HACCP NGK K C N

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IMPLEMENTATION OF HAZARD ANALYSIS CRITICAL

CONTROL POINT (HACCP) SYSTEM TO THE NON-
ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGE INDUSTRY
a b
L. K. Kourtis & I. S. Arvanitoyannis
a
Department of Agriculture, Crops and Animal Production, Odos Fytoko , University of
Thessaly, School of Technological Sciences , 38446, Nea Ionia, Magnisia, Hellas, Greece
b
Department of Agriculture, Crops and Animal Production, Odos Fytoko , University of
Thessaly, School of Technological Sciences , 38446, Nea Ionia, Magnisia, Hellas, Greece
Published online: 06 Feb 2007.
To cite this article: L. K. Kourtis & I. S. Arvanitoyannis (2001) IMPLEMENTATION OF HAZARD ANALYSIS CRITICAL CONTROL
POINT (HACCP) SYSTEM TO THE NON-ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGE INDUSTRY, Food Reviews International, 17:4, 451-486, DOI:
10.1081/FRI-100108533
To link to this article: http://dx.doi.org/10.1081/FRI-100108533
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FOOD REVIEWS INTERNATIONAL, 17(4), 451–486 (2001)
Downloaded by [UNAM Ciudad Universitaria] at 15:39 25 December 2014
IMPLEMENTATION OF HAZARD ANALYSIS

CRITICAL CONTROL POINT (HACCP)
SYSTEM TO THE NON-ALCOHOLIC
BEVERAGE INDUSTRY
L. K. Kourtis and I. S. Arvanitoyannis*
University of Thessaly, School of Technological Sciences,

Department of Agriculture, Crops and Animal Production, Odos
Fytoko, 38446 Nea Ionia, Magnisia, Hellas, Greece
ABSTRACT
Non-alcoholic beverages, particularly, bottled water and fruit juices (carbon-

ated and non-carbonated) are the most widespread food industries worldwide.
The industry objective is to process at the lowest possible cost while main-
taining the organoleptic stability and quality of the final product. The latter
can be achieved through strict adherence to quality (ISO 9001/2) and safety
(HACCP) management systems. The flow diagrams for the production of bot-
tled water, several juices (orange, lemon, apple), carbonated drinks, coffee and
tea are shown accompanied with a synoptical implementation of the HACCP
system (critical control points, critical limits, preventive and corrective ac-
tions).
Key Words: HACCP; Bottled water; Fruit juice; Orange; Lemon; Apple;
Tea; Coffee; Safety assurance system; Hazard; Critical control point
INTRODUCTION
During the past decade, the term ‘‘quality’’ has become a common expres-
sion of everyday language because of its extensive use primarily by advertisers for
* Corresponding author. Fax: ⫹30 421 93144; E-mail: parmenion33@hotmail.com
451
Copyright  2001 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. www.dekker.com

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452 KOURTIS AND ARVANITOYANNIS
promotion purposes. Consumers expect the food they purchase to be wholesome,

unadulterated, nutritious, safe to consume and of standard quality (1). Several
quality management systems have been developed in an effort to address these
issues. The British Standards (BS 5750) was one of the first systems followed by
many others, including the ISO 9000 (International Organisation for Standardi-
zation) series, which is the most widely recognized and is required by many
companies/organizations. It is of the utmost importance that every aspect of food
manufacture should be controlled by Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) stan-
dards. These document management responsibility for the production of foods
that meet quality and safety requirements (2). The Hazard Analysis Critical Con-
trol Point (HACCP) system is usually integrated within GMP thus providing a
framework frequently incorporated in ISO 9000 as shown in the new generation
diagram by Mortimore and Wallace (3).
HACCP was introduced over 40 years and is still evolving. It is a system
aimed at, in time, minimizing product defects. HACCP’s development was as-
sisted by ICI’s Hazard and Operability Studies (HAZOPs) for assessing the haz-
ards associated with chemical plants (1970s). It was further promoted through its
incorporation into the US Food and Drug Administration’s regulations for low
acid canned foods and the Council Directive 93/43 of the EEC which suggests
the implementation of HACCP by food manufacturers (4–7).
HACCP covers the gamut from raw materials harvesting to consumption.
The steps for developing an entire HACCP system can be summarized as follows
(8,9):
Appointment of HACCP team,
Agreement on the terms of reference,
Product characterization and use definition,
Process flow diagram development,
Hazards identification,
Hazards quantification and occurrence likelihood,
Control requirements identification and tolerances statement,
Critical Control Points (CCPs) identification by applying tree diagram (10),
CCP monitoring and corrective actions,
Verification requirements,
HACCP system implementation,
Audits and improvements.
However, the seven always mentioned HACCP principles are (2,11,12):
Hazard analysis,
CCPs identification by Codex (13) as shown in Figure 1,
Critical Limits (CLs) for each CCP,
Monitoring actions,
Corrective actions,
Record-keeping procedures,
Verification procedures.
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NON-ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGE INDUSTRY 453

Figure 1. HACCP decision tree (13).

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Total quality management (TQM) is arguably the tertiary stage of quality improve-
ment for food companies following the consolidation of quality assurance (ISO
9001/2) and safety (HACCP) program (1).
Beverages constitute a diverse group of commodities ranging from bottled
water to the highest alcohol content drinks. The total budget of the beverage mar-
ket especially that of soft drinks is very large but, unfortunately, these drinks have
not been extensively investigated (14).
The objective of this review article is to present a HACCP implementation
scheme applicable to all stages (from raw materials harvesting to consumption)
of non-alcoholic beverages. It covers production, identification of CCPs, CLs, and

preventive (control) and corrective actions.
BOTTLED WATER
Product History and Description
Bottled water is any potable water that is processed, distributed or offered

for sale, sealed in food grade bottles or other containers and intended for human
consumption. The approved water sources for bottled water may be springs, mu-
nicipal systems, or other sources that have been inspected and analyzed and found
to be safe and of adequate sanitary quality, with or without treatment (15). Natural
mineral water is the microbiologically wholesome water originating from an un-
derground water table or deposit and emerging from a spring tapped at one or more
natural bore exits. Natural mineral water differs from ordinary drinking water by
its pristine nature. It is not processed in any way and is characterized by its mineral
content, trace elements or other constituents. These characteristics, which may
provide natural mineral water with properties favorable to health, must be estab-
lished by geological and hydrological, physical, chemical and physico-chemical,
microbiological methods and, if necessary, pharmacological, physiological, and
clinical studies (16).
Main Production Stages
The main stages for bottled water production are shown schematically in
Figure 2.
Abstraction of Water (CCP1)
The means of abstraction depend on the nature of the source. Spring water
typically rises from the spring through a bed of gravel. Water from artesian wells
and bores normally requires no pumping. Harvest pumping is required from non-
artesian wells and bores and submersible pumps are most commonly used. Strict
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Figure 2. Process flow diagram of bottled water production. The stages included in the dotted
box are not applicable to natural mineral water production (20,24).
precautions must be taken against possible contamination of the source at the point
of abstraction (14).
Analysis of drinking water, in particular for presence of metals, often pro-
vides important clues about the water source and guidelines for health protection.
Drinking water may contain different types of chemical residues including pesti-
cides, other environmental contaminants, and/or micropollutants. The major cause
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of chemical pollution is the discharge of wastewater originating either from do-

mestic or industry use. Other important causes are spillage of oil and industrial
chemicals, careless disposal of solid wastes on landfill sites, and the leading of
fertilizers and pesticides from farmlands. The use of metal pipework for the trans-
fer of potable water may cause contamination of the supply (17). Several studies
have shown that considerable quantities of Cu and Zn can be dissolved from pipe-
work and Cd from brass fittings (18). Water may be subjected to a number of
treatments depending on the quality of the source water native of the pollutants,
the type of bottled water being manufactured, and the location of the source. The
latter is the reason for intensive chemical examination of the water supply.
At the source, the total colony count should not exceed 20 per ml at 20–
22°C after 72 hours and 5 per ml at 37°C after 24 hours. The water should be
free from parasites and pathogenic microorganisms, including Escherichia coli
and other coliforms and faecal streptococci, sporulated sulfite-reducing anaerobes,
and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (16).
Samples should also be radiologically examined to guarantee that they have
a low level of radioactivity. Radiological safeguards are based on the control of
natural and man-made radionuclide concentrations. Alpha and beta activity con-
centration levels should be less than 0.1 and 1 Bq/l, respectively (19).
Storage
Storage in reservoirs is the first step towards reduction of the majority of

pathogenic microorganisms. The effect is related mainly to the residence time of
the water and the possibilities for short-circuiting. Possible pollution of the storage
tanks has to be taken into account when the subsequent treatment steps are de-
signed (20).
Flocculation and Coagulation (CCP2)
Coagulation and flocculation are used for solid material removal and usually
are the first steps in water purification. The pH is made slightly alkaline after its
reaction with ferrous or aluminum hydroxides. The gelatinous precipitates absorb
organic matter and colloidal particles. The precipitated hydroxide ‘‘flocs’’ remove
more than 90% of virus particles present in water. Iron presence above the critical
limit (CL) of 1mg/l can be prevented by applying a demineralization step and/or
dilution with other batches.
Chlorination
Coarse purification is usually employed in conjunction with chlorination so

that water is rendered sterile. The effectiveness of chlorine as a disinfectant de-
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pends on the pH and on the presence of ammonia and organic species. Residual
chlorine (6–10 mg/l) can be reached using calcium sodium hypochlorites, or gas-
eous chlorine. The use of chlorine frequently entails problems because of its reac-
tion with sulfur dioxide (sodium chlorate contamination of sodium hypochlorite)
or with organic matter thereby producing compounds which contribute flavors
and render the product unacceptable. Chlorophenols are particularly undesirable
contaminants. Employing the alkaline conditions is normal because chlorination
can be combined with coagulation and flocculation (21).
Storage
The major hazard occurring in treated water storage is recontamination. It

can be prevented by adequate construction of storage facilities, maintaining posi-
tive hydrostatic pressure at all times, and adhering to strict hygienic precautions
when laying new mains or working on already existing facilities.
Filtration (CCP3)
Whenever the chlorination step is applied, filtration through carbon filters

is used to achieve dechlorination. Because carbon filters promote the growth of
microorganisms, they must frequently be sterilized by steaming or immersion in
almost boiling water for several hours. Chlorine levels are continuously monitored
to indicate that the levels have been reduced effectively (CCP-chemical hazard)
(21).
Water may also be microfiltered through membranes of 0.1–10 µm pore size
to remove microorganisms (22). In the case of natural spring water filtration and
decanting, preceded where necessary by oxygenation, is employed for the separa-
tion of iron and sulphur compounds. However, the process does not serve to im-
prove the microbiological status of the water. It should be noted that for natural
mineral waters the Directive 80/777 prohibits the addition of bacteriostatic ele-
ments but does permit treatment with ozone-enriched air (16). The latter is the
reason that coagulation and chlorination steps are not applied to natural mineral
waters but to other types of bottled waters. Ozone-enriched air used for separation
of iron, manganese and sulfur compounds, and arsenic from certain mineral waters
is allowed because this treatment does not alter the composition of the water in
regards to the essential constituents which determine its properties (23).
Addition or Removal of CO 2 (CCP4)
Carbon dioxide content, and thus the degree of effervescence, is complicated

in that CO 2 may be removed from naturally carbonated or added to naturally
uncarbonated waters. Furthermore, a distinction must be made between CO 2 pres-
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ent in the source and CO 2 added. Measuring CO 2 pressure is a process control

method. Although carbonation is usually quite effective in reducing the population
of microorganisms and in preventing subsequent growth, it must not be relied
upon as the only means of disinfecting water from an unsafe source (24).
Packaging and Sealing
Natural mineral water must be bottled at the source and remain sealed in the
bottles until sold (16). There are no restrictions on other types of water. Packaging
involves several CCPs: covering containers to be used; their cleaning and disinfec-
tion (CCP5); the filling (CCP6); and sealing (CCP7). Possible hazards that must
be addressed include the following: the bursting pressure of the bottles, as guaran-
teed by the manufacturer in his specifications for the new glass, may no longer
be valid for reusable bottles due to considerable physical stress they already have
been subjected to; insufficient cleaning of reusable bottles due to low tempera-
tures; improper emptying of bottles may leave concentrations of cleaning solution
as well as extraneous entrapped materials within bottles during cleaning. The wa-
ter filler can be contaminated by cleaning and disinfection solutions. Contamina-
tion sources may be due to inadequate pressure or faulty CIP system resulting in
cleaning and disinfecting solution remain in the pressure tank or the ring bowl
of the filler (25,26). The crown corker should be correctly installed; the filling
pressure of bottle caps on the mouths of the bottles should be adjusted to ensure
a specified blow-off effect to avoid bottle bursting.
Microbiological hazards can play a significant role along with the already
mentioned chemical and physical hazards. This often leads to treatment of the
water used in the bottle washer and the rinsing either with ClO 2 or with ultraviolet
light so that neither Pseudomonas spp. or Escherichia coli are detected in a 250
ml sample. The bottle filler, next to being cleaned regularly, is also subjected to
regular hot water flooding and a continuous steam treatment of the filling tubes
and the bottle mouths (26). Canning is prone to exactly the same contamination
hazards as bottling.
Bottle Inspection (CCP8)
After filling, there should be an inspection of a full bottle to check on the

physical integrity of the bottles and the presence of any foreign particles (27,28).
Should a problem occur, it is the production engineer’s responsibility to stop the
line and reset the equipment.
Labeling and Standardization (CCP9)
Labeling of the package should comply with the requirements of the Codex
Standard for natural mineral waters (29) and those of Directive 80/777 EEC (16).
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Bottle/Can Packaging (CCP10)
Bottles/cans are packaged in paperboard boxes of various sizes according

to the bottles (cans) dimensions. The encountered hazards can be of a physical
nature contributing to bottle breakage and dented cans.
Storage (CCP11)
The finished product undergoes chemical, microbiological, and organoleptic

analysis to ensure that its properties meet specifications. The bacterial population
of bottled water increases after bottling, reaching a peak between the first and
second week thus showing the importance of microbial examination during stor-
age (30,31). Many publications on the analysis of bottled water microflora indicate
excessive microbiological contamination (32–39). These studies indicate the im-
portance of mandatory hygienic practices for collecting, processing, and marketing
of mineral water. The microbiological and chemical limits for bottled water are
provided by Directive 80/777 EEC (16) and Codex Stan 108-1991 (29). The mi-
crobiological limits call for the absence of coliforms, pathogens, E. coli, Ps. Aeru-
ginosa, and the absence of sporulated sulfite reducing anaerobes in many 250 ml
samples. The allowable levels of heavy metals are: As ⬍ 0.05, Pb ⬍ 0.05, F ⬍
2, Cd ⬍ 0.01, Mg ⬍ 2, Zn ⬍ 5, Hg ⬍ 0.001, Cu ⬍ 1 mg/l). Phenolics, pesticide
residues, and aromatic hydrocarbons also constitute chemical hazards.
A synoptical presentation of the occurring hazards, CCPs, CLs, preventive
and corrective measures, is given in Table 1.
FRUIT JUICE
Fruit juice is the unfermented but fermentable juice intended for direct con-
sumption. It is obtained by mechanical processing from ripe fruits and preserved
exclusively by physical means (40). Although the first production of this product
dates from the mid-19th century, it was only recently that fruit juices have become
an important part of the daily diet. Technological advances as well as the recogni-
tion of the nutritional value of fruit juices were the two main reasons for this
evolution (14). Citrus juices are the most widely consumed and account for over
50% of juice in international commerce. Apple, grape, and grapefruit juices are
also popular.
The main stages for fruit juice production are shown schematically in Fig-
ure 3.
460
Table 1. Synoptical Presentation of Hazards, CCPs, CLs, Monitoring, Corrective Actions, and Responsible Personnel for Bottled Water Production
Hazards Control-Preventive Critical Monitoring Corrective Responsible
Process Step (P,M,C)* Measures CCP Parameter Limits (CLs) Procedures Actions Personnel
Water abstraction M Routine control of es- Microbiological qual- 20 cfu/ml 20°C Microbiological Rejection of specific Quality control
(CCP1) tablishment mi- ity of the spring 5 cfu/ml 37°C control water manager
croflora, GMP Faulty machinery re-
placement, Facility
disinfection
Routine microbiolog- Coliforms, patho- Absence in any sam- Microbiological anal- Faulty batches rejec-
ical control, GMP gens, E.coli, ple in 250ml ysis tion
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Ps.aeruginosa, Absence in any sam-

Sporulate sulphite- ple in 50ml
reducing anaerobes
C Chemical control Nitrates presence, 50 mg/l Specific chemical Faulty batch re-
control jection
Flocculation (CCP2) C Chemical control Fe content, 0.1 ⫾ 0.05 mg/l Specific chemical Faulty batch rejec- Quality control
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control tion, Demetalli- manager

sation
Filtration (CCP3) C Chemical control Cl ⫺ content As prescribed in Di- Specific chemical Dilution, batch re- Quality control
rective 80/777 control processing manager
EEC
Addition of CO 2 C Routine machinery Prescribed quantity 6.8 ⫾ 0.1 g/l Measuring CO 2 Machinery standardi- Technical manager
(CCP4) standardisation pressure sation
Bottle/can inspector C GMP Cleaning perfor- No solids, no liquid Elaborate electronic Rewashing of bot- Quality control
(CCP5) mance remnants recognition sys- tles, CIP system manager
tems after CIP inspection
P Certified supplier, Bottles proper for Cracks/scratches ab- On-line visual con- Rejection of faulty Trained personnel
proper handling of foods and drinks, sence trol bottles
bottles bottles condition
Bottle/can filler C Installation of con- Contamination with Complete absence Organoleptic exam- Batch rejection Trained personnel
(CCP6) trolling equip- detergents ination of filled
ment on the CIP bottles
system
KOURTIS AND ARVANITOYANNIS
M GMP, proper equip- Pseudomonas spp. E. Absence in 250ml Microbiological anal- Batch rejection, Quality control
ment dissinfection coli ysis changing equip- manager
ment disinfection
Bottle/can sealer P Correct installation Blow-off effect Occurrence reduced Control set sealing Automatic removal Trained personnel
(CCP7) of equipment to an acceptable pressure of destroyed bot-
level tles
Bottle/can inspection P Regular inspection of Physical damage Occurrence reduced On-line monitoring Equipment standardi- Technical manager
(CCP8) the machinery to an acceptable sation
level
Labeling (CCP9) P Careful selection of Misplaced etiquettes Reduced to an accept- Visual checks, con- Relabeling the spe- Trained personnel
the etiquettes able level trol of the cific batch
equipment
Bottle/can packaging P Correct installation Bottles condition dur- Absence of rifts in On-line visual con- Adjust the equipment Technical manager
(CCP10) of the equipment ing palletisation the lute, crack or trol parameters (speed,
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scratches pressure)
Storage (CCP11) M Routine microbiolog- Coliforms, patho- Absence in any sam- Microbiological anal- Faulty batches rejec- Quality control
ical control, GMP gens, E.coli, Ps.aer- ple in 250ml ysis tion manager
uginosa, Sporulate Absence in any sam-
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sulphite-reducing ple in 50ml

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anaerobes
Total colony count 100cfu/ml at 22°C
20 cfu/ml at 37°C
C Routine chemical Phenolics, pesticide Absence Specific chemical Faulty batches rejec- Quality control
control residue, aromatic analysis tion manager
hydrocarbons
Heavy metal pres- As ⬍ 0.05, Pb ⬍
ence as prescribed 0.05, F ⬍ 2, Cd ⬍
in Directive 0.01, Mg ⬍ 2,
80/777 Zn ⬍ 5, Hg ⬍
0.001, Cu ⬍ 1
(mg/l)
* P, M, C, stand for physical, microbiological, and chemical hazard, respectively

461
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Figure 3. Process flow diagram of single-strength juice production (41,103–106).

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Receipt of Raw Materials (CCP1)
The fruits are transported by truck from the field or storehouse to the ‘‘stor-
age bin’’ outside the main processing plant. Visual inspection control and auto-
matic separation equipment are used to separate spoiled fruits and ensure that all
fruits to be processed are sound and mold/rot free (CCP). The presence of the
latter can lead to off flavors, patulin contamination (CCP), and microbiological
contamination of the juice (41). Patulin is considered one of the most significant
contaminants in apple juice because of its carcinogenic, teratogenic, and muta-
genic effects, and its stability during heat treatment. There is great interest in
developing better procedures for its determination. A maximum permitted concen-
tration has been set at 50 µg/l in foodstuffs by the World Health Organization
(42,43).
Washing and Sorting of Raw Fruits (CCP2)
The storage bin feeds a variable speed conveyer that allows fruit flow rate
to match the demand by the extractors. Prior to feeding the extractors, the fruits
are washed, pass through a grading station, and are sorted by size (14). The CCP
here stands for physical and chemical hazards. The physical hazard refers to the
removal of pests, stalks, and leaves by passing the fruit through a rotating perfora-
ted drum on to a round-faced belt running up an incline. The fruit rolls down the
slope to be processed whereas the leaves, sticks, and rotten fruit stick to the belt
and are carried upwards to a collection point (44). Washing aims at effectively
removing/reducing pesticide residues (CCP-chemical hazard) from the outer sur-
face of fruits such as apples and other soft and pome fruits that are processed
with their peel in order to comply with the specification of Codex Alimentarius.
Production of Unpasteurized Juice
For oranges and citrus fruits in general, there is only an extraction step for
which two main extractor types are available: the FMC and the Brown types.
Both extractors require carefully sized fruit and although they operate on different
principles, they produce a high yield of good quality juice. They also can control
the amount of peel oil in the extracting juice and by screening are able to remove
pieces of peel, seeds, and excess pulp particles (45).
For apples and pome fruits, in general, the major steps include milling or
grinding, pre-treatment with pectolytic enzymes (CCP3), and pressing of milled
pomace. Apples are first ground in one of two types of mills. The first, called the
grater or grasp mill, grinds the apples with a rotating drum fitted with rows of
serrated teeth and is more commonly used in Europe. In North America, apple
juice processors prefer hammer mills where apples are chopped through a screen
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surrounded with blades fixed upon a rotating shaft. Both milling systems have
their own advantages and disadvantages depending on the maturity of the fruit to
be processed (46). At this step, enzymes are continuously added through a dosing
pump during crushing. The average dose for most enzymes varies from 40 to 200
g per ton of apples depending on the enzyme and quality of raw material (47).
The enzymatically treated pulp is pumped into the maceration tank where the
reaction takes place for 30–60 min at an ambient temperature (between 10 and
30°C depending on the weather). The pectolytic enzymes break down the cell
structure and/or dissolve pectins in the juice thereby dramatically reducing the
viscosity, resulting in a larger volume of juice and increase plant capacity. The
CCP at this stage is related to the absence of any microbiological infection at
preparation that might affect the microbiological load of the juice. The juice is
extracted from milled pomace using a wide variety of pressing systems (horizon-
tal, belt, screw presses). Press efficiency is defined by the yield of total juice as
a percent of the weight of the original fruit (44). Following the pomace removal,
the unpasteurized juice is collected in storage tanks. It must comply with the chem-
ical standards as stated in the Codex Alimentarius (CL: As ⬍ 0.2, Pb ⬍ 0.3, Cu ⬍
5, Zn ⬍ 5, Fe ⬍ 15 mg/Kg), (CCP4).
Pre-pasteurization Treatment
Fruit juices, depending on the particular fruit, undergo various processing

steps. Orange juice is subjected to a pre-heating stage where the temperature of
the juice is raised to almost 70°C in order to facilitate the following deaeration
step (CCP5) and results in higher retention of L-ascorbic acid (48–52). After this
treatment, the juice is ready for the pasteurization step. The deaeration step is
obligatory according to Greek legislation (53).
Apple juice can be produced either as cloudy or clear juice. If cloudy juice
is the target, the addition of ascorbic acid (54,55) or flash heating is required in
order to prevent enzymatic reactions and to maintain its bright color. This stage
is followed by filtration or centrifugation (41). However, if the target product is
a clear juice, an initial clarification step is added. This step requires the addition
of pectolytic enzymes at 45–50°C at 2–5g/hl for 2 hours (CCP3). After the juice
is depectinized, fining agents such as gelatin and bentonite are added then filtered
through earth filters, rotary vacuum filters, or sheet filters. Filter membranes with
a very fine pore size also enable the removal of insoluble particles, colloids, and
even macromolecules from juice (47).
Pasteurization (CCP6)
Although microbiological analysis reveals the presence of a great variety of

saprophytic microorganisms, the spoilage microflora of fruit juices is limited to
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acid tolerant bacteria, yeasts and molds. At pasteurization the juice is thermally
treated to be sterilized (CCP). Nowadays, the HTST treatment, heating the juice
to 85–95°C for 4–20 second, is the most widely used method. Pasteurization is
a CCP (CCP6). It is carried out on-line by continuous monitoring of temperature
and by testing the microbial load of the pasteurized product to check that it is
in agreement with current microbiological standards. Microbiological tests must
indicate the absence of Staphylococcus aureus, E. coli, Bacillus spp. and salmo-
nella. The limits for yeasts, molds, LAB, and Lactobacilli are set by the specific
plant.
Cooling (CCP7)
After pasteurization, the juice is rapidly (within 30–40 sec) cooled down to
prevent the development of thermophila bacteria and/or spore germination (CCP-
microbiological hazard). On-line temperature indicators and proper maintenance
of the equipment constitute essential measures. The product moves to the next
step at ambient temperature and is either immediately packaged or transferred to
large tanks for aseptic bulk storage.
Aseptic Packaging or Aseptic Bulk Storage
The process equipment and tube system for transferring the product to the
aseptic filling system must comply with prescribed requirements for aseptic filling
standards and safety. Proper decontamination of the packaging material (or bulk
tank) by heating (56), chemical sterilants (57), ultraviolet irradiation (58), or a
combined process (59), and aseptic equipment is the first step (CCP8). The Bacil-
lus subtitles spores have often been proposed as a challenging bacterium for testing
the performance of the employed decontamination method (60). The production
of satisfactory seals and closures (61) and the use of appropriate packaging materi-
als for foods and drinks free from undesirable foreign materials and particles
(CCP9) are of crucial importance. During the bulk aseptic storage of the juice,
sulfur dioxide or other substances such as sodium sulfite and disulfite, calcium
sulfite and acid calcium sulfite are added in order to prevent enzymatic degradation
(62). The total amount of these substances, expressed as sulfur dioxide in the juice
should remain below 10 mg per liter of juice. Desulfiting of the juice must be
achieved by physical processes (62).
Labeling of the package should comply with the requirements of the Codex
General for the labeling of prepackaged foods (63). This means that the name of
the product shall be clearly stated, there should be a list of ingredients in descend-
ing order of concentration, no other fruits may be represented pictorially except
those used, and ‘‘the date of minimum durability’’ shall be stated by the month
and year in uncoded numerical sequence.
466
Table 2. Synoptical Presentation of Hazards, CCPs, CLs, Monitoring, Corrective Actions and Responsible Personnel for Fruit Juices Production
Hazards Control-Preventive Critical Monitoring Responsible
Process Step (P,M,C)* Measures CCP Parameter Limits (CLs) Procedures Corrective Actions Personnel
Incoming raw M Certified suppliers, Sound fruit free from All Visual inspection, use Rejection of faulty Quality control
ORDER
materials (CCP1) proper handling mold or rot automatic separator fruits manager
during storage and Patulin content 50 µg/l equipment
distribution
Washing/ sorting P Applied a rotating Removal of pests, 0 Inspection of the Batch reprocessing Trained personnel
(CCP2) perforated drum stalks and leaves equipment
REPRINTS
C Certified suppliers, Pesticide residues MRLs as described Chemical analyses Rejection of specific Quality control
collaboration with by Codex Ali- batch manager
the farmers, mentarius
Inspection of washing Detergent residues 0
step
Enzyme addition M Certified suppliers, Uninfected prepara- 100% clean Microbiological ex- Rejection of prepara- Quality control
(CCP3) strictly follow the tion amination tion, change sup- manager
instructions plier
Unpasteurised juice C Certified suppliers, es- Toxic metal presence As ⬍ 0.2, Pb ⬍ 0.3, Chemical examina- Rejection of the spe- Quality control
(CCP4) tablishment fre- Cu ⬍ 5, Zn ⬍ 5, tion with AAS cific batch manager
quent examination Fe ⬍ 15 (mg/Kg)
Dearation (CCP5) C Inspection of the Dissolved oxygen Specified by the par- Chemical analysis Batch reprocessing, Quality control
deaerator ticular plant Equipment repro- manager
gramming
Pasteurisation M Running of pasteuri- S.aureus, E.coli, Ba- Absence Microbiological tests, Repasteurisation of Quality control
(CCP6) ser according to cillus spp., salmo- on-line surveillance the batch manager
program nella spp. of pasteurisation
Yeasts, molds, LAB, Specified by the plant

lactobacilli
C Inspection of the CIP Contamination with 0 Chemical analyses of Rejection of specific Quality control
system detergents batches, examina- batch, reprogram- manager
tion of CIP system ming the CIP
system
Cooling (CCP7) M Running of cooling Spore germination Final temperature Installation of on-line Clean the equipment, Trained personnel
system according and development 20°C in 30 sec. temperature indi- control set tem-
to program of thermophila cators perature
bacteria
Packaging decon- C Inspection of equip- Detergents residues H 2 O 2 limit Chemical and micro- Reprogram the clean- Quality control
tamination ment and the deter- biological analyses ing system manager
(CCP8) gents concentration
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M B. subtitles spores 0
Aseptic filling/ P Certified suppliers, in- Packaging materials Absence of undesir- Visual on-line control Rejection of faulty Trained personnel
bulk storage stallation of visual proper for low pH able foreign materi- material
(CCP9) inspection control food and drinks, als scratches or
of the packaging Thermosealability cracks

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material No leakage
C Inspection of the air Cross-contamination Absence of E.coli, Microbial testing of Batch rejection or re- Quality control
filters and the ma- coliforms, yeasts yeasts presence batches and ma- processing manager
chinery’s sterility specified by the chinery
plant
Storage (CCP10) C Control of the storage Absorption of volatile Reduced to an accept- Organoleptic control Batch rejection Quality control
conditions (tem- compounds from able level of batches manager
perature, RH) the juice
* P, M, C, stand for physical, microbiological, and chemical hazards, respectively.

467
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Storage (CCP10)
Relative humidity and temperature are the two most important environmental
parameters that affect product quality, by either increasing or decreasing the gas
permeability of the packaging material, especially in hydrophilic materials (64).
Those two parameters can also affect the amount of the volatile substances of the
juice absorbed by the packaging material (65), which in turn can affect the struc-
tural properties of the packaging materials (e.g., increase in O 2 permeability) lead-
ing to a decrease in the shelf life of the product (66,67).
The occurring hazards, CCPs, CLs, preventive and corrective measures are
given synoptically in Table 2.
SOFT DRINKS
Soft drinks appear to have been invented in the 17th century as a mixture
of water and lemon juice sweetened with honey. In 1676, the Company of Lem-
onadiers was formed in Paris and granted a monopoly by the government for the
sale of their product. Joseph Priestley is credited with the title of the father of
soft drinks industry for his invention in 1772 of a device to produce carbonated
water. The term ‘‘soft drinks’’ encompasses all non-alcoholic beverages but in
common usage coffee, tea, and milk-based products are commonly excluded.
Nowadays, soft drinks represent a substantial proportion of liquid intake with large
per capita consumption volumes per year (68).
The main stages for soft drink production are shown schematically in Fig-
ure 4.
Incoming Ingredients (CCP1)
The major ingredients of soft drink beverages in addition to water are carbon
dioxide, sugar or other sweeteners, flavorings, preservatives, colorings, and acidi-
fiers (69).
Water
Water represents almost 90% of the total volume of the drink. It is essential
that the water used in the production line comply with the standards set by Direc-
tive 80/777 EEC for potable water given in Table 1 (16). However, should the
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Figure 4. Process flow diagram of soft drinks production (24,69).
latter not occur, proper chemical and microbiological decontamination steps, men-
tioned previously in the production stages of the bottled water section, should be
in place to assure its quality (21).
Sugar
Sugar is a principal ingredient in most soft drinks and as such deserves close
attention to its quality control. Sugar is derived from cane or beet and the product
from either source is acceptable. In EEC, there are currently no microbiological
standards set for sugar, contrary to the USA where the National Soft Drink Associ-
ation has set standards for microbiological control of the product (Mesophilic
bacteria, 100 cfu; yeasts, 10 cfu; molds, 10 cfu) (70–72). The sugar content of
heavy metals (As ⬍ 1, Cu ⬍ 2, Pb ⬍ 0.5 mg/kg) and pesticides residue should
be compatible with the standards set by Codex (73).
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Sweeteners
Sweeteners are used alternatively to sugar in order to reduce the sugar con-
tent in the drink without affecting sweetness. As synthetic chemicals, they should
comply with the prescribed regulations of the Directive 94/35 on sweeteners for
use in foodstuffs (74). Chemical analysis to ensure purity is essential to avoid
health or spoilage hazards to the product (75).
Preservatives
Some carbonated drinks, notably those with low pH, can be satisfactorily
manufactured without preservatives. For other soft drinks, and particularly those
containing fruits, employment of a chemical preservative such as benzoic acid or
sorbic acid is essential (76,77). In any case, their quantity constitutes a chemical
hazard and should comply with Directive 95/2 EC and its amendments 98/72 EC
(78,107).
Colors
The applied synthetic colors should be certified by Directive 94/36 EC for

foodstuffs (102). All certified batches must meet stringent chemical purity stan-
dards. Caramel from heated sugar, a non-synthetic color, is commonly used in
dark beverages such as colas. These coloring materials are much preferred over
natural fruit colors because of their greater coloring power and color stability.
Even when natural fruit extracts are used, their colors are generally supplemented
with synthetic colors (69).
Acidifiers
Acidifiers constitute essential and universal substances present in the final

product. The most common is citric acid which can be obtained either in its anhy-
drous form or as monohydrate. Phosphoric acid is used in cola drinks. Malic,
lactic, tartaric, and acetic acids are rarely employed (68).
Flavors
Flavors are substances capable of imparting desirable taste and/or odor to

a food. Flavoring materials may be of natural origin, either processed or unpro-
cessed, or synthetically manufactured (75,79). Such chemicals embrace a variety
of organic compounds and their use is governed by Directive 88/388 EEC (80),
95/2 EC (78), and their amendments.
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Preparation of Bottling Syrups
The bottling syrup contains all the ingredients of the finished product except
in the case of carbonated drinks the carbon dioxide and most of the water. Sugar
in the form of syrup is the first ingredient to be added to the mixing tank; the
amount added is controlled by means of a metering pump. If the sugar is delivered
in granulated form, there is the additional step of dissolving the sugar and produc-
ing a syrup. Fruit juices should be kept in a separate tank prior to their addition to
the mixing tank. The addition of the other ingredients (CCP2) should be conducted
according to the suppliers’ specifications, taking into account their behavior in

the presence of the other ingredients already added to the batch and the maximum
limits set by the aforementioned Directives. Because of the synthetic additives
potential toxicity, accurate and reliable methods are required for their determina-
tion in order to ensure food safety. Many analytical techniques have been em-
ployed for the simultaneous determination of various food additives such as capil-
lary electrophoresis (CA) (81,82), high-performance ion chromatography (HPIC)
(83), micellar electrokinetic chromatography (MEC) (84), and cyclodextrin modi-
fied electrophoresis (85). Once the bottling syrup is prepared, it may be necessary
to filter (CCP3) or pasteurize it before pumping it down to storage tanks (CCP4)
or directly to the filling line (68). Each batch of bottling syrup should undergo
thorough quality control tests before being released. The bare minimum consists
of a taste test, making up the syrup as in the finished product, measurement of
the Brix, and detection of yeasts (14).
Carbonation (CCP5)
Most beverages are carbonated in a range of 1.5–4 volumes. This is carried

out with carbonators of various designs where carbonation is speeded by providing
intimate contact between the liquid and the CO 2 gas. The liquid is cooled because
the solubility of CO 2 in water is greater at lower temperatures and extra pressure
is applied to force more CO 2 into the solution. In practice, the entire flavored
drink may be carbonated or only the water may be carbonated for subsequent
mixing with the flavored syrup (69). Both treatments lead to similar results and
the second technique is shown in Figure 4. Carbon dioxide in soft drinks acts as
an important preservative against microbial spoilage (76). All deliveries of carbon
dioxide should be odorless and a quantity of carbonated water should be prepared
for sensory evaluation.
Mixing (CCP6)
To ensure the mixing organoleptic quality of the final product, the correct
proportion of syrup and water, the flavor and appearance, the volume of carbon
472
Table 3. Synoptical Presentation of Hazards, CCPs, CLs, Monitoring, Corrective Actions, and Responsible Personnel for Soft Drinks Production
Incoming materials M Certified suppliers, Microbiological sta- Mesophilic: 100 c.f.u. Microbiological Rejection of specific Quality control
(CCP1) routine microbio- tus of 10g sugar Yeasts: 10 c.f.u. control batch Change sup- manager
ORDER
logical examina- Molds: 10 c.f.u. plier, Apply a de-

tion of incoming contamination step
batches
C Certified suppliers Additives purity 100% Chemical analysis Faulty batch rejection
Routine chemical con- Heavy metal presence As ⬍ 1, Cu ⬍ 2, Demetallisation
REPRINTS
trol in sugar Pb ⬍ 0.5 (mg/kg)

Pesticide residue in By pesticide as de-
sugar scribed by Codex
Filtration (CCP2) P GMP Removal of physical Reduced to an accept- Visual inspection of Reprocessing of spe- Quality control
impurities able level filters, brix mea- cific batch manager
surement
Storage tanks M GMP, routine estab- Increase of initial Set by the specific Microbiological Reprocessing of Quality control
(CCP3) lishment inspection microbial popula- plant control faulty batches, re- manager
tions (in sugar jection, equipment
and water) disinfection
Addition of CO 2 C Routine machinery Prescribed quantity 6.8 ⫾ 0.1 g/l Measuring CO 2 Machinery standardi- Technical manager
(CCP4) standardisation pressure sation
Mixing (CCP5) P Routine machinery Brix measurement 7.5 ⫾ 0.1°Bx On-line refractome- Machinery standardi- Technical manager
standardisation ters sation
C Establish monitoring Maximum quantities Prescribed by the Di- With adequate meth- Machinery standardi- Quality control
procedures of additives rectives men- ods (CP, EC, sation, faulty batch manager
tioned in text HPLC) rejection, dilution
Bottle/can in-spec- C GMP Cleaning performance No solids, no liquid Elaborate electronic Rewashing of bottles, Quality control
tor (CCP6) remnants recognition sys- CIP system in- manager
tems after CIP spection
P Certified supplier, Bottles proper for Cracks/scratches ab- On-line visual control Rejection of faulty Trained personnel
proper handling of foods and drinks, sence bottles
bottles bottles condition
Bottle/can filler C Installation of control- Contamination with Complete absence Organoleptic exami- Batch rejection Trained personnel
(CCP6) ling equipment on detergents nation of filled bot-
the CIP system tles
Bottle/can sealer P Correct installation of Blow-off effect Occurrence reduced Control set sealing Automatic removal Trained personnel
(CCP7) equipment to an acceptable pressure of destroyed bot-
level tles
Bottle/can inspe-c- P Regular inspection of Physical damage Occurrence reduced On-line monitoring Equipment standardi- Technical manager
tion (CCP8) machinery to an acceptable sation
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level
Labeling (CCP9) P Careful selection of Misplaced etiquettes Reduced to an accept- Visual checks, con- Relabeling the spe- Trained personnel
etiquettes able level trol of the cific batch
equipment
Bottle/can packa- P Correct installation of Bottles condition dur- Absence of rifts in On-line visual control Adjust the equipment Technical manager
REPRINTS
ging (CCP10) equipment ing palletisation the lute, crack or parameters (speed,
scratches pressure)
Storage (CCP11) M Apply sterile air fil- S.aureus, E.coli, sal- Absence Microbiological ana- Batch rejection, Quality control
tration system. monella spp. lysis changing equip- manager
Yeasts, molds, LAB, Specified by the plant ment disinfection,
lactobacilli establish alterna-
tive heat treatment
to the batch
C Routine inspection of Toxic metal presence As ⬍ 0.2, Pb ⬍ 0.3, Chemical examina- Rejection of the spe-
incoming materi- Cu ⬍ 5, Zn ⬍ 5, tion with AAS cific batch, demet-
als, GMP Fe ⬍ 15 (mg/Kg) allisation of incom-
ing materials

473
ORDER REPRINTS
dioxide gas added should be carefully monitored. The maximum quantities of all
additives as set by the aforementioned EC Directives constitute a CCP that should
be monitored with methods such as HPLC and GC. The physical hazard at this
step is measured by the Brix level that determines the overall appearance of the
drink and its consumer acceptability.
Bottling/Storage/Distribution
The applied procedures are similar to those mentioned for the bottled water
production. A synoptical presentation of the occurring hazards, CCPs, CLs, pre-

ventive and corrective measures is provided in Table 3.
TEA AND COFFEE

Tea and coffee are among the most frequently consumed beverages world-
wide. The use of tea as a beverage is traced back by the Chinese to almost 5000
years. The first recorded reference to tea, however, is an old Chinese wordbook
dating from 350 BC. The tea drinking tradition came to Japan in the 6th century.
It was then introduced to what is today known as Indonesia and from there was
brought through the Dutch colonials to Holland in the middle of 17th century.
The English played a major role in merchandising and popularizing tea (86). Now-
adays, tea is consumed by hundreds of millions of people worldwide and is gener-
ally considered a healthy product thanks to its polyphenols antimutagenic and an-
ticarcinogenic activity (87–90).
Although, coffee originated in the forests of Ethiopia, the Arabs were the
first to exploit it. The earliest written reference to coffee is in 10th century Arab
writings. The Arabs managed to keep a monopoly on their coffee and ran a lucra-
tive trade with Europe until the early 18th century, when smuggled viable beans
were planted throughout the world. Today, large quantities of coffee beans are
produced in developing countries making a significant contribution to their earn-
ings of foreign exchange (91).
Main Production Steps
Figure 5 shows the main stages for tea and coffee production.
Processing at the Plantation

Coffee
An important aspect of optimal quality is in the initial harvesting, because

of uneven maturation of the coffee cherries. Ripening depends upon the particular
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Figure 5. Process flow diagram of tea and coffee production (14,91,97).

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climatic conditions and on the cultivar’s choice (92). Manual harvesting and clas-
sification systems by water flotation (sinkers/floaters) can be applied to enable
further quality control at this stage. The coffee cherry has two coffee beans cov-
ered by a thin parchment-like hull that is further surrounded by pulp. Both hull
and pulp are removed before the coffee beans are roasted. Pulping is carried out
by passing the cherry through pulping machines that break and separate the pulp
from the rest of the bean leaving only a mucilaginous coating. The latter is re-
moved at the fermentation step with the aid of pectin-digesting enzymes (CCP1)
and various washing treatments (CCP2) (69). The enzyme preparation should be
uncontaminated (CCP-microbiological hazard) to avoid transfer of undesirable

microorganisms. The water used should also comply with the characteristics de-
scribed in Directive 80/777 EEC (16). Fermentation may be either carried out
‘‘dry,’’ with no added water and the drain open, or ‘‘wet,’’ with the beans sub-
merged in water in a tank followed by a short dry fermentation. Tanks should be
cleaned before fermentation and fresh clean water used on-line monitoring of pH
(above 4.5) during the washing treatments prevent microbial spoilage and off-
flavor development. Fermentation time depends upon location and ambient tem-
perature (93). After fermentation, the coffee beans are sun and/or machine dried
in order to drop the moisture level to about 12% (CCP-physical hazard) (53). The
choice of time/temperature conditions greatly affects color and flavor develop-
ment. The dried beans still carry the endocarp (hull or parchment) which is finally
removed during hulling. A polishing process is applied to remove the last of the
silverskin (91). Grading and packing are the final steps for exportation. Prior to
packaging, the product should comply with the standards set by Codex (94) for
pesticide residue limits (CCP-chemical hazard). The final product must not contain
more than 3% foreign materials and 10% insect infested beans (CCP-physical
hazard). Because of its low moisture content, microbial spoilage of the end product
is unlikely, although temperature, humidity, and ventilation are critical environ-
mental factors influencing its organoleptic properties.
Tea
Harvesting is the most expensive of all the agricultural operations involved

in tea production. It is a complicated process aiming at a very delicate balance
between the maximum production of shoots, without impairing the bush’s health,
and the end product quality. The harvesting method should represent the optimal
compromise among yield, quality, and cost. A combination of hand plucking and
shear harvesting frequently gives optimum results (95). Withering is achieved by
spreading the leaf on troughs constructed of steel, wood, or brickwork fitted with
a mesh to support the leaf and a fan to blow air through the leaf bed. Its main
objective is to reduce the moisture content of fresh leaves to 55–60% thus render-
ing its physical condition suitable for the succeeding leaf disruption stage. The
required moisture content depends on the process to be used. During withering,
several time/temperature dependent biochemical reactions occur influencing the
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quality of the final product. In the case of green tea, the next stage comprises a
heating process designed to completely inactivate the enzymes as rapidly as possi-
ble (96). Otherwise, the withered leaves pass under rollers to rupture cell walls
and release the enzymes and juices. The fermentation step starts as the leaves are
crushed with a series of complex oxidation reactions catalyzed by the enzyme
polyphenol oxidase (PPO) under atmospheric oxygen. Flavanols are converted
to theaflavins and theabigins, drastically changing the chemical composition and
determining the quality of the end product (97). The PPO activity is affected by
withering and fermentation time as well as by oxygen supply and temperature
(98). When tea is judged to have reached the desired stage, fermentation is stopped
by drying. The time required for the moisture content to fall to around 20% (where
PPO is inactivated) is critical. The dried finished product contains 2.5–3.5% mois-
ture. When it leaves the dryer, tea is a rather heterogeneous mixture of different
sizes of leaf fragments together with stalk and fiber. The particle size distribution
depends on the particular manufacturing method while the amount of stalk is deter-
mined by the plucking standard. The objective of sorting and grading is to produce
a series of teas having even-sized particles without any visible pale colored stalk
or fiber (96). Immediately after sorting, the tea has to be packed to avoid possible
deterioration. The latter depends on the final moisture content, the inactivation of
PPO, and the moisture barrier properties of the packaging material. At this stage,
tea should comply with the standards set by Codex for pesticide residue limits
(CCP-chemical hazard).
Preparations for Retail Use

Coffee
Blending different coffee varieties is a common step for the production of

special market outlet products. Once the blend is prepared, the most important step
is roasting either for 12–15 min or 5–8 min for conventional and fast methods,
respectively. During roasting, coffee develops its characteristic flavor. After roast-
ing the moisture level of coffee should not exceed 5% (CCP) (53). After roasting,
the beans are cooled and ground. Since coffee is highly susceptible to oxygen,
the packaging material (CCP) should have high oxygen barrier properties and the
oxygen concentration inside should also be kept very low. The latter is the reason
that laminated vacuum-sealed bags is widely employed.
Tea
Similarly to coffee, blending is the first step. The only other operation carried
out for retail sale is retail packaging where the same principles as in coffee produc-
tion are applied. During distribution, tea should be handled as little as possible
since as friction may cause some further physical breakdown and make the tea
dusty.
478
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Table 4. Synoptical Presentation of Hazards, CCPs, CLs, Monitoring, Corrective Actions, and Responsible Personnel for Tea and Coffee Production
REPRINTS
Enzyme addition M Certified suppliers, Uninfected prepara- 100% clean Microbiological exa- Rejection of prepara- Quality control
(CCP1) strictly follow the tion mination tion, change sup- manager
instructions plier
Washing (CCP2) M Routine inspection of pH limit for acetic 4.5 On-line pH exami- Procedure accelera- Quality control
water pH and mi- bacteria devel- nation tion water disin- manager
croflora opment fection
M, C Chemical and micro- Water quality As mentioned in Di- Chemical/ Faulty batch rejection
biological water rective 80/77 EEC microbiological Examine disinfection
disinfection analyses procedures
Drying (CCP3) M Full control of drying Moisture level 12% for coffee Chemical analysis Change time/temper- Quality control
procedure 2.5-3.5% for tea ature regime, con- manager
tinue drying
C Certified suppliers, Pesticide residues MRLs as described Chemical analyses Rejection of specific Quality control
collaboration with by Codex Ali- batch manager
the farmers mentarius
Roasting/Grinding M Full control of drying Moisture level 5% for coffee Chemical analyses Continue dry pro- Quality control
(CCP4) procedure cessing manager

Packaging (CCP5) P Routine batches in- Foreign materials 3% Regular batches vi- Mixing with other Trained per-
spection, Apply Insect infested beans 10% sual inspection batches, rejection sonnel
pesticides-insecti-
cides
Certified suppliers, in- Packaging materials Absence of visual de- Visual on-line con- Rejection of faulty Trained person-
stallation of visual proper for food fects trol material nel, Quality
inspection control and drinks, Specified by the Barrier examination control man-
of the packaging Oxygen barrier plant ager
material
Additives (CCP6) C Certified suppliers Additives purity 100% Chemical analysis Faulty batch rejection Quality control
manager
Pasteurisation (CCP7) M Running of pasteuri- S.aureus, E.coli, Ba- Absence Microbiological tests, Repasteurisation of Quality control
ser according to cillus spp., salmo- on-line surveil- the batch manager
program nella spp. lance of pasteuri-
ORDER
Yeasts, molds, LAB, Specified by the sation

lactobacilli plant
C Inspection of the CIP Contamination with 0 Chemical analyses of Rejection of specific Quality control
system detergents batches, examina- batch, reprogram- manager
tion of CIP system ming the CIP

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system

479
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Instant Beverages Preparation
Coffee and tea are currently available in immediately soluble or ‘‘instant’’

form. Instant coffee has been widely available for many years while instant tea
is a newer product. The stages in the production unit are similar for both crops
and will be described below (99,100). Extraction of the soluble material, usually
in percolation batteries but also in continuous extractors, and removal of insoluble
material by filtering the brew constitutes the first step.
For coffee, efficient extraction based on a temperature profile decreasing
from about 150° to 70°C removes most of the readily soluble solids and hydrolyzes
less soluble coffee resulting in a total extraction of about 40% of the roasted and
ground bean weight. Aroma recovery of volatile substances, which evaporate from
the extractor, is an additional step to improve the aroma of the final product (101).
Cooling and concentration of the extract liquor followed by dehydration are car-
ried out as quickly as possible to avoid deterioration in organoleptic properties.
Addition of the volatile materials to the concentrate and drying to give a stable
product are the final stages in the production line. For the packaging section
(CCP), the principles are the same as described for ground coffee.
Production of Canned and Bottled Beverages
In recent years, bottled and canned teas and coffees have become popular.
Their production does not differ much from that of other bottled or canned bever-
ages except that they start with the brewed product. The term brewing corresponds
to the hot water extraction of plant materials. For coffee, the quality of the end
product is affected by several parameters such as the ratio of coffee to water, the
particle size of the ground coffee, the temperature of the water, mixing action of
the brewer, and duration (108,109). Extraction can be optimized by determining
the soluble solids in the brew and by measuring the brew density. The addition of
sugar or other additives (CCP6) to the product should comply with the Directives
mentioned in the soft drinks section and the microbiological and chemical stan-
dards for sugar given in Table 3 (110,111). These products may be aseptically
processed (CCP) and packaged (CCP), as mentioned for the fruit juices, because
their high pH might cause microbial spoilage to the product (112).
The occurring hazards, CCPs, CLs, preventive and corrective measures, and
responsible personnel are given synoptically in Table 4.
REFERENCES
1. Early, R. Guide to Quality Management Systems for the Food Industry; Blackie
Academic & Professional: London, 1995.
2. Gould, W.A. Current Good Manufacturing Practices/Food Plant Sanitation; CTI
Publishers, Inc.: Baltimore, Maryland, 1994.
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3. Mortimore, S.; Wallace, C. HACCP: A Practical Approach, 2nd Ed.; Aspen Pub-
lishers, Inc.: Gaithersburg, Maryland, 1998.
4. Directive 93/43. Council Directive 93/43 EEC (June 14, 1993) on the Hygiene of
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Production Line of Greek Ouzo and Brandy: A Case Study. Food Control 2000.
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tion Service: Washington, DC, 1992.
13. Codex. General Requirements, 2nd Ed.; Joint FAO/WHO Food Standards Pro-
gramme Codex Alimentarius Commission, FAO: Rome, 1995; Vol. 1B.
14. Varnam, A.H.; Sutherland, J.P. Beverages: Technology, Chemistry and Microbiol-
ogy; Chapman & Hall: London, 1994.
15. Warburton, D.W.; Harrison, B.; Crawford, C.; Foster, R.; Fox, C.; Gour, L.; Krol,
P. A Further Review of the Microbiological Quality of Bottled Water Sold in Can-
ada: 1992–1997 survey results. Int. J. Food Microb. 1998, 39, 221–226.
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mation of the Laws of the Member States Relating to the Exploitation and Market-
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Food Reviews International

IMPLEMENTATION OF HAZARD ANALYSIS CRITICAL

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IMPLEMENTATION OF HAZARD ANALYSIS

L. K. Kourtis and I. S. Arvanitoyannis*

University of Thessaly, School of Technological Sciences,

Non-alcoholic beverages, particularly, bottled water and fruit juices (carbon-

* Corresponding author. Fax: ⫹30 421 93144; E-mail: parmenion33@hotmail.com

Copyright  2001 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. www.dekker.com

452 KOURTIS AND ARVANITOYANNIS

promotion purposes. Consumers expect the food they purchase to be wholesome,

NON-ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGE INDUSTRY 453

Figure 1. HACCP decision tree (13).

454 KOURTIS AND ARVANITOYANNIS

of non-alcoholic beverages. It covers production, identification of CCPs, CLs, and

Bottled water is any potable water that is processed, distributed or offered

Main Production Stages

Abstraction of Water (CCP1)

NON-ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGE INDUSTRY 455

456 KOURTIS AND ARVANITOYANNIS

of chemical pollution is the discharge of wastewater originating either from do-

Storage in reservoirs is the first step towards reduction of the majority of

Flocculation and Coagulation (CCP2)

Coarse purification is usually employed in conjunction with chlorination so

NON-ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGE INDUSTRY 457

The major hazard occurring in treated water storage is recontamination. It

Whenever the chlorination step is applied, filtration through carbon filters

Addition or Removal of CO 2 (CCP4)

Carbon dioxide content, and thus the degree of effervescence, is complicated

458 KOURTIS AND ARVANITOYANNIS

ent in the source and CO 2 added. Measuring CO 2 pressure is a process control

Packaging and Sealing

Bottle Inspection (CCP8)

After filling, there should be an inspection of a full bottle to check on the

Labeling and Standardization (CCP9)

NON-ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGE INDUSTRY 459

Bottle/Can Packaging (CCP10)

Bottles/cans are packaged in paperboard boxes of various sizes according

The finished product undergoes chemical, microbiological, and organoleptic

Main Production Stages

Ps.aeruginosa, Absence in any sam-

control tion, Demetalli- manager

sulphite-reducing ple in 50ml

* P, M, C, stand for physical, microbiological, and chemical hazard, respectively

462 KOURTIS AND ARVANITOYANNIS

Figure 3. Process flow diagram of single-strength juice production (41,103–106).

NON-ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGE INDUSTRY 463

Receipt of Raw Materials (CCP1)

Washing and Sorting of Raw Fruits (CCP2)

Production of Unpasteurized Juice

464 KOURTIS AND ARVANITOYANNIS

Fruit juices, depending on the particular fruit, undergo various processing

Although microbiological analysis reveals the presence of a great variety of

NON-ALCOHOLIC BEVERAGE INDUSTRY 465

Aseptic Packaging or Aseptic Bulk Storage

Yeasts, molds, LAB, Specified by the plant

of the packaging Thermosealability cracks

* P, M, C, stand for physical, microbiological, and chemical hazards, respectively.

468 KOURTIS AND ARVANITOYANNIS

Main Production Stages