of Eocene age, Hangu and Lockhart of Paleocene age, Lumshiwal
sandstone of Cretaceous age Datta sandstone of Jurassic age, Wargal formation and Tobra
Formation of Permian age and Khewra sandstone of Cambrian age. In Kohat area, the
source rock Chichali Formation of Lower Cretaceous age, and in the areas of Potwar,
Paleocene Patala shale is considered as the source rock for the hydrocarbon. The Dhurnal
oil field is the largest and has reserves of about 52 million Barrel of oil and 0.13 TCF of
gas (Pakistan Energy Year Book, 2015). The Upper Indus Basin contains all constituents
of petroleum system like source, reservoir and cap rocks (Kemal, 1992; Kazmi and Jan,
1997 and Shah, 2009). The divisions of Lower Indus Basin as Central and Southern Indus
Basin.
2.2.2 Central Indus Basin (C.I.B): Central Indus Basin (C.I.B) is catheterized by duplex
type of structural styles, anticlinal structural styles and domes in the arrangement of
Sulaiman Fold Belt. This basin contains a sedimentary stratum from Pre-Cambrian age to
recent. Proved Source rocks for hydrocarbon potential are Shinawari and Datta Formations
of Jurassic, the proven reservoir rocks of the basin are Jodhpur Sandstone and Bilara
Dolomite of Infra-Cambrian age, as well as Khewra, Jutana, Kussak, and Baghanwala
formations of Cambrian age and Wargal and Tobra formations of Permian age. The
geographical boundaries of Central Indus Basin are as Jacobabad high in south, Sargodha
high in north, sulaiman foredeep in west and Indian shield in east (Kemal, 1992 and Kazmi
and Jan, 1997).
2.2.3 Southern Indus Basin (S.I.B): The geographical boundaries of Southern Indus
Basin are as Thar slope and Indian Shield in the east, folded axial belt toward the west,
Indus offshore are in the south, where as in the north it is parted from Central Indus Basin
by a positive feature, the Mari-Kandhkot high (Kazmi and Jan, 1997). Sembar Formation
13
is the proved source rock while Lower Goru sands are the main reservoir rocks in the
Southern Indus Basin (Nazeer et al., 2012-2013, Abbasi et al, 2014, 2015 and Siddiqui,
2016). Khaskheli, South Mazari, Zaur and Jabo are the major discovered fields
(Wasimuddin and Ahmad, 2002, 2003 and Abbasi et al, 2015). Study area (SSM) is the
part of the Southern Indus basin hence it is important to discuss its geological setting of
Southern Indus Basin.
Fig. 2.2 Map showing the sedimentary basins of Pakistan (modified after Kadri, 1995)
2.3 The Model of Extensional Evolution of Southern Indus Basin

Zaigham and Malick (1999) proposed a model of extensional evolution of Southern Indus
Basin. Proposed schematic tectonic models illustrating stages of evolution of Southern
Indus Basin describing Independent fragmentation of Gondwanaland super continent in
late Paleozoic resulting in thinning of overlying lithosphere as shown in Fig. 2.3 A, Later
on stretching of lithosphere remained continued and caused thinning, normal faulting and
14
outpouring of the magma which seems to stop at the end of Paleozoic as shown in Fig. 2.3
B. Settling of the rifted crust due to sequential sedimentation of the Mesozic and Tertiary
sediments are shown in Fig. 2.3 C and model showing the revised tectonic environments
and current geological setting of the southern Indus basin (Fig. 2.3 D). This model
describes the following four steps of the tectonic evolution.
Step No.1: First step describes the starting of the rifting of the Gondwanaland which
happened during the Paleozoic age (Smith and Hallam, 1970; Powell, 1979). The
extensional event of tectonic plates is associated with uprising of magma in the upper part
of the asthenosphere, caused tectonic up warp and in this way overlying lithosphere
become thin, which possibly resulting the generation of extensional fault.
Step No.2: Extensional forces were developed which caused breaking up of the upper crust
into faulted blocks during the process of the sea floor spreading. It shows that the initial
stretched and rifted part was stopped at very late Paleozoic to very early Mesozic geological
time.
Step No.3: The third step of the Zaigham’s model shows the settlement of the rifted plate
and instantaneous accumulation of Mesozoic Tertiary deposits in the Indus Basin.
Step No. 4: The fourth step represents the modifying tectonic environment of the Southern
Indus Basin. The deformation styles of the basin and the mountainous arrays in the west
are the result of combined effects of the northward journey and the counterclockwise
turning of the Indian plate.
15
Fig. 2.3 Model proposed by Zaigham and Malick, (1999) demonstrating different stages of
tectonic evolution of Southern Indus Basin (A) Self-regulating separation of
Gondwanaland in Late-Paleozoic as the process of lithosphere thinning and generation of
extensional faulting (B) Continued rifting of the upper crust continued thinning, faulting
and outpouring of the magma which was continued at the end of Paleozoic (C) Subsidence
of the stretched crust and continuous sedimentation of the Mesozic and Tertiary sediments
in the southern Indus Basin (D) Final model demonstrates the present day geological setting
of Southern Indus Basin. (modified after Zaigham and Malick, 1999)
2.4 Tectonic Setting of Sindh Monocline
The geographical boundaries of Sindh Monocline are in the east Indian Shield, Kirthar and
Karachi troughs into west, Sukkur rift zone in the north and Indus offshore in the south.
For better understanding of geological setting of the Sindh Monocline can be gathered by
describing tectonic mechanism of the basin forming described by Kingston et al., (1983).
Malick et al., (1988) described that the Sindh monocline came into existence during Early
Cretaceous to Late Cretaceous age. According to Ahmad and Ahston, (1982), (1984);
Ahmad and Malick, (1998), the two different styles of normal faults in the Monocline
16
exhibit the two different tectonic episodes. First one is Early Cretaceous Kutch rift tectonic
episode and second one is Late Cretaceous Camby rift tectonic episode which are while
exploration of Khaskheli structural architecture.
Due to the drifting of Indian plate in northward direction created compression while
associated anticlockwise rotation has produced tension due to this mechanism of pull-part
stresses Sindh Monocline was split into Horsts, Grabens type of Structural styles. Such
tectonic setting provided the condition for the sediments deposition and showing a
variation in the formation facies, source rock Sembar Formation and Lower Goru reservoir
sands in Sindh Monocline and its surrounding areas.
Sindh monocline is now considered and proved of hydrocarbon producing extensional
basin from Indian plate as described by Copestake et al., (1995) and Kadri (1995). As
Memon et al., (1999) and Khan, (2010) described this tectonic setting as proven and ideal
for the formation of main entrapment mechanism and the deposition of source and reservoir
rocks. Sahito et al., (2013), described Upper sands of Lower Goru Formation based on well
cuttings. Abbasi, et al., (2014, 2015); Munir, et al., (2014); Khan et al., (2015) and Siddiqui
(2016) interpreted seismic data of study area and identified the tilted Normal faults
collectively forming horst and graben type of structures. From above studies, normal
faulting, tilted fault blocks, crotch (a fault culmination at one point) and horst and graben
type of structures are commonly formed in extensional settings.
2.5 Generalized Stratigraphy of the Study Area
Stratigraphy of Southern Sindh Monocline is discussed based on information from various
wells drilled in study area and mostly focusing the different wells of Jabo field which are
in the center of the study area. The stratigraphy from Jurassic to Recent is discussed under:
2.5.1 Sequence of Jurassic age
The beginning of Jurassic age is considered as the break in deposition in SSM. Rifting and
separation of Gondwanaland remained continued during the Jurassic age. In Southern
Sindh Monocline, the Chiltan Formation was deposited in deep water condition (Kadri,
1995).
2.5.1.1 Chiltan Formation
Chiltan Formation is thick bedded, with dark limestone and consists beds of limestone in
the vicinity. The upper contact of Chiltan Formation is gradational with Mazar dirk. At
17
some locations, it can be considered as source for generation of hydrocarbon it is found
organic rich. The porosity values ranging 10%-12% as estimated from studies (Kadri, 1995
and Shah, 2009).
2.5.2 Sequence of Cretaceous age
2.5.2.1 Sembar Formation
The Sembar Formation is of Early Cretaceous age. It consists of clastic, mostly shale, as
well as it contains siltstone and sandstones including small contains of limestone. At the
type locality, Sembar Formation consists of blackish and silty shale with nodular blackish
limestone and siltstone beds (Kadri, 1995 and Shah, 2009). Potential reservoirs occur
within the sandstones of the Formation. Possibility of Sembar-sourced hydrocarbon
migration into the underlying Jurassic Formations through faults also looks like favorable
(Kadri, 1995). This formation is proved source for the generation of hydrocarbons
throughout fields of Southern Indus Basin in general and particularly in SSM. According
to Wandrey (1995), Sembar Formation is proved source rock of in SSM and its
surroundings areas.
2.5.2.2 Goru Formation
The sand units of Goru Formation are described by Kadri (1995 and Shah, 2009) as main
hydrocarbon reservoir of the SSM and its surrounding areas. Goru Formation is proved
reservoir rock and most important stratigraphic package of study area. The Goru
Formation is divided into seven members namely; youngest Upper Sands, Upper Shale,
Middle Sands, Lower Shale, Upper Basal Sands, Talhar Shale and oldest Lower Basal
Sands Siddiqui et al., (2012). Inter formation shales act as seal., Upper Sand , Middle
Sand , Basal Sand and Massive Sand are proved reserrvior of Southern Sindh Monocline.
Upper Sand is furthar divided into fours sand bodies with interbedded shales in Badin.
Siddiqui et al., (2012) discussed source potential in Upper Shale , Lower Shale and Talhar
Shale.
Depending on its stratigraphy, this Formation has been divided into upper and lower
portions, as sand being occasional in the upper portion. Upper portion is largely shale and
its lower portion consists mostly sand. This lower portion of the Formation is the important
reservoir throughout the study area (Kadri, 1995 Shah, 2009).
18
2.5.2.3 Parh Limestone
Parh Limestone is of Late Cretaceous age. It conformably overlies the Upper Goru. The
Formation predominantly consists of limestone. Parh limestone occurs commonly in the
Indus Basin. The erosional truncation of the Pab limestone has restricted further
distribution of the Formation. (Kadri, 1995 Shah, 2009).
2.5.2.4 Pab Sandstone
Pab Sandstone fine to coarse grained in size, light grey to light brown in color and hard to
soft sandstone. At some locations, it is conglomeratic and mostly cross-bedded. It was
deposited under shallow water environment. It has almost properties of deposition of the
Mughal Kot. It is proved hydrocarbon reservoir in Pirkoh, Loti, Dhodak and Rodho
hydrocarbon fields while it is not proved as source potential for hydrocarbons (Kadri, 1995
and Shah, 2009).
2.5.3 Cretaceous – Tertiary Unconformity
The regression of sea is marked in most of the Pakistan areas at the end of Mesozoic. But
in Central Indus Basin and Southern Indus Basins, there are evidences which suggest little
gap between the sediment deposition of the Cretaceous and Paleocene age.
2.5.4 Sequence of Paleocene age
The northward drifting of Indian plate at the maximum speed about 16 cm/year happened
at the end of Cretaceous and the start of Tertiary as described by Powell, (1979). Due to
these various tectonic episodes, various places of transgression and regression were
marked in the Southern Indus Basin. Khadro Formation of Early Paleocene was deposited
during the transgression of the sea. The rocks of Paleocene age in the Southern Indus Basin
are mostly of marine origin (Kadri, 1995 and Shah, 2009).
Due to result of east-west compression and north-south tension and counter clockwise
rotation of Indian plate in early Paleocene, basalts extruded and covered the older deposits.
Evidence of this is found at base of Khadro Formation basaltic influxes. (Kadri, 1995 and
Shah, 2009).
2.5.4.1 Gaj / Nari (Undifferentiated)
Gaj / Nari is undifferentiated in the study area. The age of the Formation is considered as
Oligocene-Miocene. The average thickness of Gaj/ Nari is 147 m. It conformably overlies
19
Kirthar/ Laki (undifferentiated). The Formation predominantly consists of sand, claystone
and minor Limestone (Kadri, 1995 and Shah, 2009).
2.5.4.2 Alluvium
The age of alluvium is recent, having an average thickness 70.9 m. It conformably overlies
Gaj/ Nari which are undifferentiated in the study area. The Formation predominantly
consists of sand with clay stone. Sand is transparent to translucent, fine to medium in size,
coarse grain, loose, sub-angular to sub-rounded, poorly sorted and abundant in mica.
Claystone is light grey in color, soft to firm, amorphous, slightly sticky, washable,
calcareous and abundant in carbonaceous material. The stratigraphic column of study area
is shown in Fig. 2.4.
Fig. 2.4 Generalized stratigraphy of the study area
20
2.6 Hydrocarbon Potential of Sindh Monocline
Sindh Monocline is now considered as proved hydrocarbon rich extensional basin of
Pakistan as described by Kadri, (1995). As numerous discoveries of hydrocarbons are
associated with the Cretaceous tectonic episodes of Indian Plate, consequently the Indus
basin remained focused region to petroleum exploration companies in Pakistan (Sheikh
and Naseem, 1999).
Sembar formation with organic content was deposited during the Early Cretaceous age and
as earlier discussed as proved source rock for hydrocarbons whereas the Lower Goru
sandstones of Lower Cretaceous age are proved reservoir for hydrocarbon in the study area.
Late Cretaceous upper Goru have provided the seal to reservoir rocks in the study area.
Memon et al., (1999) and Ahmad (1999) carried work on study on oil and gas distribution
in the Badin Block and suggested that primary migration of hydrocarbons from source rock
(Sembar) to basal sands through faults and gave example of Meyun Ismail field as
migration of hydrocarbons from source to reservoir through fault. Copestake et al., (1995)
worked on the deposition of the reservoir sandstones and interbedded source rocks during
the rifting of the Indian plate from the Gondwanaland. The Lower Goru play discoveries
are located within the platform part of the Middle and Lower Indus Basin, from near the
Mari High all the way down to the SSM area.
Many researchers and exploration professionals have carried work on the significance of
extensional settings in the accumulation of hydrocarbon potential in Sindh monocline.
According to Malick et al., (1988) the early cretaceous Sembar formation shales appear to
be the main oil source rock in lower Indus basin while according to Quadari and Shuaib
(1986) the Lower Gou sandstones possesses excellent reservoir qualities in Sindh
monocline area, averaging 25-30% porosity a permeability often exceeds 1 Darcy.
Mehmood-ul-Hassan (1994) carried research on geological overview of Badin rift and
described that Badin rift zone was formed because of rifting episodes and fault block traps
were formed in the area during rifting. Memon (1994) has described that Sindh monocline
tectonically resembles with the Moesian platform, Romania and is analogues to Moesian
platform which is faulted block. Also compared Moesian platform analogous with Indian
platform in term of tectonic and geothermal history. Pervez et al., (2003) carried a research
work on hydrocarbon types and hydrocarbon shoes from mud log data of basin block and
21
described that the information acquired from gas show analysis, it is still risky to forecast
precisely the nature of hydrocarbons encountered. The main reason for this is that gas
shows are representative of gas associated with hydrocarbons not of hydrocarbon itself.
According to Zaidi et al., (2006) described that “the Sembar Formation is generally
considered to be the main source rock, however the certain shale intervals of the Lower
Goru Formation have also potential to act as source rock for hydrocarbon accumulation.
2.7 Petroleum System
2.7.1 Sembar- Goru Play
Khaskheli field discovery was first discovery Lower Cretaceous Goru Formation sandstone
play which was discovered by Union Texas Pakistan in Southern Sindh Monocline in 1981
(Ahmad, et al, 1998). Up to 1997 the UTP had made a total of 49 discoveries from Lower
Goru - Sembar related discoveries from the study area (Copestake et al., 1995). The Lower
Goru hydrocarbon reservoir related discoveries are also located within the Central and
Southern Indus Basin, from near the Mari High all the way down to the SSM and its
surrounding areas (Ahmed, et al., 2004).
Reservoir Seal Pair Wireline correlation of various wells of Jabo field that effective
reservoir is present with interbedded shales as reservoir seal pair. Porosity data, gross sand,
net pay sand and average water saturation is given in the (Table I). Wireline correlation
show that the effective reservoir rock and seal-pair is present in Goru Formation. Average
porosity ranges from 8-20 % in Upper Sand. According to Siddiqui (2016) hydrocarbons
have been found in Pakistan in every period of three eras (Paleozoic, Mesozoic and
Cenozoic) except Oligocene and Pliocene. Sembar Shale is proved source rock in Southern
Sindh Monocline (Ahmad, et al., 2014). %age of TOC are highest at 0.5 in Sili-clastics and
decreases with rise of maturity because TOC is converting into hydrocarbons. The
percentage of TOC at Jabo-6 at 0.9 LOM is less than 5 , and less than 4% in Jabo-6 at 0.9
LOM and consumed to produce hydrocarbons. Although data is limited but results shows
that the Source rock is associated with Sembar Shale, Turk Shale and Badin Shale at the
various level of maturity. Regional studies shows that 0.6 -1.3% Vitrinite Reflectance is
present in study area (Wandrey et al., 1995). Published data of IEDS (1995) was used to
understand the source rock of Badin Platform, Southern Sindh Monocline, and Pakistan.
Data is limited. Results shows that source rock is associated both with Sembar Formation
22
and Goru Formation. Arif and Fazeelat (2016) worked on Hydrocarbon potential of
cretaceous sediments from lower Indus Basin, Pakistan and concluded that Goru and
Sembar formations) show the presence of type-III organic matter.
Wireline correlation of vrious wells of Jabo field that effective reservoir is present with
interbeded shales as reservoir seal pair. Porosity data, gross sand, net pay sand and average
water saturation is given in the following table. Wireline correlation show that the effective
reservoir rock and seal-pair is presnet in goru formation (Fig. 2.5 and Fig. 2.6)
Fig. 2.5 Location of various wells of Jabo field
23
Fig. 2.6 Wireline correlation of various wells of Jabo field
2.7.1 Trapping Mechanism
Trapping to hydrocarbons with in the study area has been mostly provided by the normal
faults which have been interpreted identified by many authors. The horst structural styles
identified in the SSM area are proved appropriate hydrocarbon traps for accumulation of
oil and gas. Transgressive shales of the Upper and Lower Goru Formations provided active
seal for the entrapment of hydrocarbons. Two different sets of normal faults exhibiting two
different episodes of extension during early Cretaceous Kutch rift and late Cretaceous
Camby rift which are well documented in Khaskheli structures (Ahmad and Ahston, 1982,
1984 and Ahmad and Malick, 1998).
2.8 Exploration History of Sindh Monocline
Stanvoc Oil and Gas Exploration Company actively started exploration first time in the
study region during 1956 to 1961. Several dry holes were drilled with some hydrocarbon
shows. These wells were drilled off structure due to the poor quality of the seismic data
below the Deccan volcanics. Subsequently, there was no exploration activity until the
concessions in the region were granted to Union Texas Pakistan (UTP), Cities Services
Pakistan and OGDC in April 1977. The UTP (Union Texas, Pakistan) group began
exploration in the study area on the 8,637 sq km. The Khaskeli was the first UTP group
24
discovery in 1981 from Upper Sand interval, opening a new play for oil exploration in
Pakistan. The Golarchi is the first gas discovery from the Lower Goru Upper Sand. Later
on, 104 exploratory wells were drilled through up to1997, resulted in 47 discoveries and 57
dry holes for a 45% success rate. Seismic data quality was poor in early years, but
acquisition and interpretation give excellent results today.The 1997 Badin exploration plan
called for 11 exploratory wells, including one, Tarai Deep-3, that would test a new play
concept in Jurassic Chiltan. It also called for Badin's first 3D seismic surveys, at South
Buzdar and Tangri fields on the northern part of the block, and 146 km of 2D seismic
acquisition. Latch called the 3D seismic results "encouraging." South Mazari, Mazari, and
Laghari fields are under secondary recovery and responding well. Most oil reservoirs are
water drive with around 50% recovery expected, and most gas fields are depletion drive
with close to 70% recovery expected Petzet, G.A., (1997). Comparison of overall original
recoverable reserves of crude oil of Pakistan and Southern Sindh Monocline is shown in the
Pie Chart Fig. 2.7 while the Pie Chart is shown in Fig. 2.8 showing comparison of overall
gas reserves of Pakistan and Southern Sindh Monocline.
According to Pakistan Energy Year Book (2015), total recorverable oil reserves of Pakistan
are 1102 million US barrels out of which 434 million US barrels are recoverable rserves
which is 39.38% of all over country’s recoverable reserves of oil are from SSM, while the
total recovearble gas reserves of Pakistan are 55.63 TCF and 7.63 TCF of recoverable gas
reserves which is 13% of all over country’s recoverable gas reseves is from SSM
25
Recoverable Reserves (Million US Barrel) of crude oil ,Pakistan
438.966
179.62 1.95 47.1205
481.9055
434.785
1102.4415
Pakistan Punjab
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Baluchistan
Nortthern Sindh Monocline & Sukhur Rift Zone Southern Sindh Monocline
Fig. 2.7 Recoverable reserves of Pakistan and SSM (Pakistan Energy Year Book, 2016)
Gas Reserves (TCF) of Pakistan
1.41
2.63977
19.775563
24.170756
31.81039
7.639634
55.635723
Pakistan Punjab
Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Baluchistan
Nortthern Sindh Monocline & Sukhur Rift Zone Southern Sindh Monocline
Fig. 2.8 Gas reserves of Pakistan and SSM (Pakistan Energy Year Book 2016)
26
CHAPTER 3
Previous Work
The concept of formation of structural styles and accumulation of hydrocarbons in tectonic
setting has been widely used as the new trend and useful approach in hydrocarbon
exploration activities. The impact of this concept is so important that the earlier
hydrocarbon exploration concepts were drastically disrupted and basins were classified in
a genetically related to their geotectonic settings. The mechanism of formation of different
structures, structural styles and hydrocarbon traps is related to the plate tectonics. The
structural styles well documented in one area could help in structural interpretation of a
lesser known but similarly deformed areas. According to Bryant et al., (2012) hydrocarbon
exploration companies are applying this idea of plate tectonics as a winning strategy from
one coast of the south Atlantic to discover and prove similar hydrocarbon plays on the
opposite coast.
Regions with extensional tectonic settings and related regimes are more important as many
the world’s hydrocarbon fields have been discovered having the structural traps with in
extensional regimes. The Study area in southern part of Sindh monocline, is also
characterized by extensional tectonic regime. Therefore, it is important to review the
published literature on the tectonics, structural styles and their role in the hydrocarbon
potential within the extensional basins of the world including Sindh monocline.
3.1 Global Tectonic Perspective: Southern Sindh Monocline
In the global outlook, study area is located at the intersection of Indian, plate and Eurasian
plates (Fig. 3.1). The Indian plate in the Jurassic-Early Cretaceous underway drifting in the
northeastern direction forming an island continent that floated northwards into the Tethyan
Ocean and collision with the Asia occurred in Paleocene-Early Eocene age. This collision is
characterized by face-face collision, abduction and thrusting is the main cause of the
Himalayan Orogen. The Southern Indus Basin was experienced by extensional tectonics and
generation of normal faulting followed by volcanic activity has been observed in the southern
Sindh during Early-Middle Cretaceous. These two focal tectonic episodes have greatly
affected on the structures and structural styles and revised the tectonics of the study area
(Malick et al., 1988). Better understanding of the tectonic evolution will ultimately provide
strategies for the new oil and gas discoveries in the study area.
27
Fig. 3.1 Map showing the location of SSM at the intersection of Indian plate,
Arabian plate and Eurasian plate (Map generated using GPlates)
3.2 Driving Mechanism of Continental Rifting

Over thirty years ago the central problem was to determine whether rifting was
compressive or extensional in origin but it is now firmly established from structures
evidence from seismic data and mechanism of earthquakes that the rifting is extensional in
origin. The central problem nowadays is to establish how continental rifting and its
associated structures and structural styles are formed. The mechanism by which rifting
occurs can be divided into two classes based on how the extensional forces occur; passive
hypothesis and active rifting theory (Sengor and Burke, 1978).
The tectonic evolution of rifted basins remained focused in the past and important in the plate
tectonics research clusters of the world, but so far facets of the process of rifting tectonics
remained debated. Duet to the breakup of a lithospheric plate, the crust become thin, become
weak, breaks, and ultimately substituted by another tectonic plate. As there is a conflict about the
reason and mechanism of the rifting of plates. The reconstruction of extensional tectonic models
28
has been discussed and recommended by Morgan, (1981); Mutter et al., (1988); White and
McKenzie, (1989); Storey et al., (1995); Anderson, (1994, 2001); and Courtilot et al., (1999).
Many question about extensional tectonic are still confusing like does extension initiate first?
Initiation of volcanic erruption? or is it a thermal indiscretion in the mantle which sponsors both
volcanism and extensional breakup? There are two well-known mechanisms for break-up of
continental extension: first one is known as active rifting and second one is inactive or passive
rifting (Sengor and Burke, 1978; Turacotte and Emerman, 1983).
3.3 Supporting Models for the Extensional Tectonics of Indian Plate
Continental extension is usually preceded by a sequence of tectonic extensional episodes,
which have an outcome of the succeeding and accompanied by volcanic eruptions as well.
The ultimate stress causing thinning and stretching of the lithosphere result from the plate
tectonic forces (Sengor and Burke, 1978).
The distribution of Mesozoic flood basalts along different geological time which was the
reason for the progressive separation of the Indian plate from Gondwanaland. The location
of flood basalts at different geological age are shown in Fig. 3.2 A in Late Triassic
reconstruction of the Gondwanaland map about ~220 MY ago).
3.3.1 The Wernicke Model
Wernicke (1985) proposed a model which is grounded upon a simple shear regime which
means the basin is pushed in asymmetrical manner causing a large detachment fault which
extends from the upper crust to the lower lithosphere, ultimately causing the extension. In
this model shown in Fig. 3.2 D showing the crustal lengthening is far from the area of
thermal outpouring. So, the area beneath it does not accommodate much thermal
dropping. The footwall of the shear zone practices minor uplift from lateral heat of the
asthenosphere that ultimately sinks to normal height after thermal decay. Total subsidence
between the simple and pure shear models are comparatively same, conditional on the
amount of crustal thinning (Buck et al., 1988).
3.3.2 The Lister Model of Continental Extension
Other Models for the development of lithosphere stretching and have been proposed by
Wernicke, by Lister et al., Coward and others (Fig. 3.2 E). Wernicke (1985) proposed the
model based on the simple shear which is founded on observations from range area in
western USA.
29
3.3.3 The McKenzie Model
McKenzie (1978) has some modifications over time but having relevancy. McKenzie
fundamentally suggested that within a given vertical column the continental lithosphere
will be stretched, in a way that there is an instant early stretch linked with the subsidence.
McKenzie's model is dependent on stretching. The assumption in this model is that
stretching and subsidence occurs instantaneously, before cooling of the asthenosphere and
occurrence of the thermal subsidence. The McKenzie's model is one of pure shear in that
the consistent lithosphere is stretched uniformly to form a symmetrically faulted basin
which accommodates stretching (Fig. 3.2 F). The Wernicke and McKenzie models shown
in Fig. 3.2 D and 3.2F are quite effective solutions to extensional tectonics with McKenzie's
pure shear that truly obeys the basins through worldwide.
Rainer (2007) proposed the cause of the Indian Plate that stimulated faster is that it is
thinner about only 100 Km comparatively than other plates associated with the
Gondwanaland. Fig. 3.2A showing the location of Mesozoic flood basalts concerned for
the progressive separation of the Indian plate from Gondwanaland at different extensional
episodes at different geological time. Model showing active rifting and plumes caused
uplifting of the lithosphere initiated volcanism in Fig. 3.2B. Model showing passive rifting,
in which tectonic plates underwent stretching, thinning in Fig. 3.2C, and rupturing of
lithosphere Wernickle Simple Shear Model in Fig. 3.2D and in Fig. 3.2E the model of
extension tectonic by Lister et al., (1986) is shown and the model by McKenzie illustrating
uniform pure shear is shown in Fig. 3.2F.
30
Fig 3.2 - (A) Map showing the location of Mesozoic flood basalts concerned for the
progressive separation of Indian plate from Gondwanaland at different extensional
episodes. (B) Model showing active rifting and plumes caused uplifting of the lithosphere
initiated volcanism. (C) Model showing passive rifting, in which tectonic plates underwent
stretching, thinning, and rupturing of lithosphere (D) Wernickle Simple Shear Model (E)
Model of Extension Tectonic by Lister et al., (1986) and (F) Model by McKenzie
illustrating uniform pure shear model
3.4 The Model of Extensional Evolution of Southern Indus Basin
Zaigham and Malick (1999) proposed a model of extensional evolution of southern Indus
Basin. Proposed schematic tectonic models illustrating stages of evolution of Southern
Indus Basin describing Independent fragmentation of Gondwanaland super continent in
late Paleozoic resulting in thinning of overlying lithosphere as shown in Fig. 3.3 A, Later
31
on stretching of lithosphere remained continued and caused thinning, normal faulting and
outpouring of the magma which seems to stop at the end of Paleozoic as shown in Fig. 3.3
B. Settling of the rifted crust due to sequential sedimentation of the Mesozic and Tertiary
sediments are shown in Fig. 3.3 C and model showing the revised tectonic environments
and current geological setting of the southern Indus basin (Fig. 3.3 D). This model
describes the following four steps of the tectonic evolution.
Step No.1: First step describes the initial rifting of the Gondwanaland which happened
during the Paleozoic (Smith and Hallam, 1970; Powell, 1979). The extension of plates
associated with basaltic magma in the upper part of the asthenosphere, caused tectonic
upwarp and thinning of overlying lithosphere, which possibly resulting the generation of
extensional fault. The thinning of lithosphere continued and resulted in the collapse of the
tectonic upwarp over the magma eruption and afterward the process of seafloor spreading
started with basaltic magma upwelling in the subsurface.
Step No.2: Extensional forces were developed which caused breaking up of the upper crust
into faulted blocks during the process of the sea floor spreading. It shows that the initial
stretched and rifted part was stopped at very late Paleozoic to very early Mesozic geological
time.
Step No.3: The third step of the Zaigham’s model shows the settlement of the rifted plate
and instantaneous accumulation of Mesozoic Tertiary deposits in the Indus Basin.
Step No. 4: The fourth step represents the modifying tectonic environment of the Southern
Indus Basin. The deformation of the basin and the mountain ranges in the west are the
result of combine effects of the northward journey and the counterclockwise turning of the
Indian plate.
32
Fig. 3.3 Model proposed by Zaigham and Malick, (1999) demonstrating different stages of
tectonic evolution of Southern Indus Basin (A) Self-regulating separation of
Gondwanaland during the late Paleozoic as the process of thinning of the lithosphere
generation of extensional faulting (B) Continued rifting of the upper crust continued
thinning, faulting and outpouring of the magma which was continued at the end of
Paleozoic (C) Subsidence of the stretched crust and continuous sedimentation of the
Mesozic and Tertiary sediments in the southern Indus Basin (D) Final model demonstrates
the present day geological setting of Southern Indus Basin. (modified after Zaigham and
Malick, 1999)
3.5 Structures and Structural Styles of Extensional Basins
Similar tectonic forces and its resulting structures and structural styles in an area allows
comparison with similar tectonic characterized known basins anywhere in the world. Deep
penetration seismic surveys processed with modern techniques have revealed subsurface
structures. The study of tectonic using seismic data is called seism tectonics which is the
33
vital key not only in the evaluation of resources and reserves in the hydrocarbon
exploration in initial stages and useful in later stages of hydrocarbon field development and
production. Until 1999 very few studies have used seismic reflection data to determine how
faults have evolved through time due to reason of the low resolution of the seismic data.
Some of examples of studies carried on the tectonic evolution, subsurface structural styles
and their role in hydrocarbon potential with the approach of seismic data are discussed
below: Morely (1999), Conteras et al., (2000) and McLeod et al., (2000) and Morley (2002)
worked on the tectonic evolution of normal faults and presented example from seismic
reflection data. Withjack and Schlische (2002) carried out general work on rift basin
structure and its impact on sedimentary system using approach of seismic data and have
identified and mapped structures of rift basins. Rolon (2004) carried thesis work on
structural configuration of the Middle Magdalena valley basin, Colombia which is also
characterized by extensional tectonics and concluded that the understanding of the of the
tectonic kinematics of the structural styles of the basin provided better understanding of
the generation, migration and trapping of the hydrocarbons with in the area. Mazur and
Scheck-Wenderoth (2005) carried work on the Central European Basin system
characterized by tectonic evolution by the approach of Seismic data interpretation from and
he described the timing of generation of extensional structures.
Enachescu (2006) worked on tectonic evolution and petroleum potential of the Orphan
Basin of Newfoundland and described that Newfoundland has undergone extensional and
repeated extensional episodes and he described that the seismic interpretation with the
integration of hydrocarbon potential. Abeinomugisha and Kasande (2009) carried out work
on tectonic evolution and its role on the hydrocarbon accumulation of the Albertine graben,
East African rift and described that Albertine graben underwent through extensional
episodes which resulted in different structures and fault closures which are proved prolific
for hydrocarbon trapping. Fossen (2010) carried study with the objective to find out the
structural architecture in the subsurface of extensional settings throughout the world and
the listric system faults, synthetic system of faults and antithetic system of faults while the
flexures have also been identified. Cemen et al., (2012) carried out work on extensional
basins in western Anatolia, Turkey and described that the extensional basins possibly
triggered by three different extensional mechanisms which created high angle faults and
34
Kucuk Menderes graben structures. Sahoo and Chakrabarti (2014) worked on structural
modelling of the structures of south Cambay basin, India using seismic data and concluded
that the timing of hydrocarbon migration and reactivation of fault related structures have a
profound effect on the hydrocarbon proceptivity of the area.
Sert and Cemen (2015) worked on structural geology of the eastern part of the Buyuk
Menders graben, western Turkey using 2D seismic reflection profiles and interpreted
extensional structure graben and extensional associated folds and faults. Munir et al.,
(2014), Khan et al., (2015) and Abbasi et al., (2015) interpreted different structural styles
in southern Sindh monocline which is affected by extensional tectonic of Indian plate
during its journey from rifting from Africa to Eurasia using the seismic data interpretation
approach. Following are the some of the examples of extensional settings and their
structural styles:
Death Valley, South East, California: Eextensional tectonic region in the Death Valley
region, California, has produced a different extensional characterized basin.
Structural Styles: Normal fault structures and their associated structural styles (Hodges et
al., 1989).
East African Extensional Basin: The East African extensional basin is an active extensional
tectonic zone in East Africa. It started developing at the start of the Miocene, 22–25 million
years ago. In the past, it was the part of a larger Great Rift Valley that extended north to
Asia. The is a narrow region that was characterized by extensional tectonics, in which the
African Plate was in the process of splitting into two tectonic plates, called the Somali Plate
and the Nubian Plate.
Structural Styles: Opposite dipping normal faults (Ebinger, 2005).
The Triassic Cuyana Basin, Argentenia: The Cuyana Basin Corresponds to a
passive continental rift developed during Triassic times because of the early Mesozoic
breakup of Gondwanaland.
Structural Styles: Normal Faults and Half Graben. (Fossen, 2010 and Patricia, 2012).
The North Sea Gullfaks: The North Sea Gullfaks oil field consisting on a domino
Structural styles.
35
Structural Styles: The domino system consists of four to six faulted blocks, each
subdivided by smaller faults. Well data show that many faults and fault-related structures
exists, including a large population of deformation bands (Fossen and Haakon, 2010).
The Barmer Basin, India: Barmer Basin, India underwent through the important phase of
extension occurred between the late Cretaceous (Maastrichtian) and mid-Eocene
(Lutetian). Rifting started contemporaneous with separation of the Seychelles micro plate
from the western Indian plate.
Structural Styles: Rifted normal faults (Andrew, 2014).
Thar Rift Basin, Pakistan: The basin is in the south-eastern part of Pakistan. This rift has
been inferred as a monoclonal basement structural feature.
Structural Styles: Normal faults, horsts and grabens, listric system of faults, synthetic and
antithetic system of faults and flexures.
Locations of above discussed extensional settings are shown in Fig. 3.4.
Fig. 3.4 Location of some extensional basins (Map generated using GPlates)
36
3.6 Role of Extensional Structures on Hydrocarbon Potential
The subject of tectonic control on structural styles and their role in hydrocarbon potential
have been described by McKinstry (1941 &1955), Newhouse et al., (1942) and Wisser
(1951) and the approaches of structural analysis of the tectonic provinces as the
hydrocarbon exploration tactics have been relatively discussed by few workers notably
Billingsley and Locke (1941), Kaufmann (1951), Mayo (1958), Klemme (1958) and
Henson (1952). Badgley (1959) described the three steps for tectonic analysis of petroleum
provinces as the hydrocarbon exploration tool. He described the first step which include
the knowledge of tectonic history and framework at continent level, the next step is to
choose the most focused and critical areas for the study and the third step as of selection of
the one of the most prospective area for the detailed study. Several classifications of
structural styles have been made by Badgley (1965) but none was dealt directly with
subsurface structures and their associated hydrocarbon traps. Levorsen (1954) described
the faulted structural traps. Harding and Lowell (1979) made classification of structural
traps on the concept of structural styles and employed the concept, their classification and
comparative tectonics and described that the interrelated geologic structural styles which
create the major styles of petroleum provinces. Each style is treated as common plate-
tectonic settings typical structural patterns, critical differences from other styles and
associated hydrocarbon traps. Basic styles are defined by an assemblage of tectonically
related elements. Dewey (1982) carried work on the tectonic evolution of the Bristish Isles
and concluded that understanding the tectonic history is predictive tool for exploration of
hydrocarbons. Jadoon (2001) further suggested that the understand of the geometry and
hydrocarbon potential of compressional structural traps of Pakistan will help for better
understanding of the prediction of tectonic stress and presence of faults and fractures to
recognize compressional traps and their hydrocarbon potential. Extensional basins and
structures formed within these types of basins are most prolific regions for the generation
and trapping of hydrocarbons. Normal faults, horsts and grabens, listric system of faults,
synthetic and antithetic system of faults and dominos system of faults etc are extremely
common structural features in such type of tectonic settings (Beloussov, 1962).
Prior to 1970s a very small work has been carried on structures related to extensional
tectonic settings these include Gregory (1921), Quennell (1956), Robson (1971), Baker at
37
al., (1972), Illies (1974) and Garfunkel and Bartov (1977) and their work was focused on
the surface geology of Rhine graben, East African and dead sea rift system and Gulf of
Suez but in 1980’s when seismic method was used with the principal objective for the
investigation of subsurface structural architecture and contributed as the significant
approach for the study of the subsurface structural styles of extensional settings are
widespread in most orogenic regions and the interest was increased with the fact that many
of the world’s hydrocarbon resources have also been discovered in the regions of
extensional settings.
Following are the some of the examples of global extensional settings and their structural
styles are as under:
3.6.1 Capel and Faust basins, offshore eastern Australia
The study carried out by Geoscience Australia on the tectonic evolution hydrocarbon
potential of the Capel and Faust basins which were experienced by two episodes of rifting
during the Early and the Late Cretaceous. In Syn-rift 1 deposition ended with regional
uplift and erosion, similar as Cenomanian event in eastern Australia, attributable to a major
reshuffling of the Australia–Pacific plate boundary (Veevers 2000; Norvick et al., 2001,
2008; Willcox et al., 2001; Schellart et al., 2006 and Rey & Muller, 2010). The second
rifting event (Syn-rift 2) during the Late Cretaceous showing to be related to the opening
of the Tasman Sea to the west (Hayes and Ringis 1973 and Gaina et al., 1998).
Petroleum Potential & Structural Style
Three-dimensional tectonic models show the existence of large anticlinal structures with
four-way closure for hydrocarbon accumulation. (Fig. 3.5).
38
Fig. 3.5 Map showing the Structural styles of Capel and Faust basins, Australia
3.6.2 Albertine Graben of the East African Rift System

The Albertine Graben which was developed on the Precambrian orogenic belt of the
African Craton. It forms the northern termination of the Western arm of the East African
Rift System (EARS) (Figure 1). The subsurface data indicated that rifting could have been
initiated during the late Oligocene or Early Miocene. Exploratory wells were drilled in the
Albertine Graben have proven the deposition of source, reservoir and cap rocks. Closure
for hydrocarbon accumulation was provided by normal faults. Tectonics proved an
important role in deposition of source, reservoir and cap rocks and formation of structural
traps of the area (Fig. 3.6) (Abeinomugisha, 2012)
39
Fig. 3.6 Structural styles of Albertine graben of the east African rift system
(Abeinomugisha, 2012)
3.6.3 Argyll field, western margin of Central graben, North Sea
Seismic profile across sub-unconformity trap (Rotliegendes sandstone) at Argyll field,

western margin of Central graben. North Sea. Three interrelated structural levels are
present; slab like, unflexed, rotated normal-fault block at depth (Middle Devonian), fault
block with dip-slip fault drag flexure at intermediate level (Danian chalk), and shallow,
intact drape flexure. In index map, note dogleg configuration of Central graben (i.e.,
proceeding from far north end, graben trend is first south, then southeast, and then back to
original south trend) and bifurcation at junction with Viking graben. Normal faults occur
subordinately in all style assemblages, but certain suites of structures as shown in Fig. 3.7
40
and extensional tectonic settings are dominated regionally, deep-seated normal faults
which constitute a discrete fault-block style. Such normal faulting is perhaps the most
widespread of all styles. It dominates divergent margins in early stages of development,
the oceanic crust formed at spreading centers, and some intraplate regions. In cross section
shown in Fig. 7.8, normal faulting is one of the least complex styles. In plan, view, its
patterns are highly variable and difficult to predict.
Structural Architecture
Horsts and, less commonly, the downthrown sides of faults provide additional structural
architecture. The high edges of blocks are ideally situated to localize development of reefs
and other reservoir facies (Stricker et al., 2016)
Fig. 3.7 Structural stles of Argyll field, western margin of Central graben, North Sea
(Stricker et al., 2016)
Many researchers carried work migration and trapping mechanism According to Durand
(1988) and Mann (1990) primary migration of oil from source rocks remain an important
problem in petroleum geology and proposed an idea of mechanism that migration through
fractures is attractive because fractures have high permeability. Demaison and Huizinga
(1991) have described the migration drainage style through faults and fractures system with
in rift basins. According to them the entrapment style which is also dependent on the
structural framework and the applications of their working concepts should help to
41
significantly reduce geologic risk in new areas for hydrocarbon exploration. Ameen (1992)
worked on tectonic evolution of structures and hydrocarbon potential of Northern Iraq.
Thomas and Clouse (1995) worked on scaled physical model of secondary oil migration
and described that high hydrocarbon loss may occur during vertical migration and losses
during lateral migration are probably minimal because flow is concentrated below the top
seal. This proposal was applied by Berg and Gangi (1999) for the migration of hydrocarbon
from source to reservoir through faults on Austin Chalk, Texas.
Allan (1989) proposed the model for hydrocarbon migration through different structures.
The conclusion was made regarding migration from model assumptions that faulting and
appropriate dips across the fault are necessary for vertical migration of hydrocarbons.
Vertical migration is not up the plane of faults. Vertical migration occurs at the fault by a
combination of up dip migration and cross fault migration at defined cross-fault spill
points. Vertical migration spill is from the base of an accumulation and the same as it is in
lateral migration. Lighter hydrocarbons spill heavier hydrocarbons upward with in a
structure. Synclinal spill points define the stratigraphic upper limits for vertical migration
of hydrocarbons and are points of egress for lateral migration. For hydrocarbons to enter a
trap higher in a structure than a synclinal spill point or a cross fault spill point on a faulted
nose, the hydrocarbons must enter by lateral migration from a down dip spill point. Ahmad
(1999) carried work on study on oil and gas distribution in the Badin block, Pakistan and
suggested that primary migration of hydrocarbons from source rock (Sembar Formation)
to basal sands through faults and described example of Meyun Ismail field of Badin block
as migration of hydrocarbons from source to reservoir through fault.
Faults especially are extremely important in this regard they are known to play major roles
in migration and accumulation of hydrocarbons. Proper interpretation of fault properties
such as their delineation, type, age and history allows to analyze the roles played as seals,
leaks or conduits in primary and secondary migration of hydrocarbons and can also be
useful in enhancing permeability in fractured reservoirs. Critical study of faults can even
lead and provide vital information during development phase for better and effective
reservoir management. In conclusion, seism tectonics, is the study of tectonics from the
seismic data is extremely useful to enhance interpretation capabilities and evolution of the
basins and assessment of hydrocarbon prospects. It is the vital key, not only in evaluation
42
of resources and reserves in early exploration activities but continues to be useful in later
stages of field development and production.
3.7 Tectonic Control on Structures and Hydrocarbon Potential of Sindh
Monocline
Sindh monocline is an important and focused area of Pakistan which situated on the Indian
platform where more than half of the country’s oil is produced. Geotectonic setting of
Sindh monocline has been widely described by different authors. According to Biswas
(1982) SSM confirm the effect of Kuch rift which is characterized by two sets of faults one
trending NE-SW and other trending E-W trending faults. According to Malick et al., (1988)
and Raza et al., (1990) the Sindh monocline came into existence when Indian plate in Early
Cretaceous age started separating away from the Madagascar about 130 million year ago
and began moving northward. The northward movement of Indian plate produced
compression while accompanying anticlockwise rotation generated tension. Resultantly
Sindh Monocline was split into Horsts, Grabens type of Structures. Sindh Monocline was
far from main deformation locations in all three cases, and exhibits a short-term degree of
deformation. As a result, the degree of deformation is relatively low, and gradually
increased from East to West. The extensional tectonics during Cretaceous time generated
normal faults over a wide area of eastern Southern Indus basin. The Cretaceous faults
generally strike between N 30o W and N 50o W (Kemal et al., 1991). Commonly, faults are
arranged in en-echelon sets, aligned in zones that trend almost north-south. The tilted
normal faulted traps were in existence at time of hydrocarbon generation. Fault associated
structural closures are responsible for trapping oil and gas in Lower Goru sandstone in
Sindh Monocline and its surrounding areas. The under filling of structures can be attributed
to upward leakage across widespread structures and redistributed hydrocarbons of the area
(Kemal et al., 1991). Hussain et al., (1991), Khan et al., (2014), Munir et al., (2015) and
Abbasi et al., (2015) (described that the Lower Goru sandstones are the main hydrocarbon
producing reservoir rocks at and around southern Sindh monocline which were formed as
a result a result of erosion from Indian shield during the early cretaceous rifting episodes.
3.8 Structural Styles and Discovered Structural Traps of Sindh Monocline
The Sindh Monocline is characterized by horst and graben type structural styles. These
structural styles were formed due to separation of India and Madagascar during the Late
Cretaceous (Alam, 2002). The tectonic history gives confirmation that the two sets of
43
faulting demonstrating two different episodes of rifting developed in the Sindh monocline.
The initial faults are associated with early Cretaceous rift episode and second set of normal
faults are the consequence of the Late Cretaceous rifting. Sembar shale was buried to the
depth where the temperatures were suitable for the transformation of organic matter into
oil. Late cretaceous Cambay rift further divided the area in to a horst and two grabens. The
central block remained stable while the adjacent blocks were down-faulted. The oil which
was subjected to the higher temperatures in the grabens due to deeper burial was cracked
in to the condensate and gas while the oil in the central part (horst) remained unaffected.
This is the deciding factor for the occurrence of the oil fields in the central part of the Sindh
monocline and the concentration of the condensate and gas fields in north-eastern and
south-western blocks.
Two sets of faults indicating two episodes of rifting during early cretaceous cutch rift and
late Cretaceous Camay rift are well recorded in Khakheli oil field located in Southern Sindh
monocline. The discoveries support the interpretation of tectonics of the monocline given
by the authors:
According to Raza et al., (1990) the northwest movement of the Indian plate generated
compression whereas accompanying anticlockwise rotation produced tension. Because of
tension the platform was spilt into grabens and horsts which produced ideal setting for
deposition of oil formations and conclusion was made that this tectonic setting of Sindh
Monocline proved ideal for widespread deposition of sediments exhibiting a variety of
facies including organic rich sembar shale (source rock) and highly porous and permeable
lower Goru (reservoir rock).
According to Kemal et al., (1991) the extensional tectonism during the cretaceous time
created the tilted faults which were in existence at the time of hydrocarbon generation and
these extensional related structural closures are responsible for trapping of hydrocarbons
in lower Goru sandstones of Sindh monocline. Later the anti-clockwise rotation of Indian
plate complicated the earlier extensional structures and redistributed the hydrocarbons.
According to Mehmood-ul-Hassan (1994) the traps in the area are fault structures. The
structural orientation is northwest to southeast. Closure to the north and east-west is usually
formed by regional dip while the closure to the south is formed by faulting or change in
fault orientation. Kadri (1995) described that Sindh monocline is now thought to be the
44
continuation of oil and gas producing Cambay and Cutch rift basins of India which came
into existence as result of the divergence of the South-eastern margin of the Indian plate.
3.9 Petroleum System and Hydrocarbon Potential of Sindh Monocline
Sindh monocline is now proved producing area of oil and gas characterized by extensional
episodes of the Indian plate Kadri, (1995). Numerous plays and hydrocarbon fields are
associated with the Cretaceous rifting episode, consequently the Indus basin is attractive to
petroleum exploration companies in Pakistan (Sheikh and Naseem, 1999).
It is an important hydrocarbon producing area of Pakistan from where many oil, gas and
condensate fields have been discovered from the normal fault traps formed due to
extensional tectonics. Organic rich sembar shales were deposited during early cretaceous
which are the proved source rocks whereas the Lower Goru sandstones of Lower
Cretaceous are the proved reservoir rock (Kadri, 1995). Late Cretaceous upper Goru have
provided the excellent seal (Memon et al., 1999). Ahmad (1999) carried work on study on
oil and gas distribution in the Badin Block and suggested that primary migration of
hydrocarbons from source rock (Sembar) to basal sands through faults and gave example
of Meyun Ismail field as migration of hydrocarbons from source to reservoir through fault.
Copestake et al., (1995) worked on the deposition of the reservoir sandstones and
interbedded source rocks during the rifting of the Indian plate from the Gondwanaland.
Studies have been carried out by Milan and Rodgers, (1993); I.E.D.S., (1995); Krois et al.,
(1998) and Moghal and Jamil, (1999 on the depositional framework and reservoir
stratigraphy of the Lower Goru of the study area.
Many researchers and exploration professionals have carried work on the significance of
extensional settings in the accumulation of hydrocarbon potential in Sindh monocline.
According to Malick et al., (1988) the early cretaceous Sembar formation shales appear to
be the main oil source rock in lower Indus basin while according to Quadari and Shuaib
(1986) the Lower Gou sandstones possesses excellent reservoir qualities in Sindh
monocline area, averaging 25-30% porosity a permeability often exceeds 1 Darcy.
Mehmood-ul-Hassan (1994) carried research on geological overview of SSM extensional
regime and described that SSM was formed because of rifting episodes and fault block
traps were formed in the area during rifting. Pervez et al., (2003) carried a research work
on hydrocarbon types and hydrocarbon shoes from log data of the study area and described
45
that the area is still risky to forecast precisely the nature of hydrocarbons encountered in
the area. The main reason for this is that gas shows are representative of gas associated
with hydrocarbons not of hydrocarbon itself. According to Zaidi et al., (2006) described
that “the Sembar Formation is generally considered to be the main source rock, however
the certain shale intervals of the Lower Goru Formation have also potential to act as source
rock for hydrocarbon accumulation.
3.10 Exploration History and Studies over SSM
study region during 1956 to 1961. Stanvoc exploration Company started seismic data
acquisition over the study area but the quality of the seismic data was very poor due to
multiples caused due to Deccan volcanics, may be proper selection of optimum acquisition
parameters was not better and less efficiently processing of the seismic data during the
period from 1956 to 1961. Pitfalls of seismic data interpretation were resulted in wells
drilled by misinterpreted as offset to the structure due to poor quality of the seismic data.
study region during 1956 to 1961. Afterward, the exploration activity remained paused
until the concessions in the region were granted to Union Texas Pakistan (UTP), Cities
Services Pakistan and OGDC in April 1977. The UTP (Union Texas, Pakistan) group began
exploration in the study area on the 8,637 sq km. The Khaskeli field was the first Union
Texas Pakistan discovery in February 1982 from Upper Sands, which inaugurated a new
petroleum system for oil exploration in the country. The Golarchi is the first gas discovery
from the Lower Goru Upper Sand. Later on, 104 exploratory wells were drilled through up
to1997, resulted in 47 discoveries and 57 dry holes for a 45% success rate. The quality of
the seismic data was poor in initial years, but acquisition and interpretation improved with
excellent results later on.The 1997 famous Badin exploration project for 11 exploratory
wells, including one, Tarai Deep-3, that would test a new play concept in Chiltan Formation
of Jurassic age. First 3D seismic data was also acquired, at South Buzdar and Tangri fields
on the northern part of the block, and 146 km of 2D seismic acquisition. South Mazari,
Mazari, and Laghari fields are under secondary recovery and production was enhanced
from these wells. The most oil reservoirs were with around 50% recovery expected, and
most gas fields are depletion drive with close to 70% recovery expected (Petzet, 1997). BP
46
Pakistan operates four separate concessions in the southern sindh monocline and started
exploration in 1977 and to the end of 2003, total number of exploratory wells drilled was
134 with 57 successful discoveries (Chris Ebdon et al., 2004). Following are focused
prospective structures and major discovered fields with in Sindh Monocline.
The UTP (Union Texas, Pakistan) group began exploration in the study area on the 8,637
sq km.
Structural Interpretation of 2D Seismic reflection data of different seismic lines of SSM
have been carried out by Durrani (2006); Shaheen (2004); Rasheed (2004); Javed (2004);
Qureshi (2006); Ishtique (2006); Batool (2006); Nazar (2004); Bhatti (2004); Naz (2006);
Muhammad (2004); Munir, (2006), Akbar (2005); Qaiser (2004) and Iftikhar et al., (2011),
(Munir et al., 2014, and Abbasi et al., (2015, 2015) described that the dominant structures
in the area are normal faults, hurts and graben.
The detailed hydrocarbon exploration was carried on SSM for more than 60 years by
numerous homegrown as well as by indigenous companies and various researchers with
the approach of seismic method to study the subsurface geological structures but still there
is need to classify the types of structural styles, their tectonic evolution and role in
generation, migration and trapping mechanism of hydrocarbons which definitely will be
useful in exploration of hydrocarbons in future within the study area, its surroundings and
as well as associated extensional tectonic basins of the world.
Sindh monocline is focused hydrocarbon prospective region of Pakistan from where many
hydrocarbon fields have been discovered. Khaskheli field discovery was the first big
discovery by Union Texas. South Mazari Field was discovered in 1985 by British
Petroleum (Pakistan) Exploration & Production Inc. from a large Crotch trap, a trap formed
by two faults culminating at one point. Zaur field was discovered in 1993 by BP Pakistan
Exploration and Production Inc. on a structural closure on a narrow horst block, later more
wells were discovered on nearby fault blocks of the Horst structure (Mozzaffar et al., 2002).
Later, many other major fields like Jabo, Zaur, Ghunghro and many other Exploration and
Production Companies have discovered hydrocarbons from and nearby study area.
Recently in 2013 more discoveries have been successful from the fault closures of Jabo as
well as Nur and Bagla fields.
Operator Companies with in Study Area
47
UTP was the first operator Company in the region which was later acquired by AMOCO,
Internationally AMOCO merged into ARCO, which further merged into British Petroleum
and recently BP was acquired by United Energy Pakistan Limited. Some other indigenous
companies like OGDCL, MGCL, NHEPL etc are also remained as operator in the study
area.
3.11 Major Discoveries and Structural Closures of the Study Area

The Khaskheli oil discovery is considered as milestone and first discovery in 1981 from
southern Sindh monocline on structure as tilted normal fault block, which was considered
to have two periods of movement. The first movement occurring in the early cretaceous
with the anticlinal drape over the faulting formed the structure and the second period of
faulting occurred in the late cretaceous, breached the structure and caused migration of oil
to the cretaceous surface. The Khaskheli field is north-south trending structure
approximately 5 km in length and 0.8 km in breadth on the Top Lower Goru level. The
structure is formed by a three-dip closure against a large north-south trending normal, down
to the east fault. The combined anticlinal and fault closure amounts to approximately 150
feet (Petzet ,1997; Ahmad and Malick, 1998 and Memon and Siddiqui, 2003). Another
example of major Zaur oil and gas discovery on a horst block which is a long and narrow
structural feature bounded by two faults, which have a throw of 500-800 feet. The complete
closure of field could not be work out due poor seismic images in early efforts but later
three-dimensional seismic data added for the understanding of actual structural closure and
more development wells of Zaur field have been successful (Alam et al., 2002). South
Mazari oil field is another successful discovery with in southern Sindh monocline area.
The structural architecture of south Mazari field is large crotch which was formed by two
normal faults (Meyerhollz,1998 and Wasimuddin and Ahmad, 2002).
Detailed study on structural style, petroleum geology and hydrocarbon potential of Jabo
field which lies within the study area in which seismic data of the field was interpreted to
picture out the structural styles and prospective structural closure while the logs of nine
wells of field have also been used for the comparison of the structural cross section,
petroleum geology and existing hydrocarbon potential of Jabo Field. The Jabo structure is
located at 8 km south west of the Rajo-1 well and 18 km south-west of the Tajedi well.
However, the seismic interpretation disclose that study area consists normal faults
48
collectively forming horsts and grabens. The Jabo structures appears to have been formed
during the deposition period of Upper Goru. Wireline correlation of various nine wells of
Jabo field shows that the effective reservoir is present with interbedded shales as reservoir
seal pair. Wireline correlation show that the effective reservoir rock and seal-pair is present
in Goru Formation. Well Badin Shale has source potential in Jabo 6 while Key Hole-1 has
source potential Upper Shale, Lower Shale and Talhar Shale at 0.9 LOM Average porosity
ranges from 8-20 % in Upper Sand. Results shows that source rock is associated both with
Sembar Formation and Goru Formation. Regional studies show that 0.6 -1.3% Vitrinite
Reflectance is present in study area. Published data of IEDS (1995) have also been
correlated to understand the source rock of the study area Abbasi et al., (2015). Many other
major hydrocarbon discoveries have been made like Laghari, Junathi South, Kunar,
Pasakhi, Gharo, Pir Apan, Piaro Deep, Khaskheli North and Ayesha on the structural
closures formed due to extensional tectonics hence the study area is generally considered
favorable for the exploration of hydrocarbon on the closures of structural traps. Khan
(2012) carried out research on Fault seal analysis of Thatta-Badin block and carried out
mapping of fault manually on various reservoir and source beds and concluded that the
fault seal analysis is of vital importance in nowadays exploration activities especially while
exploration in extensional regime. Nasir et al., (2010) carried work on application of
biomarkers to describe the petroleum and source rock of the southern Indus basin. They
identified the source rock maturity and timing of oil and gas expulsion will be used to
identify source rock characterizes. They described that the sembar and some parts of the
lower Goru in the southern Indus basin are considered as major source rocks with Kerogen
belongs to a combination of type-II and III. Khan (2010) described this tectonic setting as
proved and ideal for the formation of main entrapment mechanism and the source rock
Sembar Formation of Lower Cretaceous and the reservoir rock Lower Goru. According to
Munir et al., (2014) Structural styles in the area provided basic constituents of petroleum
system. The large number of oil and gas discoveries from thee area proved potential of
petroleum system of the area.
Sahito, et al., (2014) described Upper sands of Lower Goru Formation based on well
cuttings, Abbasi et al., (2014), Munir, et al., (2014) and Abbasi, et al., (2015) interpreted
seismic data of study area and identified the tilted Normal faults collectively forming horst
49
and graben type of structures. From above studies, normal faulting, tilted fault blocks,
crotch, horsts and grabens type of structures are commonly formed in extensional settings
(Fig 3.8).
Fig. 3.8 Structural configuration of SSM (Modified after Zaigham et al. 2012).
Structural Traps and of Sindh Monocline

Traps in the Sindh Monocline area are normal faults which were generated during Late
Cretaceous and Early Paleocene extensional episode. The proven cap rock of the area is
Upper Goru Formation whereas the Sembar Formation and shales of Lower Goru are
considered and proved source rock of the area.
Khan (2010) described the separation, northward drift and collision of and according to
him this tectonic movement of Indian plate is responsible for the present petroleum system
in Pakistan and this tectonic system has favorable characteristics for additional
hydrocarbon discoveries in Pakistan. Jamil et al., (2012) worked on Pakistan’s major
petroleum plays and concluded that major plays of the Pakistan are almost structural which
have contributed significantly toward the discovered hydrocarbon reserves and assessed
different plays and their remaining hydrocarbon potential in country. Naeem et al., (2015)
carried work on by the integration of seismic and well log data and estimated petro physical
properties of the Lower Goru sands and described that the normal faults of the area have
potentially provided the vertical primary migration pathway to hydrocarbons in the area.
50
CHAPTER 4
Data Bank and Methodology
Seismic reflection method is one of accurate and modern method for acquiring the image
of the subsurface stratigraphy and structures. Seismic data are used both in exploration for
hydrocarbons and in the production phase. According to Cordsen et al., (2000) Seismic
data acquired for any area depends on the targeted horizons and dominated structures in
that area and ultimately seismic surveys are designed by balancing the constraints of budget
allocated and optimum acquisition parameters to get the required seismic data. In Seismic
reflection method, an explosive is placed in a shot hole in the ground. Seismic pulse is
generated by the explosion of explosive and that pulse is transmitted through the
subsurface. Finally, that transmitted wavelet is recorded at the receivers laid out on the
surface of earth after bouncing from different layers within the subsurface having different
acoustic impedance values with in the earth. Every recorded shot then passes through
seismic data processing on specified softwares and finally that final processed data will be
ready for the study of subsurface stratigraphy and structures by the process called seismic
data interpretation. In addition, for detailed information on the process of the acquisition
of seismic data, its processing and interpretation, comprehensive introductions in some of
the more general text books such as Dobrin, (1976), Robinson and Cahit (1988), Telford
et al., (1990), Bacon et al., (2003), Pradhan et al., (2010) and by many other authors. The
process of the acquisition of seismic data and its processing are too much costly, which are
not possible for the universities to arrange equipment, man power and workstations.
Therefore, it is practice in many universities of the world only to get processed data for the
study on their objectives. In Pakistan Directorate General for Petroleum Concession
(DGPC) which work under the directions of Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Resources,
Islamabad, Pakistan is the controlling authority for the issuance of seismic data required to
university scholars for any area for the research purpose. For this purpose, many 2D
seismic lines, 3D seismic data and well information of the study area have been obtained
from DGPC and in-depth literature on the study area have also been reviewed. The
parameters of seismic data, well information gathered, methodology applied and the details
of softwares used for study of structures, structural styles, tectonic evolution and their role
in hydrocarbon potential of SSM are discussed in detail in this chapter.
51
4.1 Seismic Data Used for the Study
The Seismic and well data used for the identification and interpretation of structures,
structural styles and their tectonic evolution has been obtained by LMKR (Land Mark
Resources) which is a servicing company managing data for DGPC. The details of 2D, 3D
seismic data and well data as shown in Fig. 4.1 are discussed below.
4.1.1 2D Seismic Data: Total 2D seismic lines obtained were 25, which were acquired
by Union Texas Pakistan (UTP) during different seismic surveys conducted in 1985, 1986,
1995 and 1996. The acquisition parameters like seismic line name, its orientation, group
interval, shot point interval, no of channels, record length and fold of each seismic line
given in Table 4.1. The Location of 2D seismic lines is shown in Fig. 4.2 and the block
boundary of 2D seismic lines is named “U” abbreviated for the Union Texas Pakistan for
the purpose to show the location of seismic lines.
Table 4.1 Details of 2D seismic lines and their corresponding acquisition parameters
Shot Point
Line (Km)
Length of
Channels
Name of
the Line
Interval
Interval
Sample
Record
Length
(m.sec)
Direction
Group
No of
(Sec)
Rate
Fold
(m)
(m)
S.
No
1 PK85-KH001 N-S 100 100 48 2 5 24 8.5

2 PK85-KH006 W-E 100 100 48 2 5 24 10
3 PK85-0935 N-S 66 66 48 2 5 24 16.8
4 PK85-0937 NW-SE 100 100 48 2 5 24 12.8
5 PK85-0958 W-E 66 66 48 2 5 24 17.5
6 PK85-0962 W-E 100 100 48 2 5 24 19.5
7 PK85-0964 W-E 66 66 48 2 5 24 8
8 PK85-0966 W-E 100 100 48 2 5 24 12
9 PK86-1051 N-S 66 66 48 2 5 24 10.5
10 PK86-1200 W-E 100 100 48 2 5 24 14
11 PK86-1202 W-E 66 66 48 2 5 24 18
12 PK92-1678 SW-NE 100 100 96 2 6 48 63.7
13 PK92-1680 SW-NE 66 66 96 2 5 48 41.7
14 PK92-1685 NW-SE 100 100 48 2 6 24 15
15 PK92-1686 SW-NE 66 66 96 2 5 48 26.5
16 PK92-1687 NW-SE 66 66 96 2 5 48 11.5
17 PK95-1804 SW-NE 66 66 96 2 5 48 9
18 PK95-1917 NE-SW 66 66 96 2 5 48 19.5
19 PK85-1341 NW-SE 100 100 48 2 5 24 20
20 PK85-KH-04 W-E 100 100 48 2 5 24 12
21 PK92-1682 SW-NE 66 66 96 2 5 48 41.3
22 PK94-1800 SW-NE 100 100 96 2 6 48 18.25
23 PK95-1913 NW-SE 100 100 96 2 6 48 18.5
24 PK85-1042 SW-NE 100 100 48 2 5 24 7.5
25 PK92-1642 SW-NE 66 66 96 2 5 48 8.5
52
Fig. 4.1 Map showing of location of exploration blocks and wells
(Map generated by google earth)
53
Fig. 4.2 Basemap showing location of 2D seismic lines and wells
4.1.2 3D Seismic Data:

(a) Jabo 3D Seismic Data: A 10 square km 3D time slice consisting on inlines 4075, 4265
and crosslines 7209, 7384 Jabo 3D seismic data acquired by British Petroleum Inc. Jabo
field which is one of the major field with in this area. The coordinates of inlines and
crosslines in WGS-1984 Kalinpur (Indian) as well as in UTM-42 system are given in Table
4.2. The Location of Jabo 3D block is shown in Fig. 4.3 and the block boundary including
54
3D seismic lines of Jabo is abbreviated as “J” for the purpose to show the location of 3D
block.
Table 4.2 Coordinates of Jabo 3D Seismic data
WGS-1984 Kalinpur (Indian)
Inline Xline X Y
4075 7209 24 20 5.71 68 32 52.35
4075 7384 24 20 50.96 68 34 46.362
4265 7384 24 22 44.43 68 33 52.81
UTM-42
Inline Xline X Y
4075 7209 454139.8 2691158.9
4075 7384 457356.4 2692540.4
4265 7384 455858.6 2696034.6
Fig. 4.3 Basemap showing Jabo 3D inlines, crosslines and location of Jabo wells
55
(b) Mehran 3D Seismic Data: Seismic data of Mehran 3D block have also been used for
the study. The coordinates of inlines and crosslines in WGS-1984 Kalinpur (Indian) as well
as in UTM-42 system are given in Table 4.2. The Location of Mehran 3D block is shown
in Fig. 4.4 and the block boundary including 3D seismic data of Jabo is abbreviated as “M”
for the purpose to show the location of 3D block.
Table 4.3 Coordinates of Mehran 3D block
WGS-1984 Kalinpur (Indian)
Inline Xline X Y
3510 1070 24745.76 681041.13
3510 1375 241711.57 681453.45
3070 1375 241430.35 681505.44
UTM-42
Inline Xline X Y
3510 1070 2150984.3 74170.7
3510 1375 2158850.4 744729.8
3070 1375 2162998.5 733923.3
Fig. 4.4 Basemap showing Mehran 3D inlines and crosslines
56
4.1.3 Well Data: Well information and LAS files of Jabo-01, Jabo-02, Jabo-03, Jabo-04,
Jabo-05, Jabo-06, Jabo-7, Jabo-08, Jabo-09 (Fig. 4.1), Jabo-10, Jabo-11, Jabo-12, Jabo-13,
Pirshah-01, Doti-01, Beghari-01, Zaur-01, Zaur-03, Inayat-01, Mehran-01, Raj East-01,
Talib-01 and Gadap-01 wells has been obtained for this study.
It is important to mention here that the acquired seismic data was processed because
processing of seismic data is a separate and wide approach which is time and money
consuming job. As our research objectives are not concerned with the processing of seismic
data, there a comprehensive flow of seismic data is discussed below:
4.2 Seismic Data Processing
In seismic data processing, individual acquired raw shot points are gathered in a stacked
form. Unwanted noise is to be removed during processing of the seismic data. The result
should be a more interpretable stacked seismic section (Sadi, 1980). This approach
involves a sequence of operations for improving signal to noise ratio. The processing flow
applied to on the seismic data used for the study is shown in Fig. 4.5.
Fig. 4.5 Processing flow applied on the seismic data used for the study
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4.3 Seismic Data Interpretation
The interpretation of the seismic data is science of gathering the geological information at
targeted depth from the seismic data. Depth to the targeting surface is dependent on the
thickness and velocity of seismic waves with in the overlying rock layers. The starting
significant things for an interpreter of the seismic data is the picking of reflectors of
targeted horizons because it is the decision making depending what wiggles from trace to
trace are aligned with the reflection from same horizon. The Interpretation of seismic data
needs the gathering of all geological and geophysical data in to a unified picture that should
be more significant. For the achievement of a successful interpretation, it is required that
the interpreter should sensibly follow the interpretation work flow described as under:
Step 1: Interpretation plan
Interpreter of seismic data should have clear idea about the targeting horizons and the what
is the tectonic regime he/ she is working on. It will be easier for interpreter to study previous
available interpreted reports and thesis.
Step2: Regional tectonic, structural and depositional trends
For the interpretation and identification of actual structures and structural styles from the
seismic data, it is necessary for the interpreted to study literature about the tectonic history
of the study area.
Step 3: Seismic patterns

Regional seismic pattern can be studied by previous or published interpreted seismic data
of the area. This verifies the seismic signature of the target, the location of the mapping
horizon, and the adequacy of the time-depth functions.
Step 4: Building and amalgamation of different datasets

After following above mentioned steps, the assembling and amalgamation of all available
datasets is necessary and important step in seismic data interpretation. The catalogue of all
available seismic data acquired at different times should be prepared. This step will help
for the determination whether available data can significantly enough for targeted study.
Step 5: Interpretation
The interpretation of seismic data can be started by loading data on the specific software
selected for the interpretation purpose. For current study Petrel software has been used for
the interpretation.
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According to Dobrin and Savit, (1988); Keary and Brooks, (2002) approaches for the
interpretation of seismic data of any area are two. First one is stratigraphic interpretation
while the second one is the structural interpretation which are discussed in detail in
following sections.
4.3.1 Stratigraphic Interpretation
In stratigraphic interpretation, the interpreter will keep the focus on the picking of reflectors
of targeted formations. It is an important to mark the reflectors significantly with the help
of previous published interpreted seismic data as well as available reports of the oil and
gas exploration companies. The picked reflectors can be verified by industry professional
geophysicists.
4.3.2 Minimizing misties in seismic data
Sometimes, during interpretation of seismic data, actual values for reflection time can
differ between seismic lines of same area. Mis-ties commonly occur when data of different
domain are interpreted together, or seismic data which has different datum. The
intersections between seismic lines are an important part of geophysical measures before
starting the seismic data interpretation (Herkommer and Whitney,1994). As in current
study the seismic data of different domain has been used and hence misties were observed
as shown in Fig. 4.6
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Fig. 4.6 Misties resolved between different domain seismic lines
4.3.3 Picking of horizons by tying of synthetic with seismic data

Seismic ties with Vertical Seismic profile (VSP) is a significant method used for the
picking of horizons. In this method, tops of geological horizons identified in a well with
specific reflections accurately matched with two-way time seismic data. Sonic and density
well logs are used to generate a synthetic seismic trace. If VSP of nearest well is not
available then synthetic seismogram generated from velocity and density log(s) is used for
the comparison with the seismic data. This is significant approach for the interpretation of
seismic data. But if VSP data is available, then interpretation can be made more significant.
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The Petrel software used for the interpretation of seismic data allows well to seismic tie as
well as generation of synthetic seismogram.
4.3.4 Structural Interpretation
After picking of horizon of interest, the next step in seismic data interpretation is structural
interpretation for the identification of different structures and structural styles. Dobrin &
Savit (1988) described that the Interpretation is the transformation of seismic data into
structural picture by the sequence of different steps as shown in Fig. 4.7. According to
Sheriff, (1990), discontinues wiggles show the faults and rolling wiggles exhibit the folded
structural styles.
Interpretation of seismic data was started by the picking of reflectors of different
formations on line No. PK86-1202 with the help of well information of Jabo-06 well and
based on prominent reflection continuity and regional geological information. Mostly
normal faults have been interpreted on seismic data which collectively form the horst and
graben type structures. Depth contour map is prepared by using the velocities. Depth
contour maps were generated by the help of interactive Petrel software’s tools.
4.3.5 Age of structuration and flattening of horizons
The flattening of horizon has been applied in this work to verify and validate the seismic
interpretation performed on 3D seismic data of Jabo field area. The technique is useful for
the estimation for what had occurred during or after the time of deposition of any horizons
and its relationship with the structuration. This technique is used widely in oil and gas E &
P industry as well as testified by Rowan and Kligfield (1989), Groshong (2002), Bland and
Hodge (2004) and Jamal et al, (2015). It helps the interpreters to imagine about the
relationship of faulting versus the deposition of and geological horizon at a specific
geological time. This technique is also useful to check interpreted data acceptable and
logical. Hence technique of flattening of horizons has been applied in current study to
identify the age of structuration at different tectonic episodes.
Petrel 2015 was used for the interpretation of seismic data. The structures and their
associated structural styles have been identified on the seismic data which was interpreted
by Petrel seismic simulation software designed by Schlumberger E & P servicing Company
and license issued by the cooperation of University of Texas, USA. A comprehensive flow
chart of overall seismic data interpretation is shown in Fig. 4.7
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Fig. 4.7 Seismic data interpretation flowchart (modified after Dobrin and Savit, 1988).
4.3.6 Marking of Horizons using VSP

VSP data of Jabo-06 well has been generated for the significant picking of horizons on the
seismic data. Eight horizons were picked based on matching of signatures of VSP data as
shown in Fig. 4.8 with the seismic data and based on continuity and significant reflection
characteristics.
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Fig. 4.8 Interpreted seismic line by VSP and synthetic of Jabo well-06
4.3.7 Acoustic Impedance Attribute for Picking Horizons

Acoustic Impedance attribute has also been carried out by Petrel software for the
confirmation and significant picking of horizons of different formations. Acoustic
impedance approach has been applied on seismic line PK86-1200. The reflector of Ranikot,
Khadro, Upper Goru and Lower Goru has been picked at different shot points of seismic
and shown in Fig. 4.9, Fig. 4.10 and Fig. 4.11.
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Upper Goru and Lower Goru.
Upper Goru and Lower Goru
64
Upper Goru and Lower Goru
4.3.8 Seismic Velocities
The seismic velocity is the most important parameter in seismic wave propagation. Seismic
Velocities are the most important parameter in Seismic technique for interpretation and
processing. Seismic velocities are generally needed for the inspection of Lithology,
physical nature of the rocks and for the calculation of dip and depth of interfaces. The
Seismic interpretation has been described as the process of solving for a velocity
distribution from the data measured in terms of time, which must be presented in geologic
terms (as in structural & lithological interpretation). Velocity varies both in lateral position
and with depth, depending upon the medium. Seismic velocities vary largely in
sedimentary rocks as compared to igneous and metamorphic rocks. Metamorphic and
igneous rocks have little or no porosity, and, the seismic wave velocity depend upon the
elastic properties of the material making up the rock material itself. In terms of lithology,
whenever there is a change in grain size and mineralogical composition of the rock,
velocity behavior changes. An increase in grain size will result in the increase in velocity.
In many areas, seismic velocity data can be used to identify lithology in discrete formations
within the geologic section (Dobrin,1976).
Velocity analysis has been carried out through using K-Tron Velocity Analysis Software.
Velocity values were calculated from the interval velocity values given on the velocity
windows on hard copies of seismic sections. Root Mean Square velocity values were
calculated from the interval velocity values whereas average velocity was calculated from
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interval velocity values. Average velocity values have been calculated as for Upper Ranikot
1893.65 m/ sec, Khadro Formation 1987.71 m/sec, Parh Limestone 2000.62 m/sec, Upper
Goru Member 2441.30 m/sec, Top Lower Goru 2645.28 m/sec, Sand Below Badin Shale
(C- Sand unit) 2695.39 m/sec, Sembar Formation 2829.04 m/ sec and Chiltan Limestone
2969.11 m/sec (Table. 4.4). The plots of interval velocity, root mean square velocity,
average velocity and mean average velocity are shown in Fig. 4.12 A, B, C and D.
K-Tron (VAS) Velocity Analysis System, a software used for the velocity analysis for the
conversion of velocities.
Fig. 4.12 A Interval to RMS Velocity (Generated by K-Tron VAS)
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Fig. 4.12 B RMS Velocity to Interval Velocity (Generated by K-Tron VAS)
Fig. 4.12 C Interval Velocity to Average Velocity (Generated by K-Tron VAS)
67
Table. 4.4: Values of Mean Average Velocity
Time Mean Time Mean Time Mean Average
(m.sec) Average (m.sec) Average (m.sec) Velocity (m/Sec)
Velocity Velocity
(m/Sec) (m/Sec)
0.0 2000 1.8 3277 3.6 3977
0.1 2073 1.9 3319 3.7 4019
0.2 2146 2 3357 3.8 4061
0.3 2219 2.1 3395 3.9 4103
0.4 2293 2.2 3431 4 4145
0.5 2366 2.3 3468 4.1 4187
0.6 2448 2.4 3505 4.2 4229
0.7 2530 2.5 3541 4.3 4269
0.8 2619 2.6 3579 4.4 4310
0.9 2711 2.7 3617 4.5 4350
1 2798 2.8 3655 4.6 4390
1.1 2876 2.9 3694 4.7 4431
1.2 2948 3 3734 4.8 4471
1.3 3016 3.1 3773 4.9 4512
1.4 3075 3.2 3813 5.o 4552
1.5 3128 3.3 3852
1.6 3181 3.4 3893
1.7 3232 3.5 3935
4.4 Plate tectonic models GPlates Software

GPlates software has been used for the preparation of tectonic plate models GPlates is
desktop software for the interactive visualization of plate-tectonics. GPlates offers a
combination of interactive plate-tectonic reconstructions, GPlates enables both the
visualization and the manipulation of plate-tectonic reconstructions and associated data
through geological time. The motions of tectonic plates through geological time may be
described and simulated using plate-tectonic reconstructions. Plate-tectonic
reconstructions are the calculations of the probable positions, orientations and motions of
tectonic plates through time, based upon the relative (plate-to-plate) positions of plates at
various times in the past which may be inferred from other data. Geological, geophysical
and paleo-geographic data may be attached to the simulated plates, enabling a researcher
to trace the motions and interactions of these data through time. Collaborating scientists at
the University of Sydney, the California Institute of Technology, the Geological Survey of
Norway and the University of Oslo have also been compiling sets of global data for plate
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boundaries, continental-oceanic crust boundaries, plate rotations, absolute reference
frames and dynamic topography.
4.5 Basin Modelling
Basin modelling has been carried out on the data of Jabo-06 well to estimate the age of
hydrocarbon generation, migration and trapping. PetroMod petroleum systems modeling
software combines seismic, well, and geological information to model the evolution of a
sedimentary basin. The software predicts if, and how, a reservoir has been charged with
hydrocarbons, including the source and timing of hydrocarbon generation, migration
routes, quantities, and hydrocarbon type in the subsurface or at surface conditions. The
models are dynamic, which means they provide a complete record of the structural
evolution, temperature, and pressure history, as well as the effects on generation, migration,
accumulation, and loss of oil and gas in a petroleum system through geologic time.
Properties such as gas/oil ratios (GOR) and API gravities can be analyzed, understood, and
predicted. Petroleum systems modeling (PSM) is a vital component of exploration risk
assessment—from basin to prospect. It can be applied during all stages of exploration, from
frontier basins with no well control, to well-explored areas and charge assessments of
single prospects or fields. Even in producing areas, charge risk on a prospect scale is an
essential component of a fully integrated risk assessment. The 3D petroleum systems model
includes all the key elements of geological risk in exploration (trap, reservoir, charge, seal,
and timing of hydrocarbon generation, migration, and loss) and enables rigorous risk
analyses.
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4.5 Softwares Utilized for Data Interpretation and Analysis
The following computer softwares have been used for interpretation of Seismic data,
quality control, navigation conversion, well log interpretation and preparation of geological
maps and cross-sections.
i) Petrel (Schlumberger)
ii) Geographix Discovery (Landmark)
iii) K-Tron (Precision Matrix)
iv) K-Tron (VAS)
v) GPlate
vi) PetroMod (Schlumberger)
vii) Global Mapper 15
viii) Corel Draw 11.
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CHAPTER 5
Structures and Structural Styles in Southern Sindh Monocline
Structural Styles are families of basic structures that happen together due to their unique
nature of formation. For example, mixture of listric faults, reverse faults, thrust faults,
asymmetric hanging wall folds are found in the foreland and thrust belts. Traditionally,
extensional structures have received less attention than their contractional counterparts.
However, the tide turned in the 1980s when it was realized that faults and shear stress
characterized areas are traditionally believed to denote thrusts having evidence of being
extensional structures having low angle. First recognized in the Basin, Range province
U.S.A., it is now clear that extensional faults and shear zones are widespread in most
orogenic belts. Most would agree that the study of extensional structures has significantly
changed our understanding of orogens and orogenic cycles. Structures and structural Styles
formed in extensional tectonic settings have been increasingly the focus of research in
tectonic and basin evaluation. From extensive studied literature, normal faults are
extremely common and basic structures formed in extensional settings. These normal faults
rarely occur separately but are usually combined in one way or another to form structural
Styles like horst and graben, half graben, master and rider faults, flexures, folding,
dominos, synthetic and antithetic faults, listric fan, ram and flat and cotch. It is also
revealed from the detailed literature that many of the hydrocarbon fields have been
discovered on the closure of structures and structural styles which are formed in extensional
tectonic settings. Southern Sindh Monocline is also characterized by the extensional
tectonics experienced by Indian Plate during its different rifting stages. Commonly normal
faults type of structures has been identified which further formed Styles of horst and
graben, half graben, master and rider faults, flexures, folding, dominos, synthetic and
antithetic faults, listric fan, ram and flat and crotch which are discussed in detail in this
chapter.
5.1 Structures in Southern Sindh Monocline
Common basic structures in extensional regimes are identified as normal faults as revealed
from in depth literature review on the extensional regimes. Common normal faults are the
chief structural components of many extensional basins throughout the world. As SSM is
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also characterized by extensional tectonics hence, common normal faults have also been
identified by previous workers (Khan et al., 2013; Munir et al., 2014, Abbasi et al., 2014
and 2015). According to Fossen (2010) fault dip is also important and extensional faults
are commonly thought to initiate with dips around 600. An effort was re-modified again by
correct identification of normal fault, its types and their classification in multiple Styles
has been carried out in this study and a detailed catalogue of classification of structures
made based on dip angle as of faults, depth faults, rotation of faults, master and rider faults,
folding and flexures related parameters of structures.
Different domain Seismic data from the different blocks of SSM have been interpreted
for the objective to identify the all types of basic structures with in the area. Following
listed basic types of structures have been interpreted.
a) Large Normal Fault
b) Small Normal Fault
c) Spoon Shape Normal Faults
d) Master Normal Fault
e) Rider Normal Fault
f) Folding
g) Flexure
h) Vertical Fault
i) Listric Shovel Fault
All above listed structures are shown in Fig. 5.1 and discussed also discussed in detail
separately also. The structures and their associated structural styles have been identified on
the seismic data which was interpreted by Petrel seismic simulation software designed by
Schlumberger E & P servicing Company and license issued by the cooperation of
University of Texas, USA.
72
Fig. 5.1 Types of structures found in Southern Sindh Monocline formed under extensional
tectonic setting interpreted by Petrel seismic simulation software designed by
Schlumberger E & P servicing Company and license issued by the cooperation of
University of Texas, USA.
5.1.1 Large Normal Fault

Large faults are those that can penetrate through the seismogenic layer (wikipedia.org).
According to Wang et al., (1996) the range of seismogenic layer in depth with in the
lithosphere up to which a major number of earthquakes are generated. Typically, in
continental crust this is in the uppermost 15 km. According to Magsi, (2014) the thickness
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of seismogenic layer in Sindh Monocline is around 10-15 km. Keeping in view the nearest
earthquakes events in 2014, 2015 and 2016 around Nawabshah which also part of Sindh
Monocline as well as reported by USGS and Solangi et al., (2015) in which depth of all
events ranging from 10-15 km which coincides with the study of Magsi.
A unique set of large normal fault has been identified on the two-dimensional surface
seismic line from the study area. Fault runs from deep depth of 10.70 km and dies out
approximately on reflector of Chiltan and this deep faulting is possibly created during early
rifting stage of Indian plate from Madagascar. The calculated average depths of R1, R2,
R3, R4 and R5 have been calculated as R1=2.932 km, R2=10.02 km, R3=10.7km,
R4=10.52km& R5=10.70 km respectively also shown in Fig. 5.2. All horizons on hanging
wall block clearly showing the downward displacement with respect to foot wall block.
Fig. 5.2 Large normal fault interpreted on 3D Seismic data
Another unique case of type 1 large normal fault has been marked on the three-dimensional
surface seismic line of Mehran 3D Seismic data shown in Fig. 5.3. Total eight reflectors
have been marked on the seismic line and named as R8 to R1 as Zaluch Group / Nilawahan
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of Permian age, Wargal / Mianwali Formation of Triassic age, Chiltan Limestone of Middle
Jurassic age, Sembar Formation of Early Cretaceous age, Lower Goru of Early Cretaceous
age, Upper Goru of Late / Early Cretaceous age, Parh Limestone of Late / Early Cretaceous
age and Khadro Formation of Paleocene age respectively from bottom to top.
The average depth of each reflector was calculated from two-way time (TWT) and average
velocity values and calculated as R8 = 4950m, R7 =4763m, R6 = 2931m, R5 = 2075m, R4
= 1937m, R3 = 708m, R2 = 690m and R1 = 646m. Both fault runs from deeper than Middle
Jurassic age Chiltan limestone and extends up to the top of Lower Goru, while some
disturbance is also seen in the reflector of Upper Goru but relative displacement is not
possible to mark in Upper Goru using interpretation software so the top most extension of
faults will be considered up to the top of Lower Goru. Fault is possibly to mark up to
maximum depth of about 5 km as in-depth resolution of data is not good enough but from
the behavior of deformation fault must be extended deeper. So again, this fault can also be
considered as type 1 large normal fault.
Orientation of faults is NW-SE and vice versa. The location of seismic line on the map of
study area and base map is shown in Fig. 5.3 A and B, while the interpreted image of
seismic line is shown in Fig. 5.3 C.
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Fig. 5.3 Large normal fault interpreted on 3D seismic Line of SSM
5.1.2 Small Normal Fault

Many small faults have been identified on the seismic data of study area but a unique
example of shallow normal fault has been identified on the seismic line PK92-1804 (Fig.
5.4). Four reflectors of different geological horizons have been marked and calculated
average depths of R1, R2, R3 and R4 as R1=1.34 km, R2=1.73 km, R3=1.937 km and
R4=1.95 km. All horizons on hanging wall block clearly showing the downward
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displacement with respect to foot wall block. The behavior and continuity in horizons
deeper than R4 seems that fault is shallow. If compared with type 1 faults as shown in Fig.
5.2 and Fig. 5.3. This fault has been classified as type 2 as small normal fault. The
orientation of fault is from SW- NE. Rotational effect can also be observed on the both
hanging wall and foot wall blocks which may exhibit the stage of anticlockwise rotation
associated with Indian plate during the journey from Madagascar to Eurasian plate.
Another case of large and small normal faults is shown in Fig. 5.4
Fig. 5.4 Small normal fault interpreted on seismic Line PK95-1804
5.1.3 Spoon Shape Normal Fault

Normal faults can show different architecture and characteristics as sometimes it become
gently dipping and sometime with curvature like a spoon shape fault. Spoon shape normal
faults are widely identified in extensional regimes of the world. Spoon shape normal fault
can be defined as “normal faults with curved characteristic in which the fault concave
upwards and the dip of the fault decreases in depth”. It is observed that spoon shape normal
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faults have collectively formed family of listric and family of antithetic structural styles
with in the subsurface of the Southern Sindh Monocline.
Many spoon shape normal faults have been identified in extensional settings as well as in
study area particularly. A unique example of this type of specific normal fault have been
identified and interpreted with in the study area on the seismic data of Badin South 3D
shown in Fig. 5.5 which is also a unique example of spoon normal fault. The calculated
depth of faults ranging from 6000 m and extending up to 708 m. Total five reflectors have
been marked on the seismic line and named as R5 to R1 as Sembar Formation of Early
Cretaceous age, Top Lower Goru of Early Cretaceous age, Upper Goru of Late / Early
Cretaceous age, Parh Limestone of Late / Early Cretaceous age and Khadro Formation of
Paleocene age respectively from bottom to top. The average depth of each reflector was
calculated from two-way time (TWT) and average velocity values and calculated as R5 =
2075m, R4 = 1937m, R3 = 708m, R2 = 690m and R1 = 646m.
spoon shape normal faults collectively formed the Styles of listric faults, synthetic faults
and antithetic. In many global extensional regimes type 3 spoon shape normal faults
collectively formed the Styles of half graben. According to Wikipedia “Half Graben
structural style is bounded by a fault along one side of its boundaries, dissimilar a full
graben where a depressed side of land is bordered by parallel faults”. Examples of half
graben in global extensional regimes are found in the Gulf of Suez, Africa, Rio Grande rift,
North Sea. Lake Baikal in Russia is an unusually large and deep example of half-graben.
Type 3 spoon shape normal faults associated Styles observed with in the subsurface of
Southern Sindh Monocline are family of listric faults and family of antithetic faults which
are discussed in detail.
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Fig. 5.5 Spoon shape normal fault has been identified on 3D seismic data.
5.1.4 Master Normal Fault

A master listric fault is spoon shape normal fault on which rider listric normal faults are
residing. Specific type of fault known as rider faults residing on the master fault have
been identified on the seismic line PK92-1678 shown in Fig. 5.6
5.1.5 Rider Normal Fault
If spoon shape or listric fault run over the master fault, that spoon shape normal fault is
called a rider fault. Specific type of faults which lying on the master fault have been
identified on the seismic line PK92-1678 shown in Fig. 5.6.
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Fig. 5.6 Master and rider normal faults identified on 2D seismic Line PK92-1678.
5.1.6 Folding Structures

In geology, fold is generated by the stack of originally flat and planar surfaces, such as
sedimentary strata, are curved because of everlasting deformation. According to (Schlische
1995; Janecke et al. 1998). Levy and Jaupart (2011) many extensional characterized have
been found with folding and shortening in a direction perpendicular to the direction of pull-
apart.
Small folding has also been identified while interpreting geological structures on 3D
seismic data as shown in Fig. 5.7 which may be caused due to collisional effect of Indian
plate with the Eurasian plate. Two reflectors of R1 as Sembar Formation and R2 as Lower
Goru have been identified and marked and their average depths have also been calculated
as R1= 2075 m and R = 1937 m.
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Fig. 5.7 Small folding identified on the 3D seismic data of SSM.
Second unique example of folding has also been identified while interpreting geological
structures on Seismic Line PK92-1686 as shown in Fig. 5.8 which may be caused due to
collisional event of Indian plate with the Eurasian plate. Four reflectors of different
geological horizons have been marked and their average depths have also been calculated
as R1=355 m, R2 =646 m, R3=690 m and R4=723 m.
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Fig. 5.8 Folding has been identified and interpreted on 2D seismic line PK92-1686.
5.1.7 Flexure
An interesting example of type 7 flexures type of structure has also been identified on 3D
seismic data of SSM as shown in Fig. 5.9 which is possibly evidence and effect of
subsidence and stress balancing because of rifting accompanied with the anticlockwise
rotation of Indian plate. The mechanism for the formation of type 7 structures in
extensional settings where divergent plate motions and extensional structures dominate and
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are later enhanced by thermal decay as time passes and may be augmented mostly by
flexures in response to sedimentary loading (Dietz, 1963). Four reflectors of different
geological horizons have been marked and their average depths have also been calculated
as R1= 4.15 km, R2 =5.52 km, R3=5.78 km and R4=6.30 km.
Fig. 5.9 Flexures structures interpreted on 3D seismic data from SSM.
Another unique and interesting example of flexures has also been identified on Seismic
Line PK86-1200 shown in Fig. 5.10 which is also evidence and effects subsidence and
stress balancing caused because of rifting accompanied with the anticlockwise rotation of
Indian plate. Four reflectors of different geological horizons have been marked and their
average depths have also been calculated as R1= 4.15 km, R2 =5.52 km, R3=5.78 km and
R4=6.30 km.
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Fig. 5.10 Type 7 Flexures structures interpreted on 2D seismic line PK86-1200
5.1.8 Vertical Fault

The gradient of the fault surface is described by the angle of dip of fault. The dip angle of
the fault is measured from the surface of the earth or sometimes at the plane parallel to
the surface of earth. The horizontal fault having dip angle zero on the other hand the dip
angle of a vertical fault is 90°. An interesting type of fault known as vertical fault have
been identified on the seismic data of the study area (Fig. 5.11)
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Fig. 5.11 Vertical faults have been identified interpreted on 2D seismic data from SSM.
5.1.9 Listric “Shovel” Fault

A listric fault also sometimes called as shovel fault is a curved, concave in upward
direction. These types of faults are found where slope is instable created a curvilinear fault
plane with a normal geometry (extension up dip). This kind of faulting develops in areas
where the confinement pressure is relatively small. A unique example of listric “shovel”
fault has been identified interpreted on 2D seismic data of the study area as shown in Fig.
5.12.
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Fig. 5.12 Listric “shovel” fault identified on 2D seismic data from SSM
5.2 Structural Styles in Sothern Sindh Monocline

All above discussed basic structures in one way or other way by the collectively formed
structural styles with in the subsurface of SSM. Following structural styles identified with
in the study area.
1) Horst and Grabens Structural Style
2) Dominos Structural Style
3) Crotch Structural Style
4) Synthetic and Antithetic Faults Structural Style
5) Negative Flower Structural Style
6) Flashlight Structural Style
The combination of large and small normal faults collectively formed family of horst and
grabens, family of dominos, family of crotch and family of ramps and flats. spoon shape
normal faults collectively formed family of listric, antithetic faults and family of master
and rider faults. Type 4 and 5 master and rider faults collectively formed flower type of
structures and type 6 small folding and flexures formed family of flashlight structural style.
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Total number of styles identified in the study area are eight. Details of each type of structure
and Styles are discussed in detail.
Each basic structure discussed in section 5.1 directly or indirectly played its role in the
formation of specific structural style. The possible forming structures of each structural
style is discussed separately in below diagrams.
Horst & Synthetics Negative

Dominos Flashlight
Crotch and Flower
Graben Antithetic Style Style
Large
Large Normal Large Large Large
Faults Normal Flexures
Normal Normal Normal
Faults Small Faults Faults Faults
Small Normal
Faults Small Small
Normal Normal Small
Faults Spoon Normal Normal
Faults Faults
Shape Faults
Spoon
Shape Normal Spoon
Faults Shape Spoon Spoon
Normal Shape Shape
Faults Normal
Master & Faults Normal Normal
Master & Rider Faults Faults
Rider Faults Master &
Rider Master & Master &
Faults Rider
Faults Rider
Faults Faults
Listric
Shovel
Fault
Fig. 5.13 Tree diagram showing structural styles and their possible associated structures.
Each of above mentioned style shown in diagram shown in Fig. 5.1 has been discussed in
detail.
5.2.1 Horst and Graben Style
A horst and graben structural style is produced when fault planes have opposite dips. The
faults in horst and graben structural style have raised and lowered characteristic due to
faulting with their surrounding areas. The range of horsts and grabens structural styles vary
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from a few centimeters to tens of kilometers in width while their through may range up to
hundreds of meters. Horsts and grabens may consist normal faults on both sides. In horsts
structural style, normal faults dip away from each other while the faults forming grabens
mostly dip toward each other. Graben generally form valleys also known as rift valleys and
show the characteristics of volcanism associated with formation the grabens. Examples of
such grabens are present in the Jordan–Dead Sea and Death Valley and the examples of
typical horsts are present in the Vosges Mountains of France and the Palestine Plateau.
Grabens are also common in the normal fault-rich region of Nevada and Utah. Certain
mountain ranges, including the Vosges in France, are horsts. When normal faults occur
near each other, they can produce some interesting geological features. When a section of
rock gets pushed up between two normal faults we call it a horst. When that section of rock
slides downward, we call it a graben. A horst is shaped like the letter A, while a graben is
shaped like the letter V. The terms 'horst' and 'graben' are German, and mean heap and
ditch, respectively. The Styles of horst and grabens are common in the different extensional
regimes of the world as well as particularly SSM is also rich in Styles of horsts and graben.
A unique example of family of Horst and Graben structures have been identified on seismic
line Pk94-1800 shown in Fig. 5.14 which is also evidence of extensional tectonics within
the study area. Two normal faults collectively formed family of horst and graben type of
structural styles on seismic line PK95-1804 (Fig. 5.6) by Petrel seismic simulation software
designed by Schlumberger E & P servicing Company and license issued by the cooperation
of University of Texas, USA. Six reflectors of different geological horizons have been
marked and their average depths have also been calculated as R1=4.15km, R2=4.39 km,
R3=5.6, R4=6.56 km, R5=8.03 km and R6= 9.47 km. This type of family of horsts and
grabens may possibly have formed at Late-Cretaceous stage of rifting of Indian plate from
Madagascar.
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Fig. 5.14 Horst and grabens on 3D Seismic Line
Another example of Normal faults collectively forming family of Horst and Graben
structures have also been identified and interpreted on seismic line PK86-1202 shown in
Fig. 5.15. Total seven reflectors of different geological horizons have been marked and
their average depths have also been calculated as R1=355 m, R2=646 m, R3=1.434 km,
R4=1.937km, Chiltan=2.932km, R5=4.230 km and R7=6.95 km which is also evidence of
extensional tectonics within the study area.
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Fig. 5.15 – Horsts and graben have been also identified and interpreted on 2D seismic Line
PK86-1202 in which it can be seen clearly that two normal faults collectively formed
family of horst and graben
Another unique example of normal faults collectively formed family of horst and graben
structural styles has been identified on 3D seismic data of Mehran 3D block shown in Fig.
5.16. In this case normal faults formed three grabens and one horst block. Total five
reflectors have been marked on the seismic line and named as R5 to R1 as Zaluch Group /
Nilawahan of Permian age, Wargal / Mianwali Formation of Triassic age, Chiltan
Limestone of Middle Jurassic age, Sembar Formation of Early Cretaceous age and Lower
Goru of Early Cretaceous age respectively from bottom to top. The average depth of each
reflector was calculated from two-way time (TWT) and average velocity values and
calculated as R5 = 4950m, R4 =4763m, R3 = 2931m, R2 = 2075m and R1 = 1937m.
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Fig 5.16 Horst and grabens interpreted on 3D surface seismic data of the SSM, in which
three normal faults formed three graben blocks and one horsts block.
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5.2.2 Dominos Structural Style
Dominos are structural Styles when type 1 and type 2 normal faults occur in association.
Dominos are possibly formed because of rift associated tectonics in unidirectional stresses.
According to Fossen (2010) Extension of the crust can result either in a symmetric horst-
and-graben system or in a domino system of the types. The rigid domino model describes
a series of rigid fault blocks that rotate simultaneously in a uniform sense. A unique
example of normal faults collectively forming dominos system of faults have also been
interpreted on Seismic Line PK85-1341 as shown in Fig. 5.17 which is also evidence and
effects of rift associated tectonics. Five reflectors of different geological horizons have
been marked and their average depths have also been calculated as R1=432.6 m, R2 =1.937
km, R3=2.932 km, R4=4.390 km, R5=5.130 km and R6=5.390 km. These faults can be
associated with the rifting accompanied with anti-clock wise rotation of Indian plate during
his journey towards Eurasian plate.
Fig. 5.17 Dominos structural styles interpreted on 2D seismic Line PK85-1341 from SSM
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Another unique example of normal faults collectively forming family of dominos have also
been interpreted on 3D seismic data of SSM shown in Fig. 5.18 which is also evidence and
effects of rift associated tectonics in unidirectional stresses.
Fig. 5.18 Dominos identified on 2D seismic Line PK85-1341 from SSM
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5.2.3 Crotch Structural Styles
A unique case of family of crotch (two faults culminating at one point) has been identified
and interpreted on the seismic data shown in Fig. 5.19 of South Mazari field which lies in
the study area. South Mazari Field was discovered in 1985 by British Petroleum (Pakistan)
Exploration & Production Inc. from a large Crotch trap, a trap formed by two faults
culminating at one point. The structural closure of south Mazari field was on a large crotch
trap formed by two bounding faults culminating at one point and many small normal faults
are also present in the field which have divided the field in to several compartments
(Meyerhollz, 1998 and Wasimuddin and Ahmad, 2002).
Fig. 5.19 (A) Location of South Mazari Field (B) Structure of South Mazari well on
seimic Line (After (Wasimuddin and Ahmad, 2002)
Another unique example of crotch has been identified and interpreted on inline 7560 and
cross line 8712 of three-dimensional seismic data shown in Fig. 5.20 acquired by British
Petroleum. The line was interpreted by Iqbal (2002) and proposed location for Zaur-09
well is also marked. Here in this chapter only objective is to show the family of crotch
faults.
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Fig. 5.20 Crotch identified on inline 7560 and cross line 8712 of 3D seismic data
acquired by British Petroleum (Modified after Iqbal, 2002).
5.2.4 Synthetic and Antithetic Structural Styles

Type 3 spoon shape normal faults collectively formed Styles of synthetic and antithetic
faults have also been interpreted on Seismic Line PK92-1680 as shown in Fig. 5.21 which
is also evidence and effects of rift tectonics associated with anticlockwise rotation within
the study area. Five reflectors of different geological horizons have been marked and their
average depths have also been calculated as R1=355 m, R2=432.6m, R3=690m, R4=1.434
km and R5=2.075 km.
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Fig. 5.21 Styles of synthetics and antithetic faults have been identified and interpreted
on 2D seismic Line No.PK92-1680 and PK92-1678.
5.2.5 Negative Flower Structural Styles

Type 4 master and type 5 riding faults collectively form the Styles of flower type structural
styles. A unique example of Styles of flower structures are shown in Fig. 5.22. According
to oil field glossary the term "flower structure" shows the similarity of the structure to the
flower petals in structure.
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Fig. 5.22 Styles of flower type of structures formed due to association of type 3 spoon
shape normal faults have been identified and interpreted on 2D seismic Line No.PK92-
1680 and PK92-1678.
5.2.6 Flashlight Structural Style
A unique and new type of structural style has been identified on 3D seismic data as shown
in Fig. 5.23 of the study area which resembles with the shape flashlight. It can also be
resembled with the shape of Funnel. This type of structural style may not only have formed
due to tectonic forces but it may be formed due to both tectonic as well deposition so this
type of structural family can be placed in both primary and secondary structural styles. This
only unique and new example from any extensional basins of the world.
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Fig. 5.23 Flexures collectively formed a new Flashlight type of structural style.
98
CHAPTER 6
Tectonic Evolution of Structural Styles of Southern Sindh Monocline
In chapter five a catalogue of different types of structures e.g. normal faults, horsts
and grabens, listric and imbrication system of structures, synthetic and antithetic
faults and structural styles e.g. fault forming domino styles, flexures, flashlight type
of structural style and folding have been identified using seismic data. In this
chapter, different type of identified structures and structural styles have been
classified and correlated with different tectonic episodes of Indian plate during the
rifting, drifting and final collision with the Eurasian plate. The main objective is to
explain the tectonic evolution of the identified structures and structural styles and
their relation in context to general tectonics of extensional basins. The rifting and
drifting of Indian plate has been synthesized and described in different tectonic
episodes by Powell (1979); Biswas (1982); Bannert and Raza (1992); Zaigham et
al., (2000), Jagoutz (2009) and Chatterjee et al., (2013). GPlates 2.0 software has
been used to generate the plate tectonic models for different tectonic episodes.
GPlates is a desktop software for the interactive visualization of plate-tectonics.
EarthByte is an internationally leading eGeoscience collaboration between several
Australian Universities, international centers of excellence and industry partners
working and providing datasets needed for GPlates software (www.gplates.org).
Understanding the tectonic evolution of different structures and structural styles of
the study area were accomplished by using seismic data interpretation and flattening
of horizons approach using Petrel software at different formations reflectors.
Techniques of structural balancing and horizon flattening applied in this work
verifies and validates the seismic interpretation performed on a 3D seismic data of
the study area. Both techniques are useful to provide a means of understanding what
had happened to the structures during the time of deposition of formations in context
of comparison with the specified tectonic episode of Indian plate and reactivation
of older structures with in the study area.
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6.1 History and Tectonic Episodes of Indian Plate
The tectonic evolution of the Indian plate began with the sequential separation of
lithospheric plates associated with Gondwanaland. This journey of Indian plate from
Gondwanaland to Asia which is about 9000 km long (Dietz and Holden, 1970; Biswas,
1982; Chatterjee, 1992 and Chatterjee and Scotese, 1999 and 2010, Biswas, 2012). The
reason for breakup of Gondwanaland was various volcanic eruptions. The continental
separation of different plates of Gondwanaland is marked by a series of mantle plumes or
hotspots (Storey, 1995). Distribution of mantle plumes and their ages implicated for the
sequential separation of the Indian plate from Gondwanaland are shown in a Late Triassic
reconstruction of the Gondwanaland map shown in Fig. 6.1 by Chattarjee et al., (2013).
Fig. 6.1 Mesozoic flood basalts in surroundings of Indian Plate (Chattarjee et al., (2013).
Synthesizing the views of various authors including Chatterjee et al., (2013) the tectonic
history of Indian plate can be summarized into following episodes.
1. Rifting from Gondwanaland (Late Jurassic ~ 167 Ma)Initially super continent
Gondwanaland separated into Africa, Antarctica, Australia, and India about 167 Ma,
100
opened the Indian Ocean (Scotese, 1991). Position of Indian plate during 167 Ma has
been shown in Fig. 6.2 A. The plate tectonic models and plate kinematic parameters has
been identified using GPlates software. The velocity magnitude versus time of Indian
plate from 180 to 130 Ma is shown in Table 6.1. The velocity magnitude during this
episode remained 3.10 cm / year while angular velocity during this episode remained as
0.330. The velocity magnitude of Indian plate has been increased up to 5.28 cm / year
and angular velocity by -0.51 / year after separating from Gondwanaland. Velocity
magnitude and angular velocity values at different positions of Indian plate from 170-
130 Ma has been shown (Table 6.1). The graphs of velocity magnitudes and angular
velocity from 170-130 Ma versus age has been shown in Fig.6.2 B & C respectively.
Fig. 6.2 (A) Map showing the initial rifting of Indian plate from Gondwanaland
(B) velocity magnitude of Indian plate from 170-130 Ma and
(C) Graph showing the angular velocity of Indian plate from 170-130 Ma
Table 6.1 Velocity magnitude and angular velocity of Indian plate from 170 to 130 Ma
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Time (Ma) Latitude Longitude V mag (cm/yr.) Ang V (°/Ma)
170 -8.2358 31.6776 2.17 -0.25
160 -7.392 29.9003 5.28 -0.51
150 -9.4762 25.5867 4.48 0.48
140 -10.136 21.5618 1.11 -0.46
130 -11.1322 21.5419 6.11 0.97
2. Rifting of Indian Plate from Srilanka, Antarctica and Australia (~130Ma)

In this episode of Gondwanaland broke in Early Cretaceous time (~130 Ma), eastern and
western Gondwanaland separated almost in equal portions. In eastern Gondwanaland, the
Antarctica, Australia rifted from the smaller Sri Lanka, India, Laxmi Ridge, Seychelles and
Madagascar. The cause for breakup of plates was the Kerguelen, Marion, Bouvet and
Reunion plumes (Fig. 6.3)
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Fig. 6.3 Map showing distribution of different mantle plumes in surroundings of
Indian plate (Modified after Chattarjee et al., 2013)
Katz (1978) reported that the separation between India and Sri Lanka may be simultaneous
with the separation of East Antarctica from Indian plate during the Early Cretaceous (~130
Ma) age. The velocity magnitude during this episode was increased up to 6.11 cm / year
while angular velocity during this episode remained as 0.33. The velocity magnitude of
Indian plate has been increased up to 10.20 cm / year during 90 Ma probably after the
separation of Indian plate from Madagascar. Velocity magnitude and angular velocity
values at different positions of Indian plate from 130-90 Ma has been shown in Table 6.2.
the location of Indian plate during this episode is shown in Fig. 6.4 A. The graphs of
103
velocity magnitudes and angular velocity from 130-90 Ma has been shown in Fig. 6.4 B &
C respectively.
Table 6.2 Velocity magnitude and angular velocity from 130 to 90 Ma

130 -11.1322 21.541 6.11 0.97
120 -5.8556 20.0141 0.89 -0.19
110 -5.3238 19.4144 4.23 -0.51
100 -4.8358 23.1996 0.87 -0.15
90 -5.6153 23.2314 10.21 -1.28
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Fig. 6.4 (A) Initial rifting of Indian plate from Gondwanaland
(B) velocity magnitude of Indian plate from 130-90 Ma and
(C) Angular velocity of Indian plate from 130-90 Ma
3. Separation of Indian Plate from Madagascar (~90Ma)

In this episode, the Seychelles, Indian plate, African plate and Madagascar were separated
from each other and this event started in Late Cretaceous time (Chatterjee et al., 2013).
105
Madagascar drifted southward in relation to India. The position of Indian plate during the
rifting from Madagascar is shown on plate reconstruction map shown in Fig. 6.5 A. The
velocity magnitude during rifting of India from Madagascar remained increased up to 10.21
cm / year while angular velocity remained -1.28 0 / Ma (Table 6.3). The graphs shown in
(Fig. 6.5 B & C) showing the velocity magnitude versus age and angular velocity versus
age in Ma respectively.
Table 6.3 Velocity magnitude and angular velocity of Indian plate from 90 to 50 Ma
90 -5.6153 23.2314 10.21 -1.28
80 2.4404 18.8692 2.77 -0.68
70 1.4497 16.5811 3.74 -1.18
60 -1.0149 14.3035 0.70 -1.59
50 -1.5455 14.6291 3.16 -0.76
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Fig. 6.5 (A) Map showing the initial rifting episode of Indian plate
(B) Graph showing velocity magnitude of Indian plate from 90-50 Ma and
(C) Graph showing the angular velocity of Indian plate from 90-50 Ma
107
4. India and Kohistan–Ladakh (KL) Island Arc Collision (~85 Ma)
In this episode, the collision between Indian plate and Kohistan–Ladakh (KL) Island Arc
occurred around ~ 85 Ma.
5. Seychelles and Laxmi Ridge Separation from India (~75–68 Ma)
Around 75 Ma, the Arabian Sea opened in two phases of rifting and flood basalt volcanism
within a period of less than 10 Ma (Collier et al., 2008 and Minshull et al., 2008). The first
brief phase of rifting formed the failed Gop Rift at some time between 71 and 64 Ma, when
the Laxmi Ridge–Seychelles (LR–S) fragment separated from India (SL–I–KL) as shown
in Fig.6.6 B (Talwani and Reif, 1998). This rift occurred just prior to the eruption of the
flood basalts of Deccan Traps associated with Somnath.
6. Seychelles Separation from India (~65 Ma)
The abortive phase of rifting between the Laxmi Ridge and India was soon followed by the
second phase of rifting and seafloor spreading between the Seychelles (S) and India (SL–
I–LR–KL) complex, followed by the main phase of the Deccan Trap eruption (Fig. 6.6 A)
The Deccan volcanic province is one of the largest volcanic eruptions in Earth history.
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Fig. 6.6 (A) The location of Deccan traps (Map and
(B) The Location of Seychelles and Laxmi ridge
7. Maximum Speed of Indian Plate

During this episode, the acceleration of the Indian plate has been increased up to 20 cm
/ year (Biswas, 2012).
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Initial Collision of India with Asia (~50Ma)
During most of the Cretaceous, the Indian plate moved northward at a rate of 3–5 cm/year
(Chatterjee et al., 2013). Some 52 million years ago India slowed to 5 cm/year during the
initial stage of collision with Asia and maintained this slow speed throughout its
convergence (McKenzie and Sclater, 1971; Patriat and Achache, 1984 and Copley et al.,
2010).
8. Himalayan–Tibetan orogeny
India had become an island continent moving at a rapid rate of ~20 cm/year in relation to
Africa. It remained in isolation during the Paleocene until it collided with Asia in Early
Eocene and slowed down to 5 cm/year (Copley et al., 2010). The collision of India with
Asia has been extensively studied and refined. during the past 40 years; yet many of the
complexities of the evolution of this orogenic system remain poorly understood. A synopsis
of the initial collision and post-collisional events is summarized below. The graphs of
velocity magnitudes and angular velocity from 170-130 Ma versus age has been shown in
Fig. 6.4 B & C respectively.
Summary of nine major tectonic evolutionary episodes of the Indian plate during its 9000
km-voyage from Gondwanaland to Asia (Fig. 6.7). Rectangles represent diagrammatic
cross-sectional views of plates and microplates, which originally comprised
Gondwanaland. They show sequential rifting of the Indian plate from Gondwanaland and
its subsequent collisions with the Kohistan–Ladakh Arc (KL Arc) and Asia.
110
Fig. 6.7 Summary of nine major tectonic evolutionary stages of the Indian plate during its
9000 km-voyage from Gondwanaland to Asia. Rectangles represent diagrammatic cross-
sectional views of plates and microplates, which originally comprised Gondwanaland.
They show sequential rifting of the Indian plate from Gondwanaland and its subsequent
collisions with the Kohistan–Ladakh Arc (KL Arc) and Asia (Chatarjee et al., 2013)
Deposition of Formation and Tectonic Episodes

Deposition of different formations with in the study area and the timing of different tectonic
episodes of Indian plate during its journey from Gondwanaland to Himalayan orogeny is
shown in Fig. 6.8. The reflector of Chiltan was flattened to compare the position of present
day structures at the time when Chiltan was completely deposited, it helped to identify the
structures below Chiltan formed due to initial rifting stage of Indian plate from
Gondwanaland.
111
Fig. 6.8 Major tectonic episodes of the Indian Plate versus the deposition of different
formations with in the study area
6.2 Tectonic Evolution of Structures in Southern Sindh Monocline.
Based on extensive review of published literature on tectonic episodes of Indian plate and
seismic data interpretation and flattening of horizons, the structures with in the study area
revealed evidence for three major structural episodes which can be characterized as:
1) Structures associated with the rifting during Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous
2) Modification reactivation during the Middle Cretaceous and
3) Inversion and Reactivation during Early Eocene
6.2.1 Episode 1 (Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous ~ 167 Ma)
The structures associated with this episode consists of semi-parallel faults making a series
of horsts and grabens. The faults are oriented in north-east to south-west direction. As
112
normal faulting is present below the Chiltan which was deposited between 160 to 153 Ma.
These were probably formed during the initial rifting episode of Indian plate during Late
Jurassic to Early Cretaceous age (~167 to 153 Ma). Tectonic models have been generated
by GPlates software. GPlates is a free desktop software for the interactive visualization of
plate-tectonics. Rotation files have been used for visualization of Indian plate position
during different tectonic episodes. According to Matthews (2016) these rotations are a
synthesis of many previous studies (www.earthbyte.org)
Seismic Data Interpretation:
Total two reflectors have been marked on 3D seismic data of the study area. The deeper
reflector was named as reflector of Triassic age while another reflector is of Chiltan. The
average two-way time, average velocity and average depth of Triassic reflector is
calculated as 2.75 Sec, 3464m/Sec and 4763 m respectively while the average two-way
time, average velocity and average depth of Chiltan is calculated as 1.975 Sec, 2969 m/Sec
and 2931 m respectively. Location of Indian plate during rifting from Gondwanaland (~167
Ma ) is shown in Fig. 6.9A. Location of interpreted seismic line on the base map shown in
Fig. 6.9 B of seismic line of Mehran 3D Seismic data produced by Petrel seismic simulation
software. Interpreted seismic line showing the structures before and after initial rifting
stage are shown in Fig. 6.9 C & D.
Structural Balancing and Horizon Flattening at Middle Cretaceous
The technique of structural balancing and horizon flattening have been applied on the
reflector of Chiltan to observe the structural styles before the deposition of Chiltan.
As Chiltan was deposited after initial rifting of Indian plate from Gondwanaland. Chiltan
was deposited between 160-153 Ma as the initial rifting of Indian plate occurred at 167
Ma. When reflector of Chiltan flattened to observe structures below Chiltan reflector.
It is clearly seen in Fig. 6.9 D that there was an anticline which later developed fault
probably at the initial rifting stage of Indian plate from Gondwanaland. Model proposed
by Zaigham et al, (1999) also support the formation of extensional faults below Chiltan.
113
Fig 6.9 (A) Position of Indian Plate ~ 130 Ma
(D) Structures formed during episode 1
114
6.2.2 Episode 2: Modification and Reactivation (Middle Cretaceous ~ 90 Ma)
In this tectonic episode, the structures and structural styles inherited from the episode1
were modified and reactivated during the Middle Cretaceous while Indian plate was
separated from Madagascar occurred about 90 Ma (Chatarjee, 2013). This event began
during the deposition of Lower Goru Upper Sands and remained active throughout the
deposition of Upper Goru time (~92 to 88 Ma). The fault system inherited for the initial
rifting in episode 1 was reactivated and small growth faults were formed in between earlier
faults Which can be called rider faults were formed in this stage. Hence, negative flower
type of structures was possibly formed during this episode.
Total six reflectors have been marked on 3D seismic data of the study area. The reflectors
were named as reflector of Middle Sand, C-Sand, Badin Shale, B-Sand, Turk Shale and
Top Lower Goru from bottom to top. The average two-way time, average velocity and
average depth of Middle Sand have been calculated as 1.608 Sec, 2893 m/Sec and 2336
m respectively, average two-way time, average velocity and average depth of C-Sand has
been calculated as 1.497 Sec, 2775 m/Sec and 2086 respectively, average two-way time,
average velocity and average depth of Badin Shale has been calculated as 1.487 Sec, 2765
m/Sec and 2065 m respectively, average two-way time, average velocity and average depth
of B-Sand has been calculated as 1.453 Sec, 2731 m/Sec, 1993 m/Sec respectively, average
two-way time, average velocity and average depth of Turk shale has been calculated as
1.448 Sec, 2726 m/Sec, 1982 m respectively while the average two-way time, average
velocity and average depth of Top Lower Goru has been calculated as 1.446 Sec, 2724
m/Sec and 1979 m respectively.
Structural Balancing and Horizon Flattening at Middle Cretaceous
The reflector of Top Lower Goru was flattened to observe the structures formed during the
initial rifting of Indian plate from Madagascar. As Lower Goru was deposited up to 92 Ma
and rifting between Indian plate and Madagascar was occurred at about 90 Ma. When
reflector of Top Upper Goru flattened to observe the position of structures below Lower
Goru. As it is clear from Fig. 6.10 D that throw of the faults is larger as compared with the
throw of faults in Fig. 6.10 C which showing the current position of faults. The previous
deeper faults acted as zones of weakness and taking up the shear forces due to
115
opposite direction forces when Indian plate was separating from Madagascar during this
episode. Since, the shear was accommodated on the pre-existing normal faults, most of the
deeper faults in the study area retained their normal sense of displacement. Semi-parallel
faults collectively formed horst and graben type of structures. Also during this episode of
reactivation and modification of previous structures some negative flower type of
structures were also probably formed in this stage. These structures have been the most
prolific hydrocarbon producers with in the study area. There are marked differences in two
set of faults dipping in different directions probably due to different directions of pull apart
forces during separation of Indian plate from Gondwanaland and Madagascar. The study
area represents a complex system of faults forming different structural styles were probably
formed during this episode. The separation between Indian plate and micro plate Seychelles
does not have any clear impact on the structures of the study area. But it is possibility of
very small-scale reactivation of previous structures during the separation of Seychelles and
India which is not possibly to observe on low resolution old seismic data. As the small-
scale deformation in an area having complex structures dipping in different directions is
less significant due to low resolution.
116
Fig. 6.10 (A) Position of Indian Plate ~ 90 Ma
117
6.2.3 Episode 3: Inversion and Reactivation (Early Eocene ~ 50 Ma)
This episode occurred during the initial collision of Indian plate with Asia (~50 Ma )
resulting in the Himalayan Orogeny. Due to collision of Indian plate was uplifted and
previous structures were reactivated. The study area does not exhibit the types of
compressive structures due to inversion but only the dip of previous faults has been
changed. The fault penetrating the Upper Goru reflector represents small scaled
reactivation of previous faults (Fig. 6.11 D). The horizon of Khadro (Fig. 6.11 D) showing
the effect of uplift and doming. The position of Indian plate during Early Eocene is shown
in (Fig. 6.11 A).
The location of Seismic line is shown in Fig. 6.11 B. Total five reflectors have been marked
on 3D seismic data of the study area. The reflectors were named as Top Lower Goru, Top
Upper Goru, Parh Limestone, Khadro and Nari from bottom to top. while the average two-
way time, average velocity and average depth of Top Lower Goru has been calculated as
1.446 Sec, 2724 m/Sec and 1979 m respectively, the average two-way time, average
velocity and average depth of Top Upper Goru has been calculated as 0.631 Sec, 2106
m/Sec, 673 m respectively, the average two-way time, average velocity and average depth
of Top Parh Limestone has been calculated as 0.606 Sec, 2061 m/Sec, 632 m respectively,
the average two-way time, average velocity and average depth of Top Khadro has been
calculated as 0.579 Sec, 2041 m/Sec, 598 m respectively and , the average two-way time,
average velocity and average depth of Top Nari formation has been calculated as 0.24Sec,
1802 m/Sec and 80 m respectively from top to bottom.
Structural Balancing and Horizon Flattening at Miocene Age
The reflector of Nari Formation was flattened to observe the structures formed during the
initial collision of Indian plate with Asia during 50 Ma a. There is little bit effect of uplifting
and inversion of previous faults and the dip of faults have been changed. The effect of
doming is also clearly shown on the different horizons of sands and shales of Lower Goru
in Fig. 6.11 C & D. These structures have been the most prolific hydrocarbon producers
with in the study area as this episode played a great role in the formation of traps.
118
Fig. 6.11 (A) Position of Indian Plate 50 Ma
119
The results show that in all episode other than correlated above, the study area was distal
to main deformation locations. Therefore, no significant deformation has been identified
and observed during other tectonic episodes of Indian plate except mentioned above. Deep
normal faults below Chiltan formation forming horst and graben type of structures were
formed during episode 1 during the initial rifting of Indian plate from Gondwanaland
while prior structures were reactivated and prior structures become complex and formed
negative flower type of structural styles.
There are number of structures and structural styles found in extensional tectonic settings
of the world but the evolution of these structures is still needful and a big challenge as
well. Evolution of structures in extensional settings have been studied by Yuan Li et al.,
(2016) and many other reserachers on different extensional basins of the world. Sindh
Monocline lies on the western corner of Indian Plate and the tectonic history of Indian
plate has been well described by Chatterjee et al., (2013) while tectonic history of Sindh
Monocline has been studied by Zaigham, and Mallick, (2000). The aim of this study is the
evolution of structures in the subsurface of Southern Sindh Monocline, Pakistan using the
seismic data interpretation and faltenning of horizons approach. Jamaluddin et al., (2015)
and others have also testified such approach. Southern Sindh Monocline is charaterized
and experienced by different tectonic episodes of Indian plate while rifting from
Gondwanaland, rifting from other plates at different geological times and to its collision
with the Asia. Basic structures with in study area are classified into nine types while the
structural styles have been classified into six types as horst and grabens, dominos, crotch,
synthetic and antithetic, negative and flashlight structural style. The structures with in the
study area revealed evidence for three major structural episodes which can be
characterized as Episode 1: Structures associated with rifting of Indian plate from
Gondwanaland during Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous, Episode 2: Modification and
reactivation of previous structures while Madagascar rifted from Indian Plate during the
Middle Cretaceous and during Episode 3: Inversion and reactivation of structures occurred
when Indian Plate collided with Asia during Early Eocene (Fig. 6.12).
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Fig. 6.12 Evolution of Structures in Extensional Tectonic Setting in Southern Sindh
Monocline, Indus Basin, Pakistan
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CHAPTER 7
Role of Structures in Hydrocarbon Potential of Southern Sindh Monocline
Structures, structural styles and structures formed in various tectonic settings had played a
vital role in the migration and accumulation of hydrocarbons. The role of structures formed
in the extensional settings have been discussed by Clapp (1929); Levorsen (1954);
McKenzie (1978); Wernicke (1985); Lister et al., (1986); Mann et al., (2003); Morely
(1999); Memon et al., (1999); Schlische et al., (2000); Morley (2002); Withjack and
Schlische (2002); Cemen et al., (2012); Khan et al., (2014), Abbasi et al., (2014, 2015)
Sert and Cemen (2015) and Nanni (2017) in context of hydrocarbon potential, migration
and accumulation of hydrocarbons. According to Harding and Lowell (1979) structures
formed in extensional tectonic settings like normal faults, horst and grabens are prolific for
the migration of hydrocarbons and provide the structural architecture for the accumulation
of hydrocarbons. The Niger Delta Basin, also referred to as the Niger Delta province, is an
extensional basin located in the Gulf of Guinea on the west coast of Africa in which most
of the hydrocarbon fields are drilled on the closure of extensional structural styles. The
Niger Delta Basin produces around 2 million barrels of oil per day. The entire system is
predicted to contain 34.5 billion barrels of oil and 94 trillion feet of natural gas. It is one of
the largest oil producing basin in the world which is characterized by extensional tectonics
(Oluwajana et al., (2016) and Dim (2017). Mann et al., (2003) classified the tectonic setting
of the world’s 877 giant oil and gas fields as continental passive margins, continental rifts,
collisional margins, strike slip margins and subduction margins. He concluded that the
second most important structural traps contributing giant hydrocarbon fields of the world
are drilled on the structural architecture and those structures were formed in extensional
tectonic settings.
Southern Sindh Monocline is an important region of Pakistan from where many
hydrocarbon fields have been discovered on the closure of structures and structural styles
characterized by extensional tectonic setting of Indian Plate (Kadri, 1995; Kazmi and Jan,
1997; Memon et al., 1999; Khan et al., 2013, Munir et al., 2014; Abbasi et al., 2014, 2015
and Khan et al., 2016). According to Pakistan Energy Year Book (2015), 28% (434.78
Million Barrels) of crude oil and 12% (7.63 TCF) of gas of the Pakistan is produced from
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the SSM. Many types of structures and structural styles with in the study area have been
identified and discussed in detail in chapter 5 and the tectonic evolution of these structures
has been discussed in chapter no.6. One of the focused objectives of this research is to
analyze the suitability of identified structures and structural styles in the migration and
accumulation of hydrocarbons of the study area. The role of structures and structural styles
in the hydrocarbon potential of the study area is discussed in detail.
7.1 Traps in Extensional Basins
The subject of hydrocarbon traps formed in extensional basins and their role in
hydrocarbon potential have been described by McKinstry (1941) and (1955); Newhouse et
al., (1942) and Wisser (1951) and Biddle (1994), Schlische (2002); Cemen et al., (2012);
Khan et al., (2014), Sert and Cemen (2015) and Nanni (2017). Durand (1988) and Mann
(1990) described that the understanding of the migration of oil from source rocks remained
an important problem in petroleum industry and proposed an idea of mechanism that
migration of hydrocarbons through faults filled with porous and permeable material.
Demaison and Huizinga (1991) have described the migration drainage style through faults
and fractures system with in rift basins. They described that the entrapment style which is
also dependent on the structural framework and the applications of their working concepts
should help to significantly reduce geologic risk in new areas for hydrocarbon exploration.
Ameen (1992) carried work on effect of the tectonics on the hydrocarbon generation,
migration and accumulation in Northern Iraq and described that the longitudinal
extensional faults had a great effect on hydrocarbon generation, migration and entrapment.
Thomas and Clouse (1995) worked on physical model of secondary oil migration and
described that high hydrocarbon loss may occur during vertical migration and losses during
lateral migration are probably minimal because flow is concentrated below the top seal.
This proposal was applied by Berg and Gangi (1999) on migration of oil generation in low
permeable source rocks of Austin Chalk, Texas.
Allan (1989) described a model for hydrocarbon migration and entrapment within faulted
structures and the basic assumption of his model was that fault is neither seal nor a conduit.
Therefore, the effect of faulting on both migration and entrapment depends on the rock
properties of strata juxtaposed fault blocks and structural attitude of the juxtaposed in fault
blocks. Mann et al., (2003) proved by discussing the hydrocarbon traps of world’s giant oil
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gas fields and finally, the conclusion was made that the second most important structural
traps contributing giant fields of the world are in extensional regimes and are formed
extensional tectonic settings.
7.2 Estimation of Age of Trap Formation in SSM
In previous chapter, tectonic evolution of structures has been discussed in detail in which
flattening of reflector technique for specific formations has been applied to observe the
effect of different tectonic episodes of Indian plate on the structures of SSM. Here same
approach has been applied on the seismic line crossing the Jabo-06 well to observe the age
of trap formation. Two techniques which are structural balancing and horizon flattening
have been applied in this work to verify and validate the seismic interpretation performed
on 3D seismic data of Jabo field area. Both techniques are useful to provide the
understanding what had happened after the time of deposition of specific formation.
Horizon flattening technique is available in most interpretation software. In current study
Petrel software has been used for seismic data interpretation as well as for flattening of
reflectors of formations. Comparing the results from both techniques indicates that the
structural balancing, despite its difficulties and time-consuming had provided a more
geologically sound interpretation. It allows the interpreters to understand and imagine the
relationship of faulting with sedimentation at a time. However, horizon flattening only
provides a general overview on the morphology and environment of deposition for the
flattened horizons. Despite all, both techniques require a familiarity with the interpretation
and structural software and what is important is an interpreter who can make results
geologically acceptable and logical.
The current position of structure and trap has been interpreted and shown in Fig. 7.1 A.
The reflector of Top Upper Goru has been flattened to estimate the development of
structure at the end of Late Cretaceous age. After flattening of Top Upper Goru it is visible
that the trap was not properly developed (Fig. 7.1 B). Then the reflector of Top Khadro
was flattened to observe the development of structure during Paleocene as shown in Fig.
7.1C, similarly the reflector of Nari was flattened as shown in Fig. 7.1 D to observe the
structural development during Eocene age. It appears that the trap was developed during
Eocene, when Indian plate collided with the Asia. Due to collision of Indian plate the effect
of doming in the traps with in the study area had been developed. It is important to discuss
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here that the age wise effect of structures is small may be due to older seismic data with
low resolution.
Fig. 7.1 - Flatenning of horizons and structural balancing at different formations (For
Location of Jabo 6 well see Fig. 4.2)
7.3 Basin Modelling: Estimation the age of Hydrocarbon Migration
The role of structures in the migration and trapping mechanism of hydrocarbons has been
carried out particularly on the Jabo field area. To study the maturation and expulsion of
hydrocarbons in the study area of Jabo-06 well, basin modeling was carried out by using
the PetroMod software designed by Schlumberger. Sembar-Goru Shale’s played a vital
role as the source rock within Jabo field as well as in surrounding areas. This shows that
early generated hydrocarbons would not be retained by trap/ Structural trap because present
day trap was not prevailing at the time of early hydrocarbon generation. However, at the
later phase of Orogeny due to collision of Indian plate the traps were probably developed.
The Sembar -Goru shales in Jabo structure produces hydrocarbons and charged the
reservoir, but overall structures are under fill. The age of different type of hydrocarbon
generation has been shown in Fig. 7.2. The PetroMod results show that the early oil was
generated in Late Cretaceous age, main oil was generated in Paleocene age, late oil was
possibly generated in Oligocene age while the gas was possibly generated in Miocene age.
Thermal generation of the hydrocarbons in the Sembar Formation possibly began 65 to 40
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Ma during Paleocene to Oligocene time. Hydrocarbon expulsion, migration and
entrapment occurred mainly during 50 to 15 Ma years ago during Eocene to Miocene time.
Thus, this tectonic episode of Indian plate during the collision had a great role in the
trapping of hydrocarbons with in the Jabo as well as in fields of surrounding areas.
Fig. 7.2 Basin modelling of Jabo field area (Jabo-06 taken as case study)
7.4 Structural Styles and Closures in Jabo Field

Keeping in view the availability of 3D seismic data of major field (Jabo) with in the study
area. Detailed study of Jabo field has been carried out. 3D seismic data and the well
information of different wells of Jabo field is also available in public domain for research
purpose. Jabo field is an important hydrocarbon producing giant field contributing
significant contribution in the hydrocarbon potential of the study area. Therefore, a detailed
study on the structural styles and structural architecture on Jabo wells (1-9) has been carried
out and results are disused below in detail. General purpose of the study is to identify the
structure and associated petroleum system of the area.
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7.4.1 Jabo-01: Jabo 1 was exploratory well drilled to test Lower Goru B Sand up to the
TD of 1977.8 m up to the top of Lower Goru B Sand. The Jabo-01 exploratory well was
drilled by UTP and completed in 1986 upto TD of 2214 m at the Top of Lower Goru and
Gas was discovered. The structural architecture of Jabo-01 is formed by two semi parallel
faults and hence these semi parallel faults collectively formed graben block. The structural
configurationof Jabo-01 is graben (Fig.7.3) The well was declared as Gas/ Condensate well.
Faults forming structure has rollover on the upthrown side as well as on the downthrown
side.
Structural architecture trap of Jabo-01 exploratory well
Structural architeture of Jabo-01 well in 3D visulization is also shown in Fig. 7.3 (C).
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Fig. 7.3 (C) Structural architeture of Jabo-01 well in 3D visulization
7.4.2 Jabo-02: Jabo-02 development well was drilled 2.4 km in the south of Jabo-01 up
to the TD of 2019.2 m. The structural architectureof Jabo-02 was drilled on the closure of
Graben on to test the Lower Goru B Sand (Fig. 7.4). The well was declared as Oil with
minor Gas.
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Structural architecture of Jabo-02 well
Structural architeture of Jabo-02 well in 3D visulization is shown in Fig. 7.4 (C).
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7.4.3 Jabo-03:
Jabo-03 which was drilled 800 m south of Jabo-02 up to TD of 1979.6 m up to the top of
Lower Goru (B-Sand). The structural architecture of well is crotch faults (Two faults
culminating at one point) (Fig. 7.5). The well was delared as oil well.
Structural architeture of Jabo-03 well in 3D visulization is shown Fig. 7.5 C.
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131
7.4.4 Jabo-04:
Jabo-04 is development well was designed to test the Lower Goru B-Sand. Jabo-04 is
located 665 m northwest of Jabo-02 at the Intersection of Inline 4179 and Crossline 102
(Fig.7.6 A). The structure of Jabo-04 is Graben block (Fig.7.6 B). It was drilled up to True
vertical Depth (TD) up to 2068.0 m up to the top of middle sand.
Fig. 7.6 (A) location of Jabo-04 well on basemap of 3D Seismic data

(B) Interpreted Structural architecture of Jabo-04 well
Structural architeture of Jabo-04 well in 3D visulization is shown in Fig. 7.6 (C)
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7.4.5 Jabo-06: Jabo-06 was drilled 2.3 Km from to northwest of Jabo-05 up to TD of

2459.6 m up to the top of Middle Sand. Like Jabo-01, the structural architecture of Jabo-06
is formed by two semi-parallel faults (Fig.7.7). The well was delared as oil with minor gas.
Structural architeture of Jabo-06 well in 3D visulization is shown in Fig. 7.7 (C)
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Fig. 7.7 - (A) location of Jabo-06 well on Basemap of 3D Seismic data (B) Interpreted
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7.5 Petroleum System of Jabo Field Area
Sealing Rock: Khadro and Upper Goru have provided the regional seal to the underlying
Lower Goru reservoir rock in the Jabo field and surrounding areas. The depth contour map
of Khadro formation and Upper Goru have been discussed in detail.
7.5.1 Top Khadro:
Khadro Formation and Upper Goru have provided the sealing to the underlying reservoir
rock. The depth map of top Khadro formation in the surroundings of Jabo filed has been
generated by the interpreting the 3D seismic data of the area. The lowest depth of Khadro
formation has been identified as 550 m while its maximum depth with in the surroundings
of the Jabo filed area has been identified as 660m. The depth of the Top Khadro formation
increases from northwest to southeast. The average depth of top Khadro formation within
the surroundings of Jabo wells is 620 m (Fig. 7.8). No faults are reaching up to the top of
Khadro.
Fig. 7.8 Depth Contour map of Top Khadro showing also location of Jabo wells 1-9
(Contour Interval 25m).
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7.5.2 Top Upper Goru
Upper Goru has also provided the sealing to the underlying Lower Goru reservoir rock.
The depth map of Top Upper Goru within the surroundings of Jabo filed has been generated
by the interpreting the 3D seismic data of the area (Fig. 7.9). The lowest depth of Top
Upper Goru formation has been identified as 660 m while its maximum depth with in the
surroundings of the Jabo filed area has been identified as 750m. No faults are reaching up
to the top of Upper Goru.
Fig. 7.9 - Depth Contour map of Top Upper Goru showing also location of Jabo wells 1-
9 (Contour Interval 15m).
7.5.3 Top Lower Goru (A Sand)

The depth map of Lower Goru (A Sand) within the surroundings of Jabo filed has also been
generated (Fig. 7.10). The lowest depth of Top A Sand has been identified as 800 m while
its maximum depth with in the surroundings of the Jabo filed area has been identified as
2000m. The depth of the Lower Goru (A Sand) increases from west to east. The average
depth of Top A Sand with in the Jabo field area is 1850m.The major faults playing role in
structural architecture of Jabo wells (1-6) are oriented in NS direction which are also
displayed on the contour map of A Sand as shown in Fig. 7.10.
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Fig. 7.10 - Depth Contour map of Top Lower Goru (A Sand) showing also location of
Jabo wells 1-6 (Contour Interval 20m).
7.5.4 Top Turk Shale
The depth map of Top Turk shale within the surroundings of Jabo filed has also been
generated (Fig. 7.11). Turk shale has provided the juxtaposition to the main reservoir
Lower Goru (B Sand) in almost all the wells of the Jabo field. The lowest depth of Top
Turk shale has been identified as 1850 m while its maximum depth with in the surroundings
of the Jabo filed area has been identified as 2150 m. The depth of the Top Turk shale with
in the Jabo field area increases from southwest to northeast. The average depth of Top Turk
shale with in the surroundings of Jabo field is 1875 m. The major faults playing role in
structural architecture of Jabo wells (1-6) are oriented in NS direction which are also
displayed on the contour map of Top Turk shale as shown in Fig. 7.11.
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Fig. 7.11 - Depth Contour map of Top Turk Shale showing also location of Jabo wells 1-
7.5.5 Top B Sand
The depth map of B Sand within the surroundings of Jabo filed has also been shown in
(Fig. 7.12). B sand the main hydrocarbon producing reservoir rock in almost all the wells
of the Jabo field. The lowest depth of B sand has been identified as 1925 m while its
maximum depth with in the surroundings of the Jabo filed area has been identified as 2150
m. The depth of the B sand with in the Jabo field area increases from southwest to northeast.
The average depth of Turk shale with in the surroundings of Jabo field is 2000 m. The
major faults playing role in structural architecture of Jabo wells (1-6) are oriented in NS
direction which are also displayed on the contour map of Top B Sand as shown in Fig.
7.12.
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Fig. 7.12 Depth Contour map of Top B Sand showing also location of Jabo wells 1-6
7.5.6 Top Badin Shale

The depth map of Top Badin Shale within the surroundings of Jabo filed has been shown
in (Fig. 7.13). The lowest depth of Top Badin shale has been identified as 1975 m while
2150 m. The depth of the top Badin shale with in the Jabo field area increases from
southwest to northeast. The average depth of top B sand with in the surroundings of Jabo
field is 1975 m. According to well completion report of Jabo wells Badin shale is made of
marl- argillaceous, chalky limestone. According to Davies (1992) it has the lowest sealing
capacity but the sealing quality of Badin shale may improve where it is less marly. The
major faults playing role in structural architecture of Jabo wells (1-6) are oriented in NS
direction which are also displayed on the contour map of Top Badin shale as shown in Fig.
7.13.
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Fig. 7.13 - Depth Contour map of Top Badin Shale showing also location of Jabo wells 1-
7.5.7 Top Middle Sand
The depth map of Top Middle Sand within the surroundings of Jabo filed has been shown
in (Fig. 7.14). The lowest depth of Top middle sand has been identified as 2250 m while
2850m. The depth of the top middle sand with in the Jabo field area increases from
southwest to northeast. The average depth of top middle sand with in the surroundings of
Jabo field is 2400 m. The major faults playing role in structural architecture of Jabo wells
(1-6) are oriented in NS direction which are also displayed on the contour map of Top
Middle Sand as shown in Fig. 7.14.
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Fig. 7.14 - Depth Contour map of Top Middle Sand showing also location of Jabo wells
1-6 (Contour Interval 25m).
7.5.8 Top Sembar Formation
Sembar Formation is proved source rock with in the Jabo field area as well as overall
Southern Indus Basin. The depth map of Top Sembar Formation within the surroundings
of Jabo filed has been shown in (Fig. 7.15). The lowest depth of Top Sembar Formation
has been identified as 2350 m while its maximum depth with in the surroundings of the
Jabo filed area has been identified as 2950m. The depth of the top Sembar Formation with
in the Jabo field area increases from southwest to northeast. The average depth of formation
with in the surroundings of Jabo field is 2700 m.
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Fig. 7.15 - Depth Contour map of Top Sembar showing also location of Jabo wells 1-6
7.6 Exporation History of Jabo Field
The Jabo structure is located 8 km South West of the Rajo-01 well and 18 South West of
the Tajedi Field. The Jabo-01 exploratory well was drilled by UTP and completed in 1986
upto TD (True Vertical Depth) of 1977.8 m at the top of Lower Goru (B Sand) and Gas
was discovered. The Jabo-02 and Jabo-03 wells were completed in 2000 by UTP up to TD
of 2019.2 m and 1979.6 m reseptively at the top of Lower Goru (Badin Shale) and Lower
Goru (Bsand) respectively. Jabo-04 was drilled by BP in 2002 up to TD of 2068.0 m up to
the Top of Sand Below Badin Shale and produced Oil. Jabo-05 development well was
drilled by BP in 2003 up to TD of 2032.9 m up to Top of Sand Below Badin Shale and oil
was discovered, Jabo-06 was drilled by BP and complted in 2005 up to TD of 2459.6 m at
the top of Middle Sand and Oil/ Gas was discsovered, Jabo-07 was completed in 2007 by
BP up to TD of 2106 m on the top of Sand Below Badin Shale and was decaled as
Abandoned, Jabo-08 was completed by BP in 2007 up to TD of 2023.2 m up to top of
Middle Sand and produced oil and Jabo-09 was drilled by BP in 2008 up to TD of 1964.1
m up to top of Sand Below Badin Shale and was decalred as oil well.
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Similarly Jabo-11 and 12 wells were completed by BP in 2009 up to TD of 2116 m and
2146 m respectively and were declared as oil and gas wells, Jabo-13 was completed by BP
in 2010 up to TD of 2070 m to the top of Lower Goru (B Sand) and declared as oil and gas
well, Jabo-14 was completed by United Eneregy Pakistan Limited in 2012 to the TD of
2142 m up to the top of Lower Goru ( B Sand) and declared as oil well and was decalred
as oil well, Jab-15 was drilled by UEPL which was declared as oil well with minor Gas.
Hydrocarbon sourced in the kitchen areas will migrate either through fault filled with
permeable lithology. According to Allan (1989) the role of structures or structural styles is
important in context of migration and trapping of hydrocarbons is not only dependent on
the structures but also depend upon the fault juxtaposed stratigraphy. Therefore,
impermeable beds juxtaposed against permeable beds are assumed to provide a seal in
structural configuration and that permeable bed beds allow hydrocarbons to spill across a
fault. In the migration of hydrocarbons, faults and associated fractures played an important
role in the migration of hydrocarbon with in the study area. According to Moretti (1998)
the hydrodynamic behavior of faults may be rather different from that of their surrounding
beds. Migration of oil is essential for the accumulation of hydrocarbons in reservoir rocks.
In Southern Sindh Monocline, a major depocenter was developed in response to rifting and
extensional faults. The Early Cretaceous and Late Cretaceous shales rich in organic carbon
were buried with the various thickness of Lower Goru sands. Oil generation was started by
Late Cretaceous as identified by PetroMod (Fig.7.2). Later, prior faults provided traps and
entrapment mechanism during Early Eocene age. The migration must have been greatly
facilitated by the interbedded sand and silt layers in the Sembar and Lower Goru Formation
and possibly along the faults acting as a conduit Later after some time hydrocarbons go
into reservoir rock known as migration of hydrocarbons from source to reservoir rock. The
hydrocarbon accumulation forms when migrating hydrocarbon filaments encounter a zone
(the seal), either laterally or vertically, with pore throat sizes smaller than the carrier bed.
The up-dip migration of petroleum along inclined carrier beds continues if it does not
encounter structural configurations where the reservoir strata form traps. Finally, further
migration can be possibly stopped by impervious overlying rock juxtaposed with the fault.
Following model (Fig. 7.19) and (Fig. 7.20) illustrates the different geometries and
143
mechanism of trapping in relation of structure and migration of hydrocarbons through
faults possible providing juxtaposition and trapping mechanism with in the study area.
Fig. 7.16 – Different possible patterns of migration of hydrocarbons through faults in

SSM
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Fig. 7.17 – Different possible patterns of migration of hydrocarbons through horst and
graben structures in SSM
7.8 Discovered Traps and Hydrocarbon Potential of the Area

According to Munir et al., (2014) and Abbasi et al., (2015) the structural styles in the SSM
are providing the migration pathways and trapping mechanism for the hydrocarbons from
source Sembar Formation to Lower Goru reservoir sands. Almost more than 100 wells only
with the target of structural configuration with high success ratio while only with few were
drilled with the target of stratigraphic traps with very low or no success ratio. Hence
comparatively, wells drilled with the objective to target structural traps have high success
ratio with in SSM.
According to Memon et al., (1999) that due to the main rifting episodes of the Indian plate
effected on SSM and generated horst and graben type of structures which has been reported
by many investigators. Hence, extensional tectonics which caused in the formation of
horsts and graben structures had a weighty effect on the hydrocarbon potential in the study
area. The structural style and closure of other major fields with in the study area are as
under:
7.8.1 Khaskheli Oil Field

The Khaskheli oil field discovery in 1981 breakthrough the exploration and production in
the study area and its surroundings. The structural architecture of the field was a tilted fault
tilting westward away from a major North-South trending normal fault. The west tilting
has caused a juxtaposition with impervious lithology (Sayeed and Ashton, 1982). British
Petroleum has discovered the Zaur field having complicated structure, divided in to three
145
different fault blocks: Central which is horst block (Zaur-1, and Zaur Deep-3), Southern
(Zaur-3 and Zaur5) and Northern (Zaur-2, Zaur-4 and Zaur-6) and in general Zaur field is
a faulted anticline (Alam et al., 2002). Similarly, British Petroleum discovered the South
Mazari field on a large crotch structural architecture bounded by the Mazari complex
(Mazari, Sonro and South Mazari) structure bounded to the west by the same major fault.
Many small normal faults were also present in the field that divide the field into several
chambers. (Wasimuddin and Ahmad, 2002).
7.8.2 South Mazari Field
The South Mazari field discovered oil in the Lower Goru A and B Sands in 1985. The
South Mazari oil field is located southeast of Sonro and Mazari fields within Mazari
complex. The field was originally mapped based on 2D seismic data. 3D seismic data were
acquired over the field in 1998. The 3D seismic data show the South Mazari field as a large
crotch trap (a trap formed by two bounding faults culminate at one point) bounded by the
Mazari complex main field fault to the west and a small north-south striking, down-to-the-
east, normal fault to the east. North and northwest closure is provided by north dip and dip
into the Sonro / South Mazari bounding fault, respectively. Many small normal faults are
present in the field that separated the main field into several chambers. The South Mazari-
1, 2, 3, and 5 wells are all within the same compartment. South Mazari-4 is separated from
the other wells by several small faults. South Mazari-6 is separated from the field by the
eastern bounding fault and is within a separate compartment outside the limits of the field
(Wasimuddin and Ahmad, 2002).
7.8.3 Zaur Field
The interpretation of 3D seismic data suggests that the Zaur field is a complicated structure
separated in to three different fault blocks: Central (Zaur-1, and Zaur Deep-3) area, the
main horst block; Southern (Zaur-3 and Zaur5 area, and Northern (Zaur-2, Zaur-4 and
Zaur-6 area, these divisions are based on several faults of variable throws but most likely
where sand-to-sand juxtaposition occurs across the faults; the faults separating these
Blocks are possibly sealing reservoir. Zaur field is a faulted anticline; the field is closed to
the north by dip, while the critical closure to the east, west and south is provided by
combination of dip and fault seal. Zaur Field Middle Sands. Post-3D mapping suggests
field compartmentalization. The configuration of the structure remains the same as we go
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deeper but the Zaur Horst at deeper level becomes wider and structurally less complex
(Alam et al., 2002).
7.8.4 Ghunghro Field
Ghunghro SW-01 was discovered by UTP in 1996. Other 9 more wells of Ghunghro have
been drilled. Ghunghro-05 was drilled on tilted fault block and produced oil. The Ghunghro
field is declared as oil field.
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CHAPTER 8
Discussion
8.1 Structures and Extensional Tectonic Setting
Structural styles formed in different extensional tectonic settings of the world have been
studied by many researchers. Models for extensional tectonics have been proposed by
McKenzie (1978); Wernicke (1985) and Lister et al, (1986) which explain the mechanism
of the structures formed in extensional tectonic settings. The common and basic type of
structure in such tectonic settings is identified as normal fault by Morely (1999, 2002);
Conteras et al., (2000); McLeod et al., (2000); Withjack and Schlische (2002); Cemen et
al., (2012); Sert and Cemen (2015). Nanni (2017) worked on extensional tectonics and
reactivation of a Cretaceous structural belt at the northern margin of the South China Sea.
Many of the above cited authors used seismic data for the identification of structures. The
seismic data has also been used for this study of structures in Southern Sindh Monocline
(SSM) and it is proved by the interpretation of seismic data and from published literature
that normal fault is the most common structures in SSM. These normal faults collectively
formed different type of structures and structural styles which have been discussed in detail
in chapter 5. Study of tectonic evolution of structures by using seismic data have also been
testified by Rowan and Kligfield (1989); Groshong (2002); Bland et al., (2004). Jamaludin
et al., (2015) studied tectonic evolution of structures by applying flattening of horizons and
structural balancing approach and same approach has been applied to study tectonic
evolution of structures of study area. Mann et al., (2003) carried research on tectonic setting
of the largest hydrocarbon fields of the world and concluded that fields located in areas
characterized by extensional tectonic settings are contributing 31% of the world
hydrocarbon reserves. The current interest in structures, structural styles, tectonic evolution
of structures and their role in hydrocarbon potential is also because of the success ratio of
the discoveries from hydrocarbon traps in extensional regimes of the world.
Oil and gas exploration industry professionals, many researchers like Ahston, (1984);
Zaigham et al., (2000); Ahmad and Malick (1998); Ahmad (1999); Mozzaffar Alam et al.,
(2003); Munir et al., (2014); Abbasi et al., (2014); Abbasi et al., 2015a, 2015 b); Khan et
al., (2016) and Siddiqui (2016) have carried out work on the structures of the Sindh
Monocline by the interpretation of seismic data. But still there was need to carry further
148
study on the tectonic evolution of these structures and to prepare a catalogue of structures
and structural styles of the study area. Work has been carried out by above listed
researchers on the structures of Sindh Monocline but no one still has classified the
identified structures therefore, there was a gap and need for a detailed and comprehensive
study for the identification and classification of identified structures and structural styles.
In current study a comprehensive catalogue of basic type of structures has been prepared
based on the results of seismic data interpretation. The structures were named on the basis
of identified structures in many extensional settings of the world by Bally et al., (1981);
Bosworth, (1985); Buck, (1988); Gibbs, (1989); Ackermann and Schlische, (1997); Gaina
et al., (1998; Bally (2002); Fossen (2010), Cemen et al., (2012) and Sert and Cemen (2015).
The main aim of this research was to identify different structures and structural styles in
the subsurface of SSM, to explain the tectonic evolution of prevailing structures and their
role in hydrocarbon potential. Keeping in view the objectives of the study, the results are
discussed below:
For effective analysis of seismic synthetic seismogram was generated from density and
velocity logs for marking reflectors of major geological horizons on seismic data.
Check shot (VSP) of Jabo-06 well has also been used for the significant picking of horizons
on the seismic data. Depending on the available data, eight horizons were picked based on
matching of signatures, continuity and strong character of the reflectors. Correlation
between Vertical Seismic Profile (VSP) and synthetic seismogram is shown in Fig. 4.8.
The reflectors were strong enough to be picked due to significant variation in acoustic
impedance. The average depth to each reflector is shown in Fig.4.8.
8.2 Structures and Structural Styles in Extensional Settings:

The areas characterized by extensional tectonic settings and their structures have been
discussed by Hodges et al., (1989); Morely (1999); Conteras et al., (2000); and McLeod et
al., (2000); Morley (2002); Withjack and Schlische (2002); Ebinger, (2005); Cemen et al.,
(2012);Patricia, (2012);Andrew, (2014); Sert and Cemen (2015) and Nanni (2017).
Fossen (2010) carried study with the objective to find out the structural architecture in the
subsurface of areas characterized by extensional tectonic settings and reported listric faults,
synthetic faults, antithetic faults and the flexures. Cemen et al., (2012) carried out research
on extensional basins in Western Anatolia, Turkey and described that the extensional
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basins possibly experienced three different extensional episodes creating high angle faults
and Kucuk Menderes graben structures. Bartholomew (2017) reported listric structural
styles from the North Sea area which is also characterized by extensional tectonics.
Thies (2006) worked on the structures of Sabah area, Malaysia, characterized by
extensional tectonics and discussed the development of normal faults collectively forming
horst and graben type of structural styles (Fig. 8.1 A). Sizer (2008) reported synthetic faults
and negative flower type of structural styles (Fig. 8.1 B), Haakon and Fossen (2010)
reported the dominos structural styles formed in extensional tectonic settings in North Sea
area (Fig. 8.1 C). Synthetics and antithetic faults have been reported by Yuan Li et al.,
(2016) from South China characterized by extensional tectonics (Fig. 8.1 D). Jamaludin et
al., (2015) reported shovel type fault formed due to extensional tectonics, Sarawak,
Malaysia (Fig. 8.1 E) and Chopra (2006) reported flexures while interpreting seismic data
of NW New Mexico which is also characterized by extensional tectonics (Fig. 8.1 F).
Hence common structures formed in extensional tectonic settings have been suggested as
normal faults, horsts and grabens, listric faults, synthetic and antithetic faults and dominos.
These type of structures and structural styles are extremely common in extensional type of
tectonic settings.
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Fig. 8.1 Different Structures and structural styles in extensional settings of the world
Yuan Li et al., (2016) worked on the tectonic characteristics and structural styles of Fushan
basin, an extensional basin, using the seismic data interpretation approach and suggested
half-graben structural architecture for Fushan basin. It is an extensional basin located in
the southeast of the Beibuwan Basin, South China Sea. Five types of structural styles were
defined: ancient horst, traditional slope, flexure slope-break, faulted slope-break and
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multiple-stage faults slope. Interpretations for positions, background and development
formations of each structural style have been reported as shown in Fig. 8.2
Fig. 8.2 Classification Scheme of Structures and Structural Styles for Fushan Basin,
South China (Yuan Li et al., 2016)
8.3 Structures in Southern Sindh Monocline (SSM)
The seismic data of different domain from the study area has been interpreted for the
identification of structures and structural styles occurring in the subsurface of SSM. The
basic structures were classified into nine types as (a) Large Normal Fault, (b) Small Normal
Fault, (c) Spoon Shape Normal Faults, (d) Master Normal Fault, (e) Rider Normal Fault (f)
Folding, (g) Flexure, (h) Vertical Fault and (i) Listric Shovel Fault. All above listed
structures are shown in Fig. 8.3. The structures have been identified on the seismic data
which was interpreted by Petrel seismic simulation software designed by Schlumberger E
& P servicing Company and license issued by the cooperation of University of Texas, USA.
These are different type of structures which have been identified and classified in current
study which is ultimately important contribution towards composite catalogue of identified
basic structures formed in extensional tectonic settings.
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Fig 8.3 Catalogue of structures found in Southern Sindh Monocline (a) Large normal
faults (b) Small Normal faults (c) Spoon shape normal faults (d) Master normal fault (e)
Rider normal fault (f) Folding (g) Flexure (h) vertical fault and (Listric shovel fault
8.4 Structural Styles in Southern Sindh Monocline (SSM)

Identified types of structures shown in Fig. 8.3 have been classified in six groups. Horst
and Graben with in the study area were reported by Ahmad (1982); Hussain et al., (1991);
Kemal et al., (1991); Memon et al., (1999); Zaigham et al., (2000) Abbasi et al., (2014),
Khan et al., (2013& 2014); Abbasi et al., (2015). Crotch structural style (formed by two
faults culminating at one point) has also been identified by Meyerhollz, (1998) and
Wasimuddin and Ahmad, (2002) while interpreting the seismic data of the study area.
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Dominos, synthetics and antithetic faults, negative flower structural styles have been
reported from other extensional basins by Wernicke and Burchfiel, (1980, 1982); Jackson,
and McKenzie (1983) Fossen (2010).
As discussed that many authors have identified normal faults collectively forming horst
and graben but all above identified basic structures in one way or other way collectively
formed structural styles with in the subsurface of SSM which have been discussed in many
other extensional basins of the world but not identified so far. So, the catalogue of different
structural styles has also been prepared which is also an important contribution in thesis.
The list of the identified structural styles from study area is shown below and the block
diagram showing each style and associated structures is shown in Fig. 8.4.
1) Horst and Grabens Structural Style
2) Dominos Structural Style
3) Crotch Structural Style
4) Synthetics and Antithetic Structural Style
5) Negative Flower Structural Style
6) Flashlight Structural Style
1. Horst & 4. Synthetics 6. Flashlight

2. Dominos and 5. Negative
3. Crotch Style
Graben Antithetic Flower Style
Large Large
Normal Large Large Large
Normal Normal Flexures
Faults Normal Normal
Faults Faults Faults Faults
Small Small
Normal Normal Small Small
Faults Normal Small
Faults Faults
Spoon Spoon Faults
Shape Shape Spoon
Normal Shape Spoon Spoon
Normal
Faults Normal Shape Shape
Faults
Master & Master & Faults Faults
Rider Rider Master &
Faults Rider Master &
Faults Master &
Faults Rider
Listric Rider
Faults
Shovel Faults
Fault
Fig 8.4 Structural styles and their possible basic building structures
The detailed discussion of each structural style is given below:
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8.4.1 Horst and graben structural style
The combination of large and small normal faults collectively formed horst and grabens.
Horst and graben structural styles are shown in Fig. 8.5 (1). A horst and graben structural
style is produced when normal fault planes have opposite dips. Large graben generally
forms rift valleys and may show features of volcanism. A unique example of family of
Horst and Graben structures have been identified on seismic line PK94-1804 (Fig. 5.14)
which is also evidence of extensional tectonics within the study area. Two normal faults
collectively formed family of horst and graben type of structural style.
8.4.2 Dominos structural style
A unique example of normal faults collectively forming dominos system of faults have also
been interpreted on Seismic Line PK85-1341 (Fig.5.17) which is also evidence and effects
of rift associated tectonics. Dominos are structural Styles when type 1 and type 2 normal
faults occur in association. Dominos are possibly formed because of rift associated
tectonics in unidirectional stresses {Fig. 8.5(2)}
8.4.3 Crotch structural style
A unique case of family of crotch (two faults culminating at one point) has been identified
and interpreted on the seismic data as shown in Fig. 5.19 of South Mazari field which lies
in the study area. South Mazari Field was discovered in 1985 by British Petroleum
(Pakistan) Exploration & Production Inc. from a large Crotch Trap Fig. 8.5(3). The
structural closure of south Mazari field was on a large crotch trap formed by two bounding
faults culminating at one point and many small normal faults are also present in the field
which have divided the field in to several chambers as described by Meyerhollz (1998) and
Wasimuddin and Ahmad (2002).
8.4.4 Synthetic and antithetic structural style
Synthetic and antithetic fault system collectively forms synthetic and antithetic structural
styles which are also commonly formed in extensional tectonic settings. Spoon shape
normal faults collectively form styles of synthetic and antithetic faults. Such type of
structural style shave also been identified in SSM and are shown in Fig. 8.5(4).
8.4.5 Negative flower structural style
Negative flower type of structural style has also been identified which is also evidence and
effects of rift tectonics and stresses due to multi-directional movement associated with
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clockwise as well as anticlockwise rotation within the study area. Master and riding faults
collectively form the Styles of flower type structural styles. A unique example of Styles of
flower structures are shown in Fig. 8.5(5).
8.4.6 Flashlight structural style
A unique and new type of structural style has been identified on 3D seismic data shown in
Fig. 8.5(6) from the study area which resembles with the shape of flashlight. Two flexures
formed flashlight type structural style. This type of structural style may not only have solely
formed due to tectonic forces but it may have been formed due to both tectonic as well
depositional trends. This is only unique and new example from any extensional basins of
the world.
Details of each type of structural style is discussed in detail in chapter 5. Each basic
structure discussed in section 5.1 directly or indirectly played its role in the formation of
specific structural style. The flashlight structural style is shown separately in Fig. 5.13.
This research focusses in detail on the identification of various structures and structural
styles with specific objectives to interpret characteristic structures occuring in extensional
basins and correlate such findings with structures reported from similar settings elswhere
for making progress towards the preparation of a comprhensive catalogue of structures and
structural styles synonym with extensional tectonic settings. The structures identified from
the study area are classified into nine types: (1) Large normal faults (2) Small normal faults
(3) Spoon shape normal faults (4) Master normal faults (5) Rider normal faults (6) Folding
(7) Flexure, (8) Vertical faults and (9) Listric shovel. Structural styles have been classified
into six types: (1) Horst and grabens (2) Dominos (3) Crotch (4) Synthetic and antithetic
(5) Negative and (6) Flashlight structural style which is unique contribution towards
structural styles in extensional basins of the world (Fig. 8.5).
156
Fig. 8.5 – Catalogue Structural styles found in Southern Sindh Monocline
8.5 Tectonic Evolution of Structures of SSM

The tectonic evolution of interpreted structures and correlation with the different tectonic
episodes of Indian plate from its journey after rifting from Gondwanaland and to final
157
welding with the Eurasian plate is also undertaken. As extensive work on structures and
structural style formed in different extensional settings of the world as well as on the Sindh
Monocline are reported but previously no significant contribution has been made on the
tectonic evolution of structures in SSM. Tectonic evolution of structures by applying the
flattening of horizons and structural balancing has been applied on seismic data by Rowan
and Kligfield (1989); Groshong (2002); Bland et al., (2004) and Jamal et al., (2015) while
studying the tectonic evolution of structural styles formed in various extensional tectonic
settings. As the third objective of current research an attempt was made to study the tectonic
evolution of interpreted structures in context to different tectonic episodes of Indian plate
which was not applied earlier on the interpreted structures of the study area. The rifting
and drifting of Indian plate has been synthesized and described in different tectonic
episodes by Powell (1979); Biswas (1982); Bannert and Raza (1992); Zaigham et
al. (2000), Jagoutz (2009) and Chatterjee et al., (2013). Synthesizing the views of these
various authors worked on the evolution of Indian plate, Chatterjee et al., (2013) and many
other researchers have summarized the tectonic history of Indian plate into nine episodes
as:
Episode 1 represents separation of Indian plate from Gondwanaland (Late Jurassic ~ 167
MY before); episode 2 & 3 as separation of Indian Plate from Antarctica-Australia
(~130Ma); episode 4 as rifting of India from Madagascar (~90Ma); episode 5 Collisional
of Indian plate with Kohistan Ladakh Island Arc (~85 Ma); Episode 6 Seychelles and
Laxmi Ridge were rifted from Indian Plate (~75–68 Ma); episode 7 as separation of the
Seychelles from India (~65 Ma), episode 8 Indian plate has maximum speed during the
Late Cretaceous to Early Eocene age; episode 9 Collision between Indian Plate and Asia.
The GPlates 2.0 software has been used to generate the plate tectonic models for
different tectonic episodes. GPlates is a desktop software for the interactive
visualization of plate-tectonics. EarthByte is leading Geoscience research group
including Australian Universities, International Centers of Excellence in research
and industries working on datasets used for GPlates software (www.gplates.org).
Understanding regarding the tectonic evolution of different structures and structural
styles of the study area was accomplished by using seismic data interpretation and
158
flattening of horizons approach using Petrel software at different
formations/reflectors. Technique of structural balancing and horizon flattening
applied in this work verifies and validates the seismic interpretation performed on a
3D seismic data of the study area. Both techniques are useful to provide a means of
understanding what had possibly happened to the structures during the time of
deposition of formations in context of comparison with the specified tectonic
episode of Indian plate and reactivation of older structures with in the study area.
Keeping in view, published literature on tectonic episodes of Indian plate and seismic data
interpretation and flattening of horizons, the structures with in the study area unfold
confirmation of signatures of three major tectonic episodes which can be described as:
4) Structures associated with the rifting during Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous
5) Re-generation of structures during the Middle Cretaceous and
6) Inversion and Reactivation during Early Eocene
8.5.1 Episode 1 (Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous ~ 167 Ma)
The structures associated with this episode 1 consist of semi-parallel faults forming a series
of horsts and grabens. The faults are oriented in north-east to south-west direction as
normal faulting is present below the Chiltan which was deposited between 160 to 153 MY
before. These normal faults were probably formed during the initial rifting episode of
Indian plate during Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous age. The technique of structural
balancing and horizon flattening have been applied on the reflector of Chiltan to observe
the structural style before the deposition of Chiltan as Chiltan was deposited after initial
rifting of Indian plate from Gondwanaland (160-153 MY) as the initial rifting of Indian
plate occurred at 167 MY ago. When reflector of Chiltan is flattened to observe structures
below Chiltan It can be noticed that that there was an anticline (Fig. 8.6) which later faulted
probably at the initial rifting stage of Indian plate from Gondwanaland. The results of
current study also confirm the model proposed by Zaigham et al., (1999) which shows the
formation of extensional faults below Chiltan.
8.5.2 Episode 2: Modification and Reactivation (Middle Cretaceous ~ 90 Ma)
In this tectonic episode, the structures and structural styles inherited from the episode1
were modified and reactivated during the Middle Cretaceous while Indian plate was
separating from Madagascar (Chatterjee, 2013). This event began during the deposition of
159
Lower Goru Upper Sands and remained active throughout the deposition of Upper Goru
time (~92 to 88 MY ago). The fault system inherited from the initial rifting in episode 1
was reactivated and small growth faults were formed which can be called rider faults.
Hence, negative flower type of structures was probably formed during this episode.
The reflector of Top Lower Goru was flattened to observe the structures formed during the
initial rifting of Indian plate from Madagascar. As Lower Goru was deposited up to 92 MY
ago and rifting between Indian plate and Madagascar was occurred at about 90 MY ago.
When reflector of Top Upper Goru flattened to observe the position of structures below
Lower Goru it was noticed that throw of the faults is larger (Fig. 8.6) in episode 2 as
compared with the throw of faults in episode 1. The earlier deeper faults acted as zones of
weakness and taking up the shear forces due to opposite direction forces when Indian plate
was separating from Madagascar during this episode. Since, the shear was accommodated
on the pre-existing normal faults, most of the deeper faults in the study area. Semi-parallel
faults collectively formed horst and graben type of structures. Also during this episode of
reactivation and modification of previous structures some negative flower type of
structures were also probably formed. These structures have been the most prolific
hydrocarbon producers with in the study area. There are marked differences in two set of
faults dipping in different directions probably due to different directions of pull apart forces
during separation of Indian plate from Gondwanaland and Madagascar. The study area
represents a complex system of faults and structural styles which were probably formed
during this episode. The separation between Indian plate and micro plate Seychelles does
not have any clear impact on the structures of the study area. But it probably resulted in a
very small-scale reactivation of previous structures during the separation of Seychelles and
India which is not possible to observe on low resolution old seismic data. As the small-
scale deformation in an area having complex structures dipping in different directions is
less significant due to low resolution.
8.5.3 Episode 3: Inversion and Reactivation (Early Eocene ~ 50 Ma)
This episode occurred during the initial collision of Indian plate with Asia (~50 Ma)
resulting in the Himalayan Orogeny. The study area does not exhibit the types of
compressive structures due to inversion but only the dip of previous faults has been
changed. The fault penetrating the Upper Goru reflector represents small scale reactivation
160
of previous faults (Fig. 6.11 D). The horizon of Khadro Formation shows the effect of uplift
and doming. The position of Indian plate during Early Eocene is shown in Fig. 6.11 A
Fig. 8.6 Flatenning of horizons and structural balancing at different formations and
estimation of age of trap formation
8.6 Estimation of Age of Trap Formation in SSM
The current position of structure of and trap has been interpreted and shown in Fig. 8.6A.
The reflector of Top Upper Goru has been flattened to estimate the development of
structures in Late Cretaceous age. After flattening of Top Upper Goru it is visible that the
trap was not properly developed (Fig. 8.6). Then the reflector of Nari was flattened as
shown in episode 3 in (Fig. 8.6) to observe the structural development during Eocene age.
The trap was developed during Eocene, when Indian plate collided with the Asia. Due to
collision of Indian plate the effect of doming, the traps with in the study area have been
developed. It is important to discuss here that the age wise effect of structures is small may
be due to older seismic data with low resolution.
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8.7 Estimation of the age of Hydrocarbon Generation and Migration
The study of role of structures in the migration and trapping mechanism of hydrocarbons
has been carried out particularly on the Jabo field area. To study the maturation and
expulsion of hydrocarbons the basin Mod was run on the Jabo-06 well. Basin modeling
was carried out by using the PetroMod software designed by Schlumberger. Sembar-Goru
Shale played a vital role as the source rock within Jabo field as well as in surrounding areas.
This shows that early generated hydrocarbons would not be retained by trap/ Structural trap
because present day trap was not prevailing at the time of early hydrocarbon generation.
However, at the later phase of Orogeny due to collision of Indian plate the traps were most
probably developed. The Sembar –Goru shales in Jabo structure produced hydrocarbons
and charged the reservoir, but overall structures are under fill. The age of different type of
hydrocarbon generation has been shown in Fig. 8.7. The PetroMod results show that the
early oil was generated in Late Cretaceous age, main oil was generated in Paleocene age,
late oil was possibly generated in Oligocene age while the gas was possibly generated in
Miocene age. Thermal generation of the hydrocarbons in the Sembar Formation possibly
began 65 to 40 Ma during Paleocene to Oligocene time. Hydrocarbon expulsion, migration
and entrapment were possibly occurred mainly during 50 to 15 Ma years ago during Eocene
to Miocene time with the development of the structural traps. Thus, this tectonic episode
of Indian plate during the collision had a great role in the trapping of hydrocarbons with in
the Jabo as well as in fields of surrounding areas. Thus, system has favorable characteristics
for additional hydrocarbon discoveries and new play concepts. Basin wise success rate has
been the highest for the Southern Sindh Monocline due to the strings of discoveries in quick
succession in relatively small tilted fault blocks.
162
Fig. 8.7 Basin modelling of Jabo field area (Jabo-06 taken as case study)
8.8 Role of Extensional Structures in Hydrocarbon Potential

According to Harding and Lowell, (973); Munir et al. (2014); Abbasi et al., (2014); Khan
et al., (2014) and Abbasi et al., 2015) variety of structures, structural styles and
hydrocarbon structural traps are broadly associated with the unified mechanism of their
formation in different plate tectonic settings. According to Mann et al., (2003) continental
extensional settings form the second most common tectonic setting which contributes 31%
of the world’s giant fields. Hence the rift and passive categories collectively account for
two-third of all 877 giant fields of the world. As study area is also characterized by
extensional tectonics prevailed during rifting stages from Gondwanaland.
8.8.1 Structural Architecture of Important wells of Study Area

The Khaskheli oil field discovery in 1981 opened a new chapter in the history of petroleum
exploration and production in Sindh Monocline. The structural architecture of the field was
a tilted fault tilting westward away from a major North-South trending normal fault. The
west tilting has caused a juxtaposition with impervious lithology (Sayeed and Ashton,
1982). British Petroleum has discovered the Zaur field structure, separated in to three
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normal faults blocks. First one is central which is horst block on which Zaur-1
andZaurDeep-3 wells are drilled, Southern block on which Zaur-3 well and Zaur5 well are
drilled and Northern fault block on which Zaur-2 well, Zaur-4 well and Zaur-6 well are
drilled. In broad view the overall structure of the Zaur field is anticline characterized by
faults (Alam et al., 2002). Similarly, British Petroleum discovered the South Mazari field
on a crotch structural architecture (Wasimuddin and Ahmad, 2002).
The Jabo field is one of the major discovery in the SSM and normal faults have provided
closure for hydrocarbon accumulation in field area. Many exploratory wells like Gadap,
Pirshah, Ghunghro, Mehro, Key Hole, Mehran, Inayat, Raj East, Talib, Doti, Raj, Beghari,
Nereri, Key Hole G-02 and Shah Dino were drilled. The structural architecture of almost
above wells is associated with normal faults. In 2015-2016 more wells of Jabo, Nur, Bagla
and Ghughro were drilled and enhanced discoveries were made. The details of structural
styles and prospective structural closures of wells drilled in SSM are listed below in Table
8.1.
Table 8.1 Details of wells drilled in SSM
Structure of Drilled Wells in Southern Sindh Monocline
S.
No Well Name Structure Status S.No Well Name2 Structure 3 Status4
1 Akari Horst Block Dry 26 Jabheri South Normal Fault Successful
2 North Akri Normal Fault Successful 27 Junaithi Normal Fault Successful
3 Allah Dino Normal Fault Dry 28 Kato Normal Fault Successful
4 Bachal Normal Fault Successful 29 Key Hole G Normal Fault Successful
5 Bhadmi Faulted Dome Dry 30 Key Hole Normal Fault Dry
6 Bari Normal Fault Dry 31 Khaskheli Horst block Successful
7 Beghari Normal Fault Dry 32 Khorewah Normal Fault Successful
8 Bukerani Normal Fault Dry 33 Khoso Normal Fault Dry
9 Bukhari Graben Successful 34 Laghari Horst block Successful
10 Buland Normal Fault Dry 35 South Mazari Crotch Style Successful
11 Buzdar Graben Successful 36 Norai Jagir Normal Fault Successful
12 Dabhi South Horst Block Successful 37 Nur &Bagla Normal Fault Successful
13 Daru Normal Fault Successful 38 Pirshah Normal Fault Dry
14 Duphri Normal Fault Successful 39 Raj Horst Block Successful
15 Erazi Normal Fault Dry 40 Rind Normal Fault Successful
16 Ghunghro Normal Fault Successful 41 Shero Normal Fault Dry
17 Golarchi Horst Block Successful 42 Sonro Normal Fault Successful
18 Haji Horst Block Dry 43 Talib Normal Fault Dry
Hakim
19 Daho Normal Fault Successful 44 Tarai Normal Fault Dry
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20 Halipota Horst block Successful 45 Turk Normal Fault Successful
21 Jabo Normal Fault Successful 46 Zaur South Graben Successful
22 Jalal Horst Block Successful 47 Zaur Normal Fault Successful
23 Jamali Normal Fault Successful 48 Mataro Horst Block Dry
24 Jati Horst block Dry 49 Gadap Normal Fault Dry
25 Jabheri Normal Fault Successful 50 Inayat Normal Fault Dry
8.8.2 Role of Normal Faults in Hydrocarbon Potential of SSM
Most of the discovered hydrocarbon fields of SSM are drilled on the closure of normal
faults. Total wells drilled with in the study area on the closure of normal faults were 34 out
of them gas was discovered in 9 wells, oil in 5 wells, oil/ condensate well 4 and
gas/condensate well 2 while 14 well failed to producer hydrocarbons. (Table 8.2). Hence
41% of wells drilled on the closure of normal faults were declared as unsuccessful, 26%
were contributing gas wells, 15% wells were declared as oil wells, while 12% of drilled
wells are oil and gas wells and only 6% of wells drilled on the closure of the normal faults
were declared as gas / condensate wells (Fig. 8.8).
Table 8.2 Details of wells drilled on the closure of normal faults in SSM
Structure / Status No. of Wells
Normal Fault (Successful) 20
Normal Fault (Dry/ Fail) 14
Total Normal Fault 34
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Hydrocabon Potential of Normal Faults in
Southern Sindh Monocline
41%
59%
Fail Successful
Fig. 8.8 Chart showing the status of wells drilled on the closure of normal faults in SSM
8.8.3 Role of Horst Structural Styles in Hydrocarbon Potential of SSM

Many of discovered hydrocarbon fields of SSM are also drilled on the closure of horst
block. Total wells drilled with in the study area on the closure of normal faults were 11 out
of them gas was discovered in 4 wells, oil in 2 wells, oil / gas well 1 while 4 wells failed
to produce hydrocarbons. Details of wells drilled on the closure of blocks are shown in
(Table 8.3). Hence 36% of wells drilled on the closure of normal faults were declared as
unsuccessful, 37% were contributing gas wells, 18% wells were declared as oil wells, while
only 9% of drilled wells are oil and gas wells (Fig. 8.9)
Table 8.3 Details of wells drilled on the closure of horst block in SSM
Horst Block (Successful) 7
Horst Block (Dry / Fail) 4
Total Fields on Horst Block 11
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Hydrocarbon Potential of Horst block in
36%
64%
Horst Block (Successful) Horst Block (Fail)
Fig. 8.9Wells drilled on horst block in SSM (Pakistan Energy Year Book, 2013)
8.8.4 Role of Graben Structural Styles in Hydrocarbon Potential of SSM
Many of discovered hydrocarbon fields of SSM are also drilled on the closure of graben
structural styles. Total wells drilled with in the study area on the closure of normal faults
were 3; out of them gas was discovered in 2 wells and oil was discovered in 1 well. Details
of wells drilled on the closure of graben structural styles are shown in (Table 8.4). Hence
67% of wells drilled on the closure of graben structural styles were declared as
unsuccessful with gas discovery, 33% were contributing oil while 0% or no well drilled on
the closure of graben structural styles were declared as unsuccessful (Fig. 8.10).
Table 8.4 Details of wells drilled on the closure of graben in SSM

Graben (Successful) 3
Graben (Fail) 0
Total 3
167
Hydercarbon Potential of Grabens in
0%
100%
Graben (Successful) Graben (Fail)

Fig. 8.10 Wells drilled closure of graben in SSM (Pakistan Energy Year Book, 2013)
8.8.5 Role of Structures and Structural Styles in Migration and Trapping of

Hydrocarbons
The subject of hydrocarbon traps formed in extensional basins and their role in
hydrocarbon potential have been described by McKinstry, (1941 and 1955); Newhouse et
al., (1942) and Wisser, (1951). Biddle (1994) classified traps formed in different tectonic
settings and described that in most of extensional basins the normal faults provided the
closure and trapping mechanism for hydrocarbons. According to Durand (1988) and Mann
(1990) explaining primary migration of oil from source rock remains a problem in
petroleum industry and proposed that migration through faults is attractive because faults
filled with porous material and fractures have high permeability.
The migration and trapping of hydrocarbons must have been greatly facilitated by the
interbedded sand and silt layers in the Sembar and Lower Goru Formation and possibly
along the faults acting as a conduit. Ultimately, hydrocarbons move into reservoir rock
known as migration of hydrocarbons from source to reservoir. Structures and structural
168
styles and their role in hydrocarbon potential of major discovered fields of study area are
discussed below.

According to Allan (1989) the role of structures or structural styles is important in context
of migration and trapping of hydrocarbons. The accumulation of hydrocarbons is not only
dependent on the structures but also depend upon the fault juxtaposed stratigraphically.
Therefore, impermeable beds juxtaposed against permeable beds are assumed to provide a
seal in structural closure and that permeable beds allow hydrocarbons to spill across a fault.
In the migration of hydrocarbons, faults and associated fractures played vital role in the
migration of hydrocarbon (Memon et al.,1995). According to Moretti (1998) the
hydrodynamic behavior of faults may be rather different from that of their surrounding
beds.
169
CHAPTER 9
Conclusions and Recommendations
9.1 CONCLUSION
Based on results described and discussed on the structures and different structural styles
identified, the relation of these structures with the different tectonic episodes of the Indian
plate and ultimately the role of structures in the migration and trapping mechanism of the
study area which were discussed in detail in the previous chapters, some important
conclusions can be drawn as:
1) Study area is rich in normal faults which is a basic structure of the study area.
Classification of identified normal faults were made as large normal faults, small normal
faults, spoon shape normal faults, master normal faults, rider normal faults, small folding
have also been identified, vertical faults and listric shovel fault have also been identified.
All basic structures in one way or other way by the collectively formed structural styles
with in the study area. Structural styles were classified in to six types as horst and grabens
structural style, dominos structural style, crotch structural style, synthetic and antithetic
faults structural Style, negative and flashlight structural style.
2) Flashlight structural style is a unique and new type of structural style which was
named “flashlight” due to resemblance of structural style with the shape of flashlight. This
type of structural style is a unique example throughout extensional basins of the world.
3) The structures with in the study area show the indication for three important
tectonic episodes of the Indian plate and its effect on the structures of the area which can
be characterized as (1) Structures associated with the rifting during Late Jurassic-Early
Cretaceous when separation of Indian Plate from Gondwanaland occurred (2) Modification
reactivation in the Middle Cretaceous When Madagascar and Indian Plate were separated
and (3) Inversion and reactivation of earlier structures during Early Eocene when Indian
Plate collided with the Asia.
4) The wells with in the study area were drilled on the closure of normal faults, horst
block, it seems better to drill on the closure of large normal fault as it does not have
complications due to small other adjacent faults (splays).
170
5) The migration and trapping of hydrocarbons must have been greatly facilitated by
the interbedded sand and silt layers in the Sembar and Lower Goru Formation and possibly
along the faults acting as a conduit Later after some time hydrocarbons go into reservoir
rock known as migration of hydrocarbons from source to reservoir rock.
9.2 Recommendations for Future Work
➢ Acquisition of more 3D seismic is required and therefore is highly recommended

to resolve the small variations in structures when flattening applied so that small
amount of variation at specific tectonic episode can be marked. Another by
improved 3D seismic data, the hydrocarbon migration and entrapment issues can
be resolved at prospect level. It will also be useful to work out the reasons of failure
of wells drilled on such structures as 3D seismic enhances subsurface image. The
basic reason for failure of wells seems to be pitfall due to mis-interpretation of small
faults adjacent to major structure which may compartmentalize the major closure
trap which was only focused and targeted as normal fault. So, if high-resolution
3D seismic data will be acquired with advanced selection of acquisition parameters,
which ultimately will clear the small growth faults. And hence the failure of well
will be reduced.
➢ It is strongly recommended to integrate over all acquired seismic data combine and
to acquire good resolution data to develop the comprehensive three-dimensional
model of Southern Sindh Monocline.
➢ Extensional structures and structural styles of Southern Sindh Monocline played a
great role in the hydrocarbon potential of the study area. It is therefore
recommended that more seismic data with high resolution may be acquired to mark
splays and different structures and structural style which ultimately had a great role
in the distribution of hydrocarbons, compartmentalization of major fields which
ultimately will play a great role in the hydrocarbon prospectivity of the study area
and its surroundings.
171
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Appendices
WELL TOPS
Well Name: Jabo-05 Type: Development Status: Oil / Gas

Operator: BP Spud Date: 02-April-2003 Latitude: 24 21 8. 49
Well Bore Name: Jabo-05 Completion Date: 14-April-2003 Longitude: 68 33 16. 00
Status: Oil / Gas Depth Reference Elevation (m): Total Depth: 2, 075.60 meters
Concession: Badin 8.23 Formation Top: Lower Goru
Depth Reference: KB
Formation Formation Age Top (meter) Thickness

(meter)
Alluvium Recent 0.00 79.24
Gaj-Nari (Undiff) Oilgocene-Miocene 79.24 144.77
Upper Ranikot Paleocene 350.50 274.31
Khadro Fm Paleocene 624.81 41.15
Parh Limestone Late / Early 665.96 27.43

Cretaceous
Upper Goru Fm Late / Early 693.39 1,245.05

Cretaceous
Lower Goru Fm (A Early Cretaceous 1,938.43 0.00

Sand)
Lower Goru Fm (B Early Cretaceous 1,950.63 54.86

Sand)
Lower Goru Fm Early Cretaceous 2,005.49 27.43

(Badin Shale)
Lower Goru Fm (Sand Early Cretaceous 2,032.92 43.08

Below Badin Shale)
Well top information of Jabo-05 well
187
WELL TOPS
Well Name: Zaur-01 Type: Exploratory Status: Oil / Gas

Operator: Union Texas Spud Date: 02-April-2003 Latitude: 25 02 1. 47
Well Bore Name: Zaur- Completion Date: 14- Longitude: 68 54 09. 83
01 April-2003 Total Depth: 2, 057.40
Status: Oil / Gas Depth Reference Formation Top: Lower
Concession: Badin Elevation: 22.86 m Goru
Depth Reference: KB
Formation Formation Age Top (meter) Thickness (meter)
Alluvium- Gaj-Nari Recent 0.00 86.3

(Undiff)
Kirthar-Laki (Undiff) Oilgocene-Miocene 86.3 49.6
Upper Ranikot-Laki Paleocene 135.9 114.0
Lower Ranikot Paleocene 249.9 261.5
Deccan Trap Paleocene 511.4 85.4

Cretaceous
Upper Goru Late / Early 728.7 1038.1

Cretaceous
Lower Goru Early Cretaceous 1766.8 290.6

Well top information of Zaur-01 well
188
WELL TOPS
Well Name: Zaur-03 Type: Development Status: Oil / Gas

Operator: BP Spud Date: 02-April-2003 Latitude: 25 014. 17
Well Bore Name: Zaur- Completion Date: 14- Longitude: 68 54 68. 26
03 April-2003 Total Depth: 2, 125.98
Status: Gas / Condensate Depth Reference Formation Top: Lower
Concession: Badin Elevation: 22.86 m Goru
Depth Reference: KB

(meter)
Alluvium- Gaj-Nari Recent 0.00 54.9

(Undiff)
Kirthar-Laki (Undiff) Oilgocene-Miocene 73.2 18.3
Upper Ranikot-Laki Paleocene 140.8 67.6

Cretaceous
Upper Goru Fm Late / Early 733.0 147.4

Cretaceous
Lower Goru (A Sand) Early Cretaceous 1889.7 1156.7
Lower Goru (Turk Early Cretaceous 1926.2 31.6

Shale)
Lower Goru (B Sand) Early Cretaceous 1937.9 11.7
Lower Goru (Sand Early Cretaceous 2015.3 77.4

Below Badin Shale)
(Lower Goru) Upper Early Cretaceous 2103.0 87.7

Shale
Well top information of Zaur-03 well
189
WELL TOPS
Well Name: Doti-01 Type: Exploratory Status: ABD

Operator: Union Texas, Spud Date: 18-April-1996 Latitude: 24 13 9. 67
Pakistan Completion Date: 30- Longitude: 68 35 59. 01
Well Bore Name: Doti-01 April-1996 Total Depth: 1, 830.20
Status: ABD Depth Reference meters
Concession: Badin Elevation (m): 8.23 Formation Top: Lower
Depth Reference: KB Goru
Alluvium-Gaj- Recent 15.24 207.25

Nari
Kirthar-Laki Eocene 222.49 54.86
Upper Ranikot Paleocene 277.35 184.40

Cretaceous
Upper Goru Fm Late / Early 771.11 766.54

Cretaceous
Lower Goru Fm Early Cretaceous 1,537.64 292.36

Well top information of Doti-01 well
190
WELL TOPS
Well Name: Beghari-01 Type: Exploratory Status: ABD

Operator: OGDCL, Spud Date: 01-October- Latitude: 24 12 9. 31
Pakistan 1993 Longitude: 68 28 46. 73
Well Bore Name: Completion Date: 02- Total Depth: 2, 413.00
Beghari-01 March-1994 meters
Status: ABD Depth Reference Formation Top: Lower
Concession: Badin Elevation (m): 8.74 Goru
Depth Reference: KB

(meter)
Gaj-Nari Oligocene-Miocene 80.00 168.00
Laki Eocene 248.00 96.0
Ranikot Paleocene 344.00 260.00
Parh Late/ Early 627.00 91.00

Cretaceous
Upper Goru Fm Late/ Early 718.00 974.00

Cretaceous
Lower Goru Fm Early Cretaceous 1692.00 721.00

Well top information of Beghari-01 well
191
WELL TOPS
Well Name: Pirshah-01 Type: Exploratory Status: ABD

Operator: OGDCL, Spud Date: 03-April-1993 Latitude: 24 11 4. 12
Pakistan Completion Date: 14- Longitude: 68 28 37. 13
Well Bore Name: June-1993 Total Depth: 1, 930.00
Pirshah-01 Depth Reference meters
Status: ABD Elevation (m): 9.29 Formation Top: Lower
Concession: Badin Depth Reference: KB Goru
Gaj-Nari Oligocene-Miocene 53.00 201.00
Laki Eocene 254.00 114.00
Ranikot Paleocene 368.00 255.00
Parh Late/ Early Cretaceous 633.00 44.00
Upper Goru Fm Late/ Early Cretaceous 677.00 1,016.00
Lower Goru Fm Early Cretaceous 1693.00 237.00

Well top information of Pirshah-01 well
192
Average Depth of Reflectors of Geological Formations of the Study Area
Reflector Formation Time Velocity

Age Depth (m)
no. Name (sec) (m/sec)
Recent Alluvium 0
R1 Oligocene-Miocene Gaj-Nari 80.76
R2 Eocene Kirthar / Laki 220
R3 Paleocene U. RANIKOT 0.375 1893.62 355.05375
R4 Paleocene KHADRO FM 0.65 1987.71 646.00575
R5 Late / Early Cretaceous PARH LST 0.69 2000.62 690.2139
Uppper Goru
R6 Late / Early Cretaceous 1.175 2441.3 708.62
Fm
Lower Goru (A
R7 Early Cretaceous 1.465 2645.28 1937.6676
Sand)
Lower Goru
R8 Early Cretaceous 1.54 2695.39 2075.4503
(SBBS)
R9 Early Cretaceous SEMBAR Fm 1.75 2829.04 2475.41
R10 Middle Jurassic CHILTAN 1.975 2969.11 2931.99613
Jurassic Datta /
R11 Jurassic 2.25 3155.69815 3550.16042
Shinwari
Triassic Wargal
R12 Triassic 2.75 3464.06545 4763.09
/ Mianwali
Permian Zaluch
R13 Permian 4.2 3503.7373 4950.51655
/ Nilawahan
R14 PERM. Marvi Basalt 2.9 3543.40906 5137.94314
R15 M.CAM. Baghanwala 3.175 3543.68406 5138.21814
R16 M. CAM. Jutana 3.45 3543.95906 5138.49314
R17 M. CAM. Kussak 3.725 3544.23406 5138.76814
R18 E. CAMB. Khewra S.St 4 3544.50906 5139.04314
R19 Pre-Cambrian Salt Range 5 4399.59855 10998.9964
193
Kinematic Parameters of Indian Plate from 200 to 0 Ma
Time V mag V azimuth V colat V lon Ang V

(Ma) Lat Lon (cm/yr) (°) (cm/yr) (cm/yr) (°/Ma)
200 29.0073 0.3265 5.6288 7.5018 -5.5806 0.7349 -0.5067
190 34.0201 1.105 3.883 68.6463 -1.4139 3.6165 -0.5173
180 35.1159 5.1263 3.1816 198.1299 3.0236 -0.99 0.2858
170 32.3954 4.0722 2.4858 218.6544 1.9412 -1.5527 0.2476
160 30.6284 2.4704 5.7098 141.7105 4.4815 3.538 -0.5132
150 26.5495 6.0138 5.0818 154.6732 4.5933 2.1739 -0.4802
140 22.3838 8.0658 1.1824 313.8845 -0.8197 -0.8522 0.4585
130 23.0873 7.2033 8.6857 257.3612 1.9005 -8.4753 0.9662
120 20.8033 -0.8385 1.3154 229.8764 0.8477 -1.0059 0.191
110 20.0274 -1.7895 4.8394 318.0261 -3.5979 -3.2366 0.5102
100 23.1602 -5.0313 0.291 30.7657 -0.2501 0.1489 0.1498
90 23.3865 -4.8888 12.8302 223.039 9.3774 -8.7566 1.2818
80 14.4162 -12.542 2.9725 166.5044 2.8905 0.6937 0.6765
70 11.8573 -1.7629 2.6745 155.3974 2.4317 1.1135 1.1828
60 9.7859 -0.5318 3.9335 229.4176 2.5589 -2.9874 1.5948
50 7.1457 -2.8899 1.5717 90.5673 0.0156 1.5717 0.7671
40 7.2223 -11.47 4.7633 136.7358 3.4686 3.2646 0.5854
30 4.2024 -8.4242 5.0679 155.7161 4.6195 2.0842 0.6585
20 0.1333 -6.3835 3.8398 79.8137 -0.6791 3.7793 0.4845
10 0.8431 -3.0083 3.4781 107.3107 1.0349 3.3206 0.4571
0 0 0 0 270 0 0 0
194

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Ph.D.

STUDY OF TECTONIC EVOLUTION OF STRUCTURES AND

A THESIS SUBMITTED TOWARDS THE PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF

Centre for Pure and Applied Geology,

To my parents, teachers and

wife (Mrs. Almas Shabeer Abbasi)

Special Salute and Prayers for my father

(Sher Muhammad Abbasi)

1. Abbasi, Shabeer Ahmed, Sarfraz Hussain Solangi and Muhammad Hassan

SSM = Southern Sindh Monocline

TOC = Total Organic Content

AER = East African Rift

VSP = Vertical Seismic Profiling

E&P = Exploration and Production

VAS = Velocity Analysis System

UTP = Union Texas Pakistan

V mag = Velocity Magnitude

Ang V = Angular Velocity

Fig. 2.1 Sedimentary basins of Pakistan (OGDCL Report-2009)

2.3 The Model of Extensional Evolution of Southern Indus Basin

Fig. 2.4 Generalized stratigraphy of the study area

Fig. 2.5 Location of various wells of Jabo field

2.7.1 Trapping Mechanism

3.2 Driving Mechanism of Continental Rifting

3.6.2 Albertine Graben of the East African Rift System

Seismic profile across sub-unconformity trap (Rotliegendes sandstone) at Argyll field,

3.11 Major Discoveries and Structural Closures of the Study Area

Structural Traps and of Sindh Monocline

1 PK85-KH001 N-S 100 100 48 2 5 24 8.5

4.1.2 3D Seismic Data:

Fig. 4.4 Basemap showing Mehran 3D inlines and crosslines

Step 3: Seismic patterns

Step 4: Building and amalgamation of different datasets

4.3.3 Picking of horizons by tying of synthetic with seismic data

4.3.6 Marking of Horizons using VSP

4.3.7 Acoustic Impedance Attribute for Picking Horizons

Fig. 4.12 A Interval to RMS Velocity (Generated by K-Tron VAS)

Fig. 4.12 C Interval Velocity to Average Velocity (Generated by K-Tron VAS)

4.4 Plate tectonic models GPlates Software

5.1.1 Large Normal Fault

Fig. 5.2 Large normal fault interpreted on 3D Seismic data

5.1.2 Small Normal Fault

Fig. 5.4 Small normal fault interpreted on seismic Line PK95-1804

5.1.3 Spoon Shape Normal Fault

5.1.4 Master Normal Fault

5.1.6 Folding Structures

Fig. 5.9 Flexures structures interpreted on 3D seismic data from SSM.

5.1.8 Vertical Fault

5.1.9 Listric “Shovel” Fault

5.2 Structural Styles in Sothern Sindh Monocline

Horst & Synthetics Negative

Fig. 5.18 Dominos identified on 2D seismic Line PK85-1341 from SSM

5.2.4 Synthetic and Antithetic Structural Styles

5.2.5 Negative Flower Structural Styles

5.2.6 Flashlight Structural Style

2. Rifting of Indian Plate from Srilanka, Antarctica and Australia (~130Ma)

Time (Ma) Latitude Longitude V mag (cm/yr.) Ang V (°/Ma)

3. Separation of Indian Plate from Madagascar (~90Ma)

7. Maximum Speed of Indian Plate

Deposition of Formation and Tectonic Episodes

6.2 Tectonic Evolution of Structures in Southern Sindh Monocline.

7.4 Structural Styles and Closures in Jabo Field

Structural architeture of Jabo-02 well in 3D visulization is shown in Fig. 7.4 (C).