2.1 Culture Sample

ANTHROPOLOGY OPTIONAL
(SAMPLE NOTES)

PAPER 1 – UNIT 2.1
CULTURE
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ANTHROPOLOGY
OPTIONAL
Sample Notes
This is part of
ANTHROPOLOGY
Optional Course

2.1 CONCEPT OF CULTURE
Culture: Bodley describes culture as what we are, what we do and what is around us.
Elements of culture: Tools, utensils, machines, clothing, ornaments, buildings, monuments, ideas,
beliefs, rules, social practices, rituals, festivals, language, dance, music, etc. are all elements of culture.
Definitions by various anthropologists

1. Edward Burnett Tylor:
• ‘Primitive culture’ Book: Culture was first anthropologically defined by a 19th century
British anthropologist, E.B. Tylor, in his book, “Primitive culture” (1871).
• Culture: “That complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals,
customs and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society”.
He focuses on social transmission of culture.
2. Herskovits: He defined culture as “the artificial environment created by man around himself”.
Elements: Culture which involves food, clothing, and shelter of people vary based on the
environment and thus constitutes the man-made component of the environment.
3. Malinowski:
Book: Malinowski, in his book, “A scientific theory of culture”, provided a functional
explanation of culture.
Culture: He defined culture as “a mechanism for fulfilling individual’s needs”.
• Man’s needs: According to him, each and every culture is complete and self-sufficient
only because it satisfies the whole range of man’s needs. He classifies man’s needs into 3
categories-
o Primary or basic or biological needs: procreation, nutrition, defense, protection and
so on.
o Derived or instrumental needs: necessary to organize activities such as economic
organization, law, education, etc.
o Integrative or synthetic needs: mental and moral integration such as knowledge,
magic, religion, art, play, etc.
o Fulfilling imperative needs: Malinowski calls these needs alternatively as
‘imperatives’, and calls that system which caters to these needs by fulfilling all the
imperative requirements of mankind as a culture.
4. Radcliffe Brown: Brown was also a functionalist. He defined culture as “a social heritage
which perpetuates social life”.
5. Robert Redfield: He gave a symbolic view of culture. He defined culture as “the sum total of
conventional meaning embodied in artifacts, social structure and symbols”.
6. Ralph Linton: He defines culture as the “sum total of the knowledge, attitudes and habitual
behavior patterns, shared and transmitted by the members of a particular society”.
7. Kluckhon and Kelley: Defines culture as “ all that historical designs for living, explicit and
implicit, rational and non-rational, which exist at any given time as potential guides for the
behavior of man”.
8. Bidney: Says culture is a product of civilization and Artifacts (Products of history), Sociofacts
(Soccial organizations) and Mentifacts (language, religion, art and so on).

Thus, it is clear that there is no unanimity among the anthropologists as far as the definition of the
culture is concerned.
Parts of culture
1. Culture traits- Cultural traits are things that allow one part of a culture to be transmitted to
another. These are the indivisible i.e. the smallest identifiable units of culture.
• Examples:
o Material traits- house, clothing, food, etc.
o Non-material traits- symbols, language, customs, values, etc.
2. Culture complex- A number of culture traits when organized together make a culture
complex.
• Example: Cultural complex of religion includes rites, aarti, rituals, pooja, floral offerings,
prasad, etc.
3. Culture pattern- It consists of a number of cultural complexes.
• Example: Indian cultural pattern consists of Gandhism, spiritualism, caste system, joint
family system, etc.
All these units are interrelated and interdependent on each other in order to maintain equilibrium
in culture.
Types of culture
1. Material culture:
• Physical objects: Material culture is the totality of physical objects made by people for the
satisfaction of their needs.
• Comfortable living: It makes our life comfortable, luxurious, and meaningful. It
represents the whole apparatus of life or civilization.
• Examples: Tools, weapons, utensils, machines, ornaments, art, buildings, monuments,
religious images, clothing, and any other ponderable objects produced or used by humans.
2. Non-material culture-
• Intellectual things: Thoughts or ideas that make up a culture are called the non-material
culture.
• Examples: Non-material culture includes knowledge, ideals, ideas, beliefs, values, norms,
religion, democracy, monogamy etc. that may help shape the society.
Functions of culture
1. Provision for socialization: It is the culture which prepares man for a group life. It provides
him a complete design for living.
• Example: For man to survive, he should live within the framework of culture followed by
the society.
2. Provides solutions: Culture provides solutions for complicated problems.
• Example: In absence of culture, trial and error would be the only alternative.
3. Provides traditional interpretations: Culture provides individual a set of ready-made
definition of situation.
4. Justification of behavior: It provides traditional interpretations for certain situations and helps
to justify behavior of human in society.
5. Maintain social relations: Culture keeps social relationships intact. It helps in understanding
and predicting the human behavior.

6. Channels of interaction: Culture provides channels of interaction for individuals within the
group.
7. Ensures cooperation among people: Culture provides a set of rules to ensure co-operation of
the individuals of a group in adjusting to environmental situation.
8. Creates and satisfies new needs: Culture provides a series of pattern by which biological and
socio-cultural demands of group members are met.
9. Regulates our life activities: Culture defines the pattern of behavior for individuals so that he
acts according to the behavior pattern prescribed and defined by culture.
10. Means of social control: Culture acts as a means of social control through norms, folkways,
mores, laws, etc.
11. Broadens the vision of individual: It gives a new vision to the individual and compels him to
think not only in terms of his own self but the society as a whole.
• Example: The group solidarity rests on the foundation of culture.
12. Enhances our quality of life: Culture enhances our quality of life and increases overall well-
being for both individuals and communities.
Characteristics of culture
1. Is learnt: Culture cannot be biologically inherited. It needs to be learnt and is transmitted
through social interactions. It is a characteristic feature of Homo sapiens.
2. Is inculcated: It is the capacity to transmit acquired habits to the children. Culture is
transmitted vertically or horizontally.
• Example: Vertical transmission is from one generation to another whereas horizontal
transmission is from one group to another within the same period.
3. Results in permanence: This leads to permanence of culture. Even if an individual perishes,
culture does not. Humans alone have the capacity to do so.
4. Is social: Culture is not individualistic. Human beings learn culture in society and it is
differentially shared by different people.
5. Is adaptive: Cultural changes are brought about due to adjustments in new and complex
situations. It enables people to survive and reproduce in a particular environment.
6. Is gratifying: It satisfies basic biological and other secondary needs of man. That part of
culture which no longer fulfills any need becomes extinct.
7. Is structured: It has a definite and proper structure i.e. cultural traits, cultural complex and
cultural pattern.
8. Is ideational: It is based on shared notions such as ideals, norms, etc. by all members of society.
9. Is integrative: It is the tendency of mutual adjustment among cultural elements.
• E.B.Tylor: As per Tylor, culture is a complex whole consisting of elements integrated with
each other.
10. Is dynamic: Culture is subjected to slow but constant change. It responds to the changing
conditions of the world.
11. Is diverse: As per Franz Boas, culture is present in all human societies, but each society has
its own unique cultural elements adjusted to its own particular set of circumstances.
12. Develops relativism: Diverse culture gives rise to the concept of cultural relativism.
13. Is symbolic: Culture is based on symbols. As per McIver, a symbol for humans is something
representing something else by arbitrary human invention and understanding.
• Example: The best example of use of symbols is language, which is an essential part of
culture.

14. Is unique to human beings: Culture as defined by Herskovits is the man-made part of the
environment which is not inherited. ( but this view is not accepted by few primatologists like
Jane Goodall
• Example: Animals do have societies, but their behavior is based on instinct, and is not
learnt. They lack the capability to change their environment purposefully.
15. Is continuous and cumulative: Culture exists as a continuous process. In its historical growth,
it tends to become cumulative i.e. it builds on itself.
• Example: Car "evolved" gradually from buggies and horses.
Attributes of Culture
1. Overt and covert:
• Overt: Overt components of the culture are those that can be easily detected or observed
by an external observer.
o Examples: architecture, clothes, tools, speech, songs, proverbs, etc.
• Covert: Covert components are those that cannot be easily detected by an external observer.
They must be inferred from what its members say and do.
o Examples: sentiments, beliefs, ethics, rules, morals, values, etc.
2. Explicit and implicit:
• Explicit: Explicit components of the culture are those that are directly identifiable by an
individual belonging to that part of culture. In other words, it consists of all those modes
of behavior which can be described readily by those who perform them.
o Examples: driving a car, making love, playing cricket, etc.
• Implicit: Implicit components are those that are not directly identifiable by an individual
belonging to that culture. It comprises those things that people more or less take for granted
and cannot easily explain.
o Example: all sane adults can speak their culture’s language but few can explain its
grammar and syntax in detail.
3. Ideal and real:
• Ideal: Ideal culture comprises the ways in which people believe they ought to behave, or
in which they would like to behave.
• Real: Real culture consists of their actual behavior.
• Widening gap: In cultures undergoing rapid change, the gap between ideal and real culture
is almost certain to widen, for, as a rule, changing conditions, especially changing
technology, swiftly outpace ideals.
4. Ethos and eidos:
• Eidos: Eidos is the totality of items in culture. It is the formal appearance of a culture
derived from its constituents. It mainly deals with the distinctive expression of the
cognitive or intellectual character of a culture or social group.
• Ethos: On the other hand, ethos is the effective and emotional quality of culture, expressed
in a series of beliefs, thoughts and behavior.
o Types: There are two types of ethos(following Ruth benedict)
o Apollonian ethos: calm, moderate, well-balance
o Dionysian ethos: violent, exuberant, aggressive, imbalanced and savage.
5. Organic and super-organic:

• Organic: Culture is organic when we consider the fact that there is no culture without
human society. It is organic in being rooted ultimately in the human organism, since
without people to act, think-feel, and make artifacts; there would be no culture at all.
Kroeber: Culture becomes a phenomena in its own right, with its own laws and processed
apart from the human carriers who sustain it.
• Super-organic: It is super-organic in the sense that it outlives particular generations and
that its content is more a product of human society than of human biology.
6. Universal and unique:
• Universal: Cultural universals are best described as concepts, social constructs, or patterns
of behavior that are common to all human cultures i.e. every man experience it.
• Unique: Unique culture is the one that shows regional variations.
7. Stable and dynamic:
• Interrelated: Logically, each quality implies the other, for change can be measured only
against elements that are relatively stable, and stability against those that change more
swiftly.
o Example: Some cultures those of the West especially; are more flexible than others
and can adjust to a swifter rate of change without disintegrating.
• Change in different aspects: In addition to the above, a culture is more receptive to change
in some of its aspects than in others.
Example: For instance, technology often changes more rapidly than values.
Components or Elements of Culture

1. Symbols
• Verbal: Symbols are sounds, images, gestures or things that carry a particular meaning
and are recognized by people who share the same culture.
o Example: a red octagon is a common symbol for “STOP”, a red rose often symbolizes
love and compassion, etc.
• Nonverbal: Symbols can be nonverbal communication, commonly called as gestures, like
movements of the hands, arms, or other parts of the body that are meant to convey certain
ideas or emotions, etc.
o Example: shaking hands, etc.
• Objects: Symbols can also take the form of material objects.
o Examples: the flag, the cross, the Star of David, the crescent moon, etc.
2. Language
• Meaning: Language is the system of sounds and writing that human beings use to express
their thoughts, ideas and feelings. It is a major symbolic system that is in use in almost all
societies.
• Function: Language is essential to give members of society a sense of identity.
• Characteristic features:
o Human languages are learned and variable, flexible and generative.
o Without language, there is no culture.
o Humans have a capacity for language that no other animal species possesses.
3. Values
• Meaning: These are general abstract moral principles defining what is right or wrong, good
or bad and desirable or undesirable. They often come in pairs of positive and negative terms.

• Function: Values define general moral qualities of behavior expected from members of
society such as honesty, patriotism, commitment to freedom, etc. A culture’s values shape
its norms.
4. Norms
• Meaning: These are rules or expectations of behavior and thoughts based on shared beliefs
within a specific cultural or social group.
• Types of norms:
o Formal norms: Formal norms, also called mores and laws, refer to the standards of
behavior considered the most important in any society.
§ Examples: traffic laws, criminal codes, etc.
o Informal norms: Also called folkways and customs, refer to standards of behavior
that are considered less important but still influence how we behave.
§ Examples: table manners, dressing, walking, communication, etc.
5. Rituals
• Meaning: These are established procedures and ceremonies that often mark transitions in
the life course.
• Function: Rituals help signify one’s gender identity in many societies.
• Example: Girls around the world undergo various types of initiation ceremonies to mark
their transition to adulthood like among the Bemba of Zambia, girls undergo a month-long
initiation ceremony called the chisungu, in which girls learn songs, dances, and secret
terms that only women know.
6. Artifacts
• Meaning: Artifacts are objects that are made, used, or modified by humans and give us
information about life in the past.
• Examples: stone tools, pottery vessels, metal objects such as weapons and items of
personal adornment such as buttons, jewelry and clothing.
Structure of Culture
Culture: Culture is a coherent system which is integrated and is not random accumulation of bits of
traits and complexes.
1. Culture traits:
• Herskovits: He has defined culture trait as “the smallest unit in a given culture”.
• Features: It has a context and its own structure. The culture unit is identifiable only in
a context.
• Example: Material traits- house, clothing, weapons, etc.; Non-material traits-
knowledge, belief, customs, etc.
2. Culture complex:
• Hoebel: According to Hoebel, “cultural complexes are nothing but larger clusters of
traits organized about some nuclear point of reference”.
• Example: Cultural complex of religion includes rites, aarti, rituals, pooja, offerings,
prasad, etc.
3. Culture patterns: Culture is integrated arrangement of parts with unique configuration. This
unique configuration with its system of internal relationships is called the pattern of culture.

Case study
Devi possession in Southern Gujarat which has been referred to by David Hardiman.
• He reports that in early November 1922 a large number of adivasi peasants from several villages
assembled at a place in Southern Gujarat to listen to the teachings of a goddess Mata or Devi,
known as Salabhai.
• The Devi, was supposed to have come out of the mountains and expressed her demands through
spirits.
• While most of the adivasis listened to Devi, some of them went into a state of trance. These
men would shake their heads violently and begin to utter what were believed to be the Devi’s
commands.
• The principal commands were to abstain from eating flesh or drinking liquor or toddy, to take
a bath daily, to keep their houses clean, etc. All these acts together can be considered as a culture
complex.
4. Culture pattern- A culture pattern is “a unique configuration of integrated arrangement of

parts of culture with its system of internal relationships”. In other words, a culture pattern is
formed when many traits and complexes of culture become integrated into a functional whole.
E.g.- Indian cultural pattern consists of Gandhism, spiritualism, caste system, joint family
system, etc.
Culture patterns by various Anthropologists:
NOTE: Do Not Get Bogged Down by the below content. These are learnt as a part of
Anthropological Thought again where things get repeated multiple times So that you will
easily remember the given content.
1. By Kroeber: A.L. Kroeber, in his book, “Configurations of Culture” (1945), gave two
major kinds of patterns-
• Basic or systemic patterns- These are most stable and persistent forms of culture pattern
which do not change randomly and show consistency and have a functional significance .
Example: Agriculture, monotheism, etc.
• Secondary patterns- These are those that are subject to a great variety and instability.
Example: Systems of social organization, systems of thought, etc.
2. By Ruth Benedict:
• Particular group- Kroeber has dealt with universal patterns of culture. However, it was
Ruth Benedict, who for the first time, attempted to study the culture patterns of a particular
group.
• Book- In her famous book, “Patterns of culture” (1934), Ruth Benedict has described the
concept of culture pattern through the lens of configuration of culture.
• Cultural pattern: She said that integration in any culture is due to the arrangement of its
content in a particular style or design. This arrangement is called pattern by Benedict.
• Cultural configuration: These separate culture patterns together present a grand design
of culture as a whole, called the configuration of culture.

• Psychological theories- She also added a new dimension to the two types of patterns
described by Kroeber. Benedict made use of psychological theories to characterize the
individual patterns of culture. She named two main kinds of cultures-
o Apollonian- This type of culture emphasized order and restraint in individual and
collective behavior.
§ Example: Calm, balanced behavior.
o Dionysian- This type of culture emphasized emotional and sensory experiences.
§ Example: Violent and aggressive behavior.
• Importance of culture pattern- Benedict concludes by saying that culture patterns
determine the behavior of human beings, and culture pattern of a group is always contrasted
to another group’s pattern. Thus, any study on the development of culture has to factor in
the culture patterns of the group.
3. By Ralph Linton:
• Form – Of a trait or a complex , which can be perceived by the senses and objectively
described.
• Meaning – Of associations within the culture, which can be implicit or explicit.
• Use – Of the cultural traits and complexes to thing outside the environment of society.
• Function – the relationship of traits and complexes within the society.
4. By Clyde Kluckhohn: Clyde Kluckhohn suggested that culture patterns may be classified in
terms of the following categories-
• Compulsory- where the culture provides only one acceptable means of meeting certain
situations.
• Preferred- where several ways of behaving are provided, but one is more highly valued or
accepted than the rest.
• Typical- where several ways of behaving are more or less equally acceptable, but one is
more often expressed than the rest.
• Alternative- where several ways of behaving are acceptable and there is no difference
either in the value or frequency of expression.
• Restricted- where certain ways of behaving are acceptable only for some members if a
society, not for the society as a whole.
All these 3 units namely culture trait, culture complex and culture pattern are interrelated and
interdependent on each other in order to maintain equilibrium in culture.
Ideal, Real Culture and Cultural Construct

These concepts were developed by Ralph Linton of the Culture-Personality school of thought.
• Ideal culture- Ideal culture refers to the practices, values or norms that society is supposed to
follow or desires to achieve. It refers to those goals that a society considers ideal, or worth
aiming for.
• Real culture- According to Linton, real culture is the sum of behavior of all members of the
society, which is learned and shared in a particular situation. It is the way of life of community
member. In other words, it refers to the practices and norms that the society actually follows
in reality.

Differences between ideal and real culture-
They can be the same at times, but the ideal culture seems to be more ecstatic, optimistic and glowing,
distinguishing itself from the real culture, which is the actual picture of the society.
IDEAL CULTURE REAL CULTURE
• It involves an idealized and resolute value • It involves value system which is
system that controls perfect behavior. adaptable.
• Ideal values are absolute with little or no • They contain exceptions to solve
exceptions. contradictions between ideal values and
pragmatic realities.
• Example- Ideal marriages are thought to • Example- In reality, one can find numerous
be the ones that are based on love and instances of divorces or family fights.
considered to continue forever.
Another example of ideal and real culture can be explained in context of ethnocentrism.
• Ethnocentrism: When we are ethnocentric, we consider our own culture as ideal or superior
than any other culture.
• Example:
• Ideal culture: America considers itself as the hegemony, the superior nation and its culture as
the ideal culture.
• Real culture: However, in reality, there lies inequality, the poor lack proper education, and it
has still not been successful in providing its entire population with equal opportunities. Poverty
still exists, gun violence threatens the public, people lack good jobs, and environmental
conditions are degrading.
• Culture construct- It refers to the idea of culture of any society as presented by a scholar. It
is usually extracted from both ideal and real culture.
Case Study:
Malinowski’s study of Trobriand Islanders
• Malinowski while studying Trobriand people, asked elders about incest taboo. They gave
him the ideal definition (‘ideal culture’).
• Later he asked the same to some youngsters there. At first, they also gave the ideal
definition, but later revealed that it really does not entail the sanctions as prescribed, and
that youngsters do repeatedly indulge in it (‘real culture’).
• What Malinowski presented in his book, “The Argonauts of Western Pacific” (1922),
would be equivalent to ‘culture construct’.
Sub-Culture and Counter-Culture

1. Sub-culture:
• Smaller group: It is a smaller cultural group within a larger culture; people of a subculture
are part of larger culture, but also share specific identity within smaller group.
• A homogenous unit: In other words, it refers to the culture of homogeneous unit within
the heterogeneous whole.
Example: Examples for subculture can be regional groups, tribal or social classes, etc.
• Distinct characteristics: Subcultural groups have their own distinctive characteristics
such as language, clothing, gesture, etiquette, etc. that distinguish them from one another
and from the dominant culture. There are also differences in values and norms.

•Part of Heterogeneous grouping: The differences are usually because of ethnic,
occupational or regional heterogeneity over a large area.
• Presence of Similarities: Despite such differences at micro-level, subcultural units of each
culture exhibit enough similarities to put them into one culture.
o Example: Subcultures are joined by younger people because they want to express their
interests and identity. Subcultures can even be based around hobbies such as folk-
dancing.
2. Counter-culture:
• Type of sub-culture: It is a type of subculture that rejects some of the larger culture’s
norms and values.
• Own set of rules: In contrast to subcultures, which operate relatively smoothly within the
larger society, countercultures might actively defy larger society by developing their own
set of rules and norms to live by, sometimes even creating communities that operate outside
of greater society.
• Violation from dominant culture: In simple words, when a smaller cultural group or a
community violates the laws of the dominant culture, a different type of culture emerges
and it is called counter-culture.

Cultural Universals, Alternatives and Specialities
1. Cultural universals:
• George Murdock: Anthropologist George Murdock first recognized the existence of
cultural universals while studying systems of kinship around the world.
• Universally found: Cultural universals are elements, patterns, characteristics, or
institutions that are found in all human cultures worldwide.
• Ensuring the needs: Cultural universals exist because all cultures have basic needs and
they all develop common features to ensure their needs are met.
• Provide about psychic unity: The study of cultural universals is scientifically
important because of what they indicate about ‘the psychic unity of mankind’, the
principle that the individuals of every population have basically the same propensities and
abilities.
Examples: Some examples are language, food, music, clothes, etc.
Family unit: One example of a cultural universal is the family unit; every human society
recognizes a family structure that regulates sexual reproduction and the care of children.
Religion: Religion is also an example of a cultural universal because it is found in all
societies in one form or another.
• Change in way of expression: These do not change over time but the way they are
expressed do change with time.
2. Cultural alternatives:
• Choices: Cultural alternatives are choices that allow for variance in ideas, practices and
lifestyles.
• Socially acceptable: In other words, cultural alternatives refer to two or more forms of
behavior that are socially acceptable in a given situation.
• Different reactions: These alternatives give different reactions to the same situation or
different techniques to achieve the same result.
• Present status: Many more cultural options are available in modern industrialized society
than in many past societies.
3. Cultural specialties:
• Specific skills: Cultural specialties refer to specific skills, training, knowledge, or other
elements of culture which are limited to a certain group or society.
• Limited in approach: They are cultural aspects that are shared by some specific social
groupings but are not shared by the general public.
o Example: For example, baby nursing is a female specialty not shared by men. Nearly
every group in society — each age-group, sex group, occupational group, religious
group — has certain traits not shared by other groups.
• Behavioral differences: Cultural specialties cause behavioral differences between people,
as opposed to cultural universals.
Cultural Processes
1. Action of culture: These are specific continuous actions by which culture produces a situation
or a change.
2. Includes: A cultural process includes;
• An action that promotes human survival
• An action that promotes human adjustment
• An action that changes the way of life or resists changes in the way of life

Various types of cultural processes
1. Cultural evolution:
• Progressive development: It refers to the development of culture and society through
progressively more complex stages.
• Continuous process: It is a continuous process of diversification and integration; and
involves a change in the form, structure and organization of a culture or a society.
• Alteration to the existing: Culture evolves by means of invention and discovery of new
items, by alteration of existing items and by diffusion or borrowing of items from other
cultures and society.
o Example: An example for this can be evolution of religion given by James Frazer.
Religion Magic Science
2. Cultural diffusion:
• Passage of cultural aspects: It is the cultural process where the cultural aspects pass from
one group to another through intermittent contact either directly or indirectly.
o Example: A classic example of this can be diffusion of Buddhism to Japan and China
by intermittent contact through traders from India.
• Nature: The nature of diffusion is to spread or transmit ideas, tools and other cultural traits
from place of origin in one society to other places.
• Turn into complex culture: Diffusion is simpler than cultural evolution. Due to addition
of new components of culture, simple culture can turn into a complex order.
3. Acculturation:
• Adjustment: Acculturation simply means an adjustment to a different culture, usually the
dominant or powerful one.
• Transformation: It refers to the cultural transformation of an individual or a group to
adapt according to another culture.
• Interchange of culture: In finer terms, acculturation means the cultural contact and
interchange process wherein a human being adopts, learns and adjust to some or great
extent.
• Elements of exchange: Values, rules, patterns and practices of a new or prevailing culture
in the society, which is not their native culture.
o Example: Tribals practicing Hinduism.
4. Enculturation:
• Learning one’s own culture: Enculturation is the process of learning one’s own culture.
• External influence: It is what we pick from our external surrounding, to develop ourselves
as a part of that surrounding, i.e. to mix perfectly.
• Passing onto generations: In other words, it means the learning and acceptance of
characteristics, behaviours, language, rituals, morals and patterns of the culture
surrounding us and passing it from one generation to another.
5. Transculturation:
• Fernando Ortiz: Transculturation is a term coined by Cuban anthropologist Fernando
Ortiz to describe the phenomenon of merging and converging cultures.
• New culture: It is a process of cultural transformation marked by the influx of new culture
elements and the loss or alteration of existing ones.
• Example: In general sense, transculturation covers inter-racial marriage, multi-ethnic
societies (like India), etc.

• Neo-culturation: Indo-Islamic architecture. It is neither acculturation nor deculturation
rather it is neoculturation. It can be called as ethno-convergence. In general sense,
transculturation covers inter-racial marriage, multi-ethnic societies (like India), etc.
Acculturation
1. Study of acculturation: The concept of acculturation was first developed by R. Redfield,
Linton and Herskovits in their joint paper entitled, ‘Memorandum for the study of acculturation’
(1936).
2. Process of acculturation: They defined it as the process that results from the first hand contact
between groups with different cultures along with subsequent changes in their respective
original patterns.
3. Peaceful acculturation: For a peaceful acculturation, both the groups-
• Must have close and continuous contact.
• Should have similarity in their culture pattern.
• Should have similarity in their objective.
Different Outcomes of Acculturation:

1. Assimilation:
• New culture: It is a process in which groups adopt a new culture that virtually replaces
their original culture, leaving only traces behind.
• Indistinguishable nature: In assimilation, individuals or groups eventually become
indistinguishable from the culture they came in contact with.
• Relative importance: It occurs when the importance given to one's culture is minuscule
and where ‘fitting in’ is given high significance, deeming it necessary for survival in a
new cultural space.
Example: This outcome is likely to occur in societies that are "melting pots" into which
new members are absorbed.
2. Separation:
• Unique identity: It refers to the process wherein an individual/group comes in contact
with a new cultural group, but does not embrace aspects of the new culture.
• No contamination: As they wish to maintain their own unique identity without
being ‘contaminated’ by the values and norms of another culture.
o Example: The rejection of a new culture while maintaining one's own traditions and
customs usually occurs in culturally or racially segregated societies.
3. Integration:
• Adaptation: Under integration, an individual/group adapts to a new culture while
maintaining their original culture.
• Significant cultural adoption: It occurs where cultural adoption is considered
significant for the smooth functioning of society.
Example: Such a strategy is used in a multicultural society with a relatively high
proportion of minority groups.
• Switching between cultures: Individuals or groups who use this strategy can switch
between the values and norms of the different cultures they have absorbed to interact with
groups from both cultures with ease.
4. Marginalization:

• Barely interaction: It occurs when individuals/groups barely interact with a new cultural
group.
• Isolation: This strategy results in the isolation of the person or group, pushing them aside
to the corners of society, forgotten by the rest.
• Cultural exclusion: In a society where cultural exclusion is practiced, it becomes almost
impossible to interact and integrate with a different cultural group due to the barriers
created between the two.
5. Transmutation:
• Equal importance: It is the process in which importance is placed on both maintaining
one’s own culture while also adopting aspects of a new culture.
• Amalgamation: It is different from integration in the sense that the cultures are
amalgamated into creating a new one (instead of integrating and switching between the
codes and conducts of two different cultures).
• Unique blend: Thus, a unique blend of two cultures creates a new one that is accepted
by both the individuals/groups.
Relevance of acculturation in India’s context:

• Unity in diversity: India’s distinctive fusion of various cultures helps significantly in
understanding the concept of acculturation and its outcomes.
• Evolution process: Acculturation is an inevitable social process, as migration and
interactions with different cultures have always been part of the evolution of civilization.
• Examples of acculturation:
• Food- Persian culture has influenced almost all aspects of Indian society; the origins of
popular food items like biriyanis and faloodas and spices like saffron, and cumin seeds trace
back to Persian origins.
• Language- The Urdu language, a blend of Arabic, Persian, Turkish and Hindi, is an example
of the amalgamation and transmutation of cultures.
• Architecture- The architectures of Christian churches in Kerala like the Cheriapally (small
church) in Kottayam or the Pazhaya Suriyani Pally (old Syrian church) in Chengannur have
marks of Hindu temple architectural styles.
• Sculptures- Sculptures of Christian deities inside a lotus similar to that of Hindu deities,
and sculptures of animals like cows, elephants, and monkeys carved onto the church walls
are excellent examples of the integration of Hindu and Christian traditions and cultures in
Indian society.
Comparison between Acculturation and Enculturation:

Acculturation Enculturation
• It is process of learning another culture. • It is process of learning our own culture.
• Subsequent familiarization with different • First and foremost familiarization process to
cultures. the culture.
• Process in which one’s culture is • Process of acquiring culture.
subsumed in other’s culture.
• Involves two or more cultures. • Involves only one culture.
• It is not essential for survival. • It is essential for survival.

• It modifies the existing cultural practice. • It does not modify existing cultural
practices.
• It results in assimilation. • It does not result in assimilation.
Contra-acculturation:
1. Opposite to acculturation: Acculturation is the assimilation to a different culture while
contra-acculturation reflects the opposite tendency.
2. Revolt against acculturation: It is essentially a revolt against acculturation.
• Example: Tribal revolts like Birsa Movement were a reaction against the cultural contact
with Christian missionaries and Hindu outsiders.
3. Effects of contra-acculturation: If a common agreement is not reached between the cultural
norms and values, one group may develop hatred, jealousy or rivalry against the other. This
process is known as contra-acculturation.
Superorganic View Of Culture

Culture is superorganic to the extent that it outlives the particular generation of people who carry it
and so persists from one generation to another.
Associated anthropologists:
• Emile Durkheim: The superorganic view of culture was first put forward by Emile Durkheim.
• A.L. Kroeber: It was A.L. Kroeber, an American anthropologist, whose name is most
recognized with this view of culture.
• Other American anthropologists: This concept was adopted by other American
anthropologists like Lowie and White.
• British anthropologists: In British anthropology, this concept was adopted by the structural
functionalists.
Concept:
• Meaning: Culture is sometimes called superorganic. It implies that culture is somehow
superior to “nature”. In other words, once created, culture acquires a superorganic quality or
the quality by virtue of which culture exists on a level above that of the individuals who create
and carry it.
• Application: The word superorganic is useful when it implies that the same physical objects
and physical characteristics may constitute a variety of quite different cultural objects and
cultural characteristics.
o Example: A tree means different things to the botanist who studies it, the old woman who
uses it for shade in the late afternoon, the farmer who picks its fruits, the motorist who
collides with it, and the young lovers who carve their initials on its trunk.
• A separate realm of phenomenon: According to Kroeber, culture becomes a phenomenon in
its own right, with its own laws and processed apart from the human carriers who sustain it.
• Biological in origin: Culture is created by humans and it is dependent on human choice for its
continuity. Culture can be altered through the decisions of human beings, but this does not
mean that it is easy to change culture.
• Qualities that make culture superorganic: Culture develops in an organic structure, but since
it possesses qualities like changeability, collectivity, value pattern and transferability, it should
be called superorganic.

Criticisms:
• Cannot be separated from other phenomena: It is argued that since cultural phenomena
occur in association with other psychological or ecological phenomena, it is untenable to
separate them analytically.
• No independent existence: Some critics also suggest that cultural phenomena do not have an
independent existence, and cannot be studied as an independent one.
• Few things being missed out: Culture as a superorganic entity will carry forward only few
things as part of culture, where many things are missed out.
• Cultural centricism: As superorganic culture becomes a separate realm, it may also lead to
cultural centricism indicating a feeling of superiority to one’s own culture.
The superorganic view of culture continues to evoke regular debates in anthropology even to this date.
Uniqueness of Culture to Humans

Approach :
• Need to present diverse views.
• According to few anthropologists, culture is not unique to humans.
• For few, it depends on how broadly you define culture. If it’s just acquiring knowledge etc from
the surroundings as TYLOR defined culture then Non Humans do possess culture. Else as Leslie
White says based on certain unique features its unique to Humans.
Culture in Anthropological point of view is different from the general understanding. Several
anthropologists defined culture in their way as;
• E.B.Tylor: E.B. Tylor, in his book, “Primitive culture” (1871), defined culture as “that
complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, law, morals, customs and any other
capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society”.
• Kroeber and Kluckhohn: They defined culture as “the totality of learnt human behaviour,
transmitted by social inheritance”.
• Herskovits: He defined culture as “the man-made part of the environment”.
Thus, as evident from above definitions, anthropologists for a long-time defined culture as unique to
humans.
Characteristics that made culture unique to man:

Leslie White, a neo-evolutionist of America, in his book, “Evolution of culture” (1959) dealt with
those five characteristics of man, due to which the creation of culture became possible by man and not
by animals. These are as follows-
1. Erect gesture- Man is the only animal that has efficiency to stand vertically followed by
bipedal walk. The other animals follow quadruped walk.
• Efficient usage: On account of this special characteristic, man uses his hands in
performing other works; whereas other animals are not in this position.
2. Freely opposable thumb- Human beings have the efficiency to move their hands in any
direction freely. Their thumbs are opposable by which they can catch anything easily.
• Easier way of handling: Their efficiency of freely movable hands makes them competent
to easily handle tools, implements, machines, etc. and to possess control over them.

• On absence of opposable thumb: If this efficiency in man was lacking, the creation of
tools, implements, machines, arts, architecture, paintings, drawings, etc. was certainly
beyond possibility.
3. Stereoscopic and chromatic vision- Man possesses stereoscopic and chromatic vision by
virtue of which he makes observation of natural and other events and also makes inventions
related to them.
4. Intelligent brain- The greatest efficiency of man is reflected through the possession of an
intelligent brain.
• More efficient: His brain is certainly more logical, thoughtful and active in comparison to
other animals.
• Presence of additional parts: Human brain possess Broca’s area in frontal lobe and
Wernicke’s area in temporal lobe used for language, which are not present in any animal.
• Usage of brain: It is because of possession of intelligent brain that he can think, plan,
express ideas and find out cause-effect relationship.
Example: All discoveries and inventions for better and better living are the product of
intelligent brain only.
• Decision making capacity: The difference between human and animal brains is both in
degree as well as in kind.
Example: It is man who can make difference between holy water and common water, other
animals cannot do so. It is man who makes difference between sister and wife and it is man
who makes borrowing to airplane.
• Rational thinking: Only man knows the importance of magic, religion and science, the
significance of heaven and hell, and the reality of morality and immorality.
Michael Tomasello: He has observed that humans are the only ones capable of pooling
their cognitive resources both in contemporary and historical time, bringing about
modifications in their cultural traditions.
5. Creation of symbols:
• Unique characteristic: The efficiency of creating symbols is a unique characteristic of
man, which other animals certainly lack.
o Example: Though several studies till date such as tool usage by apes, gestural
communication in chimpanzees, Japanese monkey potato washing, playing of games
by chimpanzees, etc. have shown that higher primates have the capacity to learn
symbols, yet it does not mean that apes or any other animal is a cultured being.
• Leslie White: He says that, the ability to symbolize does not simply mean to learn a few
symbols, but to freely and arbitrary bestow meanings upon things, and to comprehend such
meanings.
o Example: Thus, animals including apes, lack symbolic interpretation of things and
phenomena. They often express themselves in sign language, which is more instinctive
than learned.
• Transfer to generations: Animals cannot transfer their experiences and ideas to the next
generation, but men, by using language and culture, transmit their experiences and ideas
from one generation to next and so on. This signifies clearly the role of language and
symbols in creation and development of culture.
Thus, it is best to conclude that presently, culture is unique to human beings.

Other Views:
NON-HUMAN CULTURE
Jane Goodall studied chimpanzees in the Gombe National Park in Tanzania. She discovered that
chimps fish for ants and termites. Fishing for ants involves firstly breaking off a twig, then stripping it
of leaves and side branches, and then locating a suitable termite nest and inserting the twig. The termites
inside cling to the twig, the chimp pulls it out and licks off the termites clinging to it. (Goodall, 1986).
Young chimps learn this technique through trial and error. At about 18 to 22 months, they begin to fish
for termites on their own. They become efficient when they are about 3 years old. Ants that can inflict a
painful bite are also fished similarly. But it takes one year more for the chimps to master the technique.
This phenomenon of anting is a cultural phenomenon. How do we know that anting is cultural? Though
ants and chimps are there in other places in Africa, those ants are not eaten by the chimps. At certain
other places, anting is done but it is done differently.
cultural? Though ants and chimps are there in other places in Africa, those ants are not eaten by the
chimps. At certain other places, anting is done but it is done differently.
Chimps can also make a ‘sponge’ for sopping up water from inaccessible parts of a tree.
They strip a handful of leaves, put them in the mouth and chew briefly, and put that mass of leaves in the
water, let them soak, then they put the damp mass of leaves in their mouths and suck the water off.
Chimps also use sticks for digging purpose.
Chimps of Tai Forest of Ivory Coast open the hard shells of the panda nut with rocks that
serve as hammers. They search for suitable hammer stone and bring them from distance for
this purpose.
Conclusion:
The cultures seen among the non-human species are at very rudimentary level. And these At
cultures do not evolve. Nevertheless, they are cultures because they have behavioral traits
that are learnt as well as shared.
Culture Area
• Culture area: Culture area is defined as “a contiguous geographic area comprising a number
of societies that possess the same or similar traits or that share a dominant cultural orientation”.
• Example: The cattle complex serves to delimit the East African culture area.
Definition of culture area by various anthropologists:

• Herskovits: The concept of culture area was developed by Herskovits. He said that there
might be a limited cultural heterogeneity and more or less a similarity among the varying
cultures found in a particular area.
• Clark Wissler: He systematically and scientifically developed the concept of culture area.
According to him, culture area is an area which has similar cultural traits.
• Boas: An American anthropologist has credibly worked on culture and also constructed a map
of culture areas in North America, South America and Africa.
• Kroeber: Another American anthropologist examined the culture area maps constructed by
Boas and Wissler and brought out some major changes in them.
Classification of culture areas in India:

1. Iravati Karve: She has elaborately worked on culture areas at national level. In her classic
work, “Kinship organization in India”, she has taken kinship, marriage, family and language

as criteria and prepared a culture are map of India. According to her, the country consists of
four distinct culture areas. They are:
• North
• South
• Central
• North-East
2. Homogeneity: Sub culture areas are the parts of a culture area having some homogeneity.
Example: South Indian culture area can be divided into sub culture areas like Kerala,
Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, etc.
Culture Shock
• Cultural practices as granted: Cultural practices of the society are taken as granted by a
particular society. But cultural practices do differ from every society which appear as alien to
the other societies.
• Psychological & social maladjustment: Culture shock is the psychological and social
maladjustment at micro or macro level that is experienced for the first time when people
encounter new cultural elements.
Example: New things, new ideas, new concepts, seemingly strange beliefs and practices.
• Immigration & Emigration: It is an experience a person may have when one moves to a
cultural environment which is different from one's own.
• Transition: It is also the personal disorientation a person may feel when experiencing an
unfamiliar way of life due to immigration or a visit to a new country, a move between social
environments, or simply transition to another type of life.
Example: One of the most common causes of culture shock involves individuals in a foreign
environment.
• Adaptation to culture shock: No person is protected from culture shock. However,
individuals vary in their capacity to adapt and overcome the influence of culture shock.
• Anthropological view: Anthropologists often experience culture shock on arrival at a new
field site. Although anthropologists study human diversity, it may take some time getting used
to it.
• Ethnographer: The ethnographer eventually grows accustomed to, and accepts as normal,
cultural patterns that initially were alien.
• Reverse culture shock: Reverse culture shock also called as "re-entry shock" or "own culture
shock" may take place when one returns his home culture after growing accustomed to a new
one.
Difference Between Culture And Society

1. Culture:
• System of beliefs: The term culture refers to a system of beliefs, customs, knowledge,
behavior, religion, practices, etc., which is commonly shared by a group of people.
• Learned behavior: It is described as the people’s way to live such as their learned behavior,
values, morals, art, law, symbols, lifestyle which they accept completely without any
second thought in mind.
• Passed on to Generations: In general, culture is handed down through the generations, by
communication, teaching and imitation.

• Social heritage: It is considered as the social heritage of the organized group.
2. Society:
• Commonality: We define the term ‘society’ as a group of people who share a common
lifestyle, territory, behavior pattern, religion, values, traditions, customs, common culture,
etc.
• Continuous social interaction: It refers to an ordered community, engaged in a
continuous social interaction with the members.
• Interdependency: In simple terms, society implies the bunch of people who organize
themselves and live together in a particular geographical area and come in contact with
each other. Each and every member is important to the society, as its existence depends
on the members only.
Culture Society
• It refers to the set of beliefs, practices, • It refers to an interdependent group of
learned behavior and moral values that are people who live together in a particular
passed on, from one generation to another. region and are associated with one another.
• It is something that differentiates one • It is a community of people, residing in a
society from another. specific area, sharing common culture over
time.
• It unites the social framework through • It constructs or shapes the social framework
influence. through pressure.
• Rules that guide the way people live. • Structure that guides the way people
organize themselves.
• It comprises of beliefs, values and practices • It comprises of individuals who share
of a group. common beliefs, practices, customs, etc.
• It is reflected in the fashion, lifestyle, tastes • It is reflected in economy, village, city, etc.
& preferences, music, art etc.
Society and culture:

• Complementary: Society and Culture are two elements that are complementing each other.
• Culture within society vs. Society through culture: On one hand, culture is produced and
reproduced within the society while on the other, society expresses itself through culture.
Example: We can associate the group of people or society from the culture they practice, such
as Asian society is characterized by Asian culture, or Javanese society with its Javanese culture.

Concept of Civilization
Interlinking of Paper 2 with Paper 1: Robert Redfield tried to explain civilization through the
complex interaction of little traditions and Great traditions in folk-urban continuum.
Civilization is considered as the most advanced stage of the culture. This is characterized by the
development of cities, language, metallurgy etc. Various anthropologists provide definitions of
civilization as;
• McIver and Page: They defined civilization as “the whole mechanism and organization which
man has designed in his endeavor to control the conditions of life”.
• Weber: He defined civilization which includes useful material objects and methods of
producing them where as culture contains ideals, values, mental and emotional components of
a group.
• J.L. Gillin & J.P.Gillin: Defined civilization as a more complex and evolved form of culture.
• William Ogburn: He writes as, Civilization may be defined as the latter phase of super organic
culture.
• Sir Henry Morgan: In his evolutionary scheme of culture, civilization is the last stage.
SAVAGERY BARBARISM CIVILIZATION
Approaches to study civilization:

1. Socio-linguist approach- L.H. Morgan in his book, “Ancient society” (1877), proposed the
evolutionary scheme of entire society as ‘savagery to barbarism to civilization’.
The characteristics of each stage are as follows-
• Savagery- Hunting and gathering economic organization, nomadic life and no community
life, subsistence or below subsistence living.
• Barbarism- cultivation and domestication of animals, control of man on the supply of his
food, rural community with territorial limits, surplus economy
• Civilization- invention of script and metallurgy, craftsmanship, trade and commerce with
urban centre as trading centre, social stratification, specialization of labour, accumulation
of utilities making life more comfortable, technological and material advancement, civil
government to control the area, etc.
Thus socio-linguists tried to explain the concept of civilization as a stage in the development of
human culture. They prefer to refer it to as material culture.
2. Utilitarian view:
• MacIver: He mentions that, the word civilization denotes utilitarian things, the whole
mechanism and social organism, techniques and material instrument.
• Life controlling mechanism: Things being devised by man in his endeavor to control the
condition of his life. These things operate as a means to an end.
3. Historian view- According to historians, special factors in a geographical region give rise to
emergence of civilization.
o Example- Indus valley civilization, Egyptian civilization, etc.
4. Anthropological approach- This approach mainly comprehends the concept of civilization in
contrast to culture.
• Objective: According to it, civilization is something objective and culture by and large
refers to differences in values and attitudes, etc.
• Archaeological anthropologists defined civilization as an increasing sophistication of
material culture.

Example- Tool technology, housing, etc.
• A.W. Green: He defines civilization stating that “a culture becomes a civilization only if
it contains language, metallurgy, science and technology, philosophy, specialized division
of labor, complex economy and political system”
• Contemporary American anthropologists: Civilization is an outcome of the process of
ecological adaptation of certain human population characteristics such as economic
redistribution, centralized political system, etc.
Thus all these approaches of study of civilization make study of civilization comprehensive but
anthropological approach is more holistic as it compares civilization with culture.
Relation between culture and civilization:

Anthropologists study both, material civilization and non-material culture. Culture and civilization are
closely related and both are developed by the same human process.
The complimentary relationship shared between the two is explained as follows-
1. Interdependent- Culture and civilization are independent. Culture needs civilization for
further growth and civilization needs culture as its vital force and thus, its survival.
• Artifacts & Mentifacts: In other words, the articles of civilization called ‘artifacts’ are
influenced by cultural ‘mentifacts’ and the products of civilization in turn influence culture.
2. Advanced stage- As per classical evolutionists, Tylor, Morgan and Frazer, civilization is the
apex stage of cultural development.
3. Cultural significance- The objects of civilization, after a period of time, acquire a cultural
significance.
• Example- pottery of today can be a cultural artifact in future. Articles like coins, tools,
clothes, etc. become symbols of a society’s culture.
4. Limiting factor- Civilization tries to put limitations on culture, by determining the degree to
which cultural activities can be pursued.
5. Interactive- Culture and civilization are interactive. Culture responds to the stages of
technological development whereas every change in culture has its repercussions on the
civilization structure.
• Example: Civilization is the driving force of the society and culture is its steering wheel.
Difference between culture and civilization:

1. Standard of measurement:
• Civilization: Civilization is susceptible of being quantitatively measured on the grounds
of efficiency. When comparing products of civilization, we can prove which is superior
and which is inferior.
• Culture: On the other hand, there is no measuring rod by which we can assess the cultural
objects.
o Example: We can say that a car runs faster than a bullock cart. But we cannot say
conclusively whether modern paintings are better than those of earlier times or some
may like folk art while others may like modern art, but neither can be proved superior
or inferior.
2. Changing nature:
• Culture: Change in culture is observed with time i.e. it is a gradual process, as in the old
thoughts and traditions are lost with the passage of time and new ones are added to it which
are then transmitted from one generation to another.

• Civilization: On the flip side, civilization is unilinear and cumulative and tends to advance
indefinitely. In short, we can say that civilization is always advancing but culture may or
may not.
o Example: For example- the various elements of civilization like means of
transportation, communication, etc. are developing day by day but we cannot assert
that thoughts of today are superior to those of the past.
3. Borrowing nature:
• Civilization vs. Culture: Elements of civilization can be borrowed without change or loss
but the same is not applicable to cultural elements.
o Example- Railway system was borrowed as it is from one country to another, but
certain elements of culture such as art, religion, architecture, etc. have never been
borrowed in their original character. It is just like we borrowed Western civilization
and not Western culture.
4. Existence- Culture can evolve and flourish, even if the civilization does not exist. In contrast,
civilization cannot grow and exist without culture.
5. Transmission:
• Civilization: Civilization can be passed on without efforts, but not culture.
• Culture: Culture can be assimilated by only the like-minded i.e. the transmission of culture
across generations depends on the personality and nature of the people, and thus needs
efforts;
Example: Products of civilization can be enjoyed by everyone without sharing the capacity
that created them.
6. Way of expression:
• Culture: Culture denotes the greatest level of inner refinement, and so it is internal, unlike
civilization which is external. Culture is expressed in morals, values, art, beliefs,
knowledge.
• Civilization: Civilization is the expression of state of the art technology, product, devices,
infrastructure and so forth.
Culture Civilization
• Describes what we are. • Describes what we possess i.e. what we have
or what we make use of.
• Has no measurement standards. • Has precise measurement standards.
• Culture is an end in itself. • Civilization is a means for manifestation and
expression for culture.
• Culture of particular region can be • The civilization is exhibited in the law,
reflected in religion, art, dance, literature, administration, infrastructure, architecture,
customs, morals, music, philosophy, etc. social arrangement, etc. of that area.
• It is internal and organic. • It is external and mechanical.
• Change in culture is a gradual process. • Civilization is continuously advancing.
• It is non-materialistic. • It is materialistic.
• Does not show unilinear advancement. • Always advancing, unilinear and cumulative.
• Transmission depends upon personality • Transmitted without efforts.
and nature of people.

• Cannot be borrowed as it is because • Can be borrowed without change or loss.
culture has an intrinsic quality and can
only be imbibed.
• Works of culture can be improved only by • Works of civilization can be improved by
the one who created it. For example, the anyone.
painting by Tagore can be improved only
by Tagore.
Thus, from the above discussion it is clear that one is soul, the other is body. None of them can survive
alone.
ETHNOCENTRISM
William Graham Sumner: He defined in his book “Folkways” ethnocentrism as “that view of things
in which one’s own group is the centre of everything and others are scaled and rated with reference to
it”.
Concept of ethnocentrism: The word ‘ethno’ comes from Greek and refers to a people, nation, or
cultural grouping, while ‘centric’ comes from Latin and refers to the centre. Thus ethnocentrism refers
to the tendency for each society to place its own culture patterns at the centre of things.
It refers to the tendency of individuals in a society to assume the superiority of their own culture and
judging other cultures by comparing them with his/her own culture.
• Example 1: Believing that the traditional clothing of a culture other than your own is 'strange'
or 'incorrect'.
• Example 2: People who live in cities view country folks as “hicks”.
• Example 3: Christian missionaries see members of an underdeveloped tribal society as a group
of heathens, while the members of that underdeveloped society look at the missionaries as
strange people with weird objects that they idolize.
Ethnocentrism in 19th and 20th century:

• Survival of the fittest: Ideas developed by Western scientists such as Herbert Spencer,
including the concept of the "survival of the fittest", contained ethnocentric ideals; influencing
the belief that societies which were 'superior' were most likely to survive and prosper.
• “Primitive” societies: 19th-century anthropologist Edward Burnett Tylor wrote about
"primitive" societies in “Primitive Culture” (1871), creating a "civilization" scale where it was
implied that ethnic cultures preceded civilized societies. The use of "savage" as a classification
was usually referred as a derogatory term.

SAVAGERY BARBARISM CIVILIZATION
(primitive society)
Causes of Ethnocentrism:
1. Learned behaviour:
• From birth: Ethnocentrism is so ingrained in someone's culture because every culture
learns from birth what the appropriate cultural expectations are.
• Sense of loyalty: Due to enculturation, individuals in in-groups have a deeper sense of
loyalty and are more likely to following the norms and develop relationships with
associated members.
• Results in ethnocentrism: Limited interactions with other cultures can prevent individuals
to have an understanding and appreciation towards cultural differences resulting in greater
ethnocentrism.
2. Social identity: Ethnocentric beliefs are caused by a strong identification with one's own
culture that directly creates a positive view of that culture. In order to maintain that positive
view, people make social comparisons that cast competing cultural groups in an unfavorable
light.
Features of ethnocentrism:
• Universal phenomenon: Sumner considered ethnocentrism a universal phenomenon as all
human beings are, to some extent, ethnocentric.
• ‘We’ feeling: The roots of ethnocentrism lies in primordial feeling of an individual’s
identification with his group i.e. it arises out of ‘we feeling’.
• Double moral standards: It involves double moral standards- one towards “in-group” and
other towards “out-group”.
• Feeling of hatred: Culture of out-group is looked upon with hatred and even contempt.
• Trans-generational: Ethnocentrism is said to be a trans-generational problem since
stereotypes and similar perspectives can be enforced and encouraged as time progresses.
Levels of ethnocentrism:
• Positive: Maintaining order, encouraging the solidarity of the group, promotes continuance of
the status quo.
• Negative: Discourages change, hinders cooperation with other groups, attitudes of suspicion,
disdain and hostility.
• Extreme: Promotes conflict like wars, and racial and religious conflicts.
Negative fallouts of ethnocentrism:

1. Breeds intolerance and hatred for other culture
2. Hinders our understanding of other cultures.
3. Genesis of racism.
4. Human rights violation and ethnic cleanse
5. Stalled progress.
• Example: ISIS terrorism.
6. Inhibits change or innovations.
7. Erect barriers that prevent cultural exchange and enrichment.

Benefits/Significance of ethnocentrism:
1. Patriotism and nationalism: Ethnocentrism reinforces group loyalty and heightens the level
of morale, patriotism, and nationalism.
2. Preservation of culture: It serves as a protection against change by advocating preservation
of culture within society.
Conclusion:
Anthropologists have been actively engaged in the fight against ethnocentrism ever since they started
to study and actually live among traditional people with radically different cultures, realizing that these
“others” were no less humans than anyone else. They aimed to understand individual cultures and the
general concept of culture rather than ranking the cultures.
Value Addition:
Ethnocentrism: Changing Definitions and study from India
While initially used in anthropology, the term is now used widely in sociology,
psychology, political science, economics and markets, among other disciplines.
Scientific interest in the term ethnocentrism started in the late 19th and early 20th century. Charles Darwin
argued that competition with other groups makes people more cooperative with members of their own
group, which further influences group prosperity (Boris Bizumic, 2012). Herbert Spencer argued that
societies in general are characterised by internal amity (towards members of one’s group) and external
enmity (towards everyone else).
Ethnocentrism And Nationalism

Similarities: Ethnocentrism is quite similar to nationalism. All the expressions of ethnocentrism, such
as feelings of superiority and even hostility towards out-groups, could be easily attributed to
nationalism.
Differences:
• Different levels: While ethnocentrism is at the level of an ethnic group, nationalism is at the
level of a national group.
• Territory: National groups are defined by the belongingness to a group that inhabits a national
state or aspires to form a national state whereas ethnic groups do not require national states to
be called ethnic groups, and they may lack a shared public culture or even territory.
Cultural Relativism
1. Cultural relativism: Cultural relativism is the ability to understand a person's beliefs and
practices based on that person's own culture through objectivity & rationality and not to make
judgments using the standards of one's own culture.
• Example 1: Food choices are a good example because people have become more tolerant
of food from cultures that are not their own.
2. Concept of cultural relativism: Culture relativism developed in part of response to Western
ethnocentrism.
• Origin: Cultural relativism has its origin in German enlightenment.
• Concept: It is a method whereby different societies or cultures are analyzed objectively
without using the values of one culture to judge the worth of another.
• Main advocates: Franz Boas, Malinowski, etc. advocated cultural relativism.

o Franz Boas: Concept of culture was given by Franz Boas in his book, “Race, language
and culture” (1940). According to Franz Boas, every culture is distinctive and unique.
o Malinowski: Malinowski studied Trobriand Islanders and in his book, “Argonauts
of the Pacific” (1922), highlighted the voyages, ways of life, culture, etc. which were
earlier considered savage and barbarism by ethnocentrism.
• Change in view of anthropologists: Anthropologists now asked about the circumstances
that made a particular practice acceptable in that particular society rather than judging it.
o Example: Khasa tribe of Jaunsar-Bawar region of Uttarakhand practice polyandry
because they live on hill slopes and their agro-productivity is low. To lower the
economic costs involved in marriage, they practice polyandry. A cultural relativist
would look at this perspective of Khasas, and understand their practices.
Features of cultural relativism:

1. Unbiased understanding of culture: According to it, no culture is superior or inferior i.e.
every cultural pattern is equally valid.
2. Non-judgemental: It promotes non-judgemental appreciation of strengths and weakness of
other cultures from posture of neutrality.
3. Emic: It is emic in its approach i.e. it understands the other’s cultures perspective.
Example: Beef-eating in non-Hindus and cousin marriage in many communities should be
viewed in its own logic.
4. Relativeness: It implies that beliefs are relative to society and are not comparable between
societies.
• Example: Evans Pritchard argued that witchcraft and magic of Azande tribe was rational
in its own right if seen from their perspective.
Significance of cultural relativism OR its dearness to anthropologists:

• Promote tolerance: It promotes observation of different cultures from their perspective and
not ours. It adds an impartial objectivity, and thus inculcates tolerance.
• Preserve human culture: Cultural relativists understand that every culture is a treasure house
of knowledge. For instance, they insist on conservation of tribal languages, irrespective of the
number of speakers.
• Cultural rights: It respect cultural rights and provides protection to tribals from violation of
cultural rights.
• Help reform societies: It helps to reform societies as cultural relativists are aware of values
and understanding of a society.
• Understand human differences: It has helped understand the diversity among us, and thus
bust several myths like racism and the supposed ‘savage’ nature of tribes.
• Promotes world peace: It promotes world peace and helps in solving dilemma of a globalized
world.
• Applied anthropology: Anthropologists having a cultural relativist view can understand
issues such as tribal unrest and left-wing extremism in a better manner. Their developmental
solutions are often more efficient, as they are compatible with the culture of their target groups.
Criticism of cultural relativism OR Cultural relativism and human rights:

1. Elizabeth Zechenter: She has criticized cultural relativists, saying that they justify traditional
practices that often violate human rights, all in the name of cultural uniqueness.

2. Harry Gensler: According to him, cultural relativism does not differ between social approval
and moral approval. At times, what is socially and culturally accepted may not be morally
acceptable.
• Example: sati
3. Herskovits: Cultural relativism is not completely neutral; subjectively it is bound to happen.
Conclusion:
Due to issues in both approaches, anthropologists employ what is sort of a middle ground. This is
because it is almost impossible to be unbiased while comparing cultures. This biasness may be due to
one’s own cultural affiliation, or due to one’s understanding and perception of human rights and ethics.
Hence, it is important for anthropologists today to understand another culture without the need to
approve or disapprove it.
CULTURAL RELATIVISM AND HUMAN RIGHTS
Opinion of cultural relativists:

• Respect cultural differences: “Cultural relativists” believe human rights should take account
of cultural differences.
• Human rights are based on Western morality: Cultural relativists argue that human rights
were developed by Western countries and are based on Western morality. They should
therefore not be imposed on non-Western societies that have different histories, cultures and
levels of development.
• Equal validity of different practices: Cultural Relativism is the view that moral or ethical
systems, which vary from culture to culture, are all equally valid and no one system is really
“better” than any other.
• Based on cultural perspective of an individual: There is no ultimate standard of good or evil,
so every judgment about right and wrong is a product of society. Therefore, any opinion on
morality or ethics is subject to the cultural perspective of each person.
• No best practice: Ultimately, this means that no moral or ethical system can be considered the
“best,” or “worst,” and no particular moral or ethical position can actually be considered “right”
or “wrong.”
Opinion of advocates of human rights or universalists:

• Equal applicability of human rights: "Universalists" believe that the same human rights
should apply to everyone, regardless of their culture or background.
• Equally available: Universalists argue that ideals like liberty and security belong to all of us.
• Critical of cultural relativists: They are critical of cultural relativist arguments, which they
see as an attempt to justify oppression of minorities or defend harmful cultural practices.

CASE STUDY
Indian tradition of sati is a bright example of human rights violation with cultural bases.
An eighteen-year-old Rajput girl committed sati in 1987 during her husband’s funeral pyre.
She was a university student and her marriage was insisted by her parents. There is no
evidence whether she committed sati voluntarily or under pressure, however this case found a
large response among Rajput society. As a sign of protest many human rights activists, both
men and women, organized marches against the tradition of sati, meanwhile many others
came out for the tradition, claiming that sati is a significant part of their ethnic culture. They
not only made the young girl as a symbol of devoted wife, but also erected a shrine in honor
of her. The human rights defenders and activists were branded as Western imperialists who
were superseding old Indian traditions with Western ones.
Point of collision:
So, there is a tension between human rights as entirely universal and not subject to modifications due
to culture i.e. the idea of "universal human rights" as an objective truth, on the one hand, versus
human rights as affected by the cultural demands of specific contexts i.e. the idea of cultural
relativism of diverse communities throughout the world, on the other.
• Example 1: In 2010, Europe and the US put pressure on Malawi to free jailed homosexuals.
This sparked widespread anger in Africa, where some people believe homosexuality is not part
of African culture and so should be outlawed.
• Example 2: Female genital mutilation (FGM) occurs in different cultures in Africa, Asia and
South America. Arguments for FGM are sometimes religious, sometimes cultural. But FGM
is considered a violation of women's and girl's rights by much of the international community
and is outlawed in some countries.
Conclusion:
Although human rights are seen as universal, their significance will vary with the context. Paul
Rosenblatt recognizes the dilemma but nonetheless thinks that something has to be done to stop torture
and “ethnic cleansing,” among other practices. He makes the case that “to the extent that it is easier to
persuade people whose viewpoints and values one understands, relativism can be a tool for change. a

relativist’s awareness of the values and understanding of the elite makes it easier to know what
arguments would be persuasive.
Difference between Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativism

They can be considered as two polar ends of a spectrum.
Ethnocentrism Cultural Relativism
• Ethnocentrism is judging other cultures • Cultural relativism is the notion that a
based on the preconceptions originating in culture should be understood on its own
the standards and customs of one’s own terms, not using standards of another
culture. culture.
• It is culturally insensitive. • It is culturally sensitive.
• Is close minded. • Is open-minded.
• Generally obstructs cultural diffusion and • Promotes cooperation as it inculcates
acts as a barrier against cooperation respect and tolerance for diversity.
between any two cultures.
• An ethnocentric individual will believe that • A cultural relativist understands that one
his culture is ‘correct’ and ‘normal’. culture is not better than another.
• It is a negative concept. • It is the positive attitude or concept.
ADDITIONAL READING:
Tradition vs. Culture: Why the Japanese Remove Their Shoes
Around 2,300 years ago, Japanese people began to wear shoes to aid in rice cultivation. They wore
them to keep their feet dry during the long, humid, and wet days they spent outside. And so, before
entering house each evening, they would remove their shoes to avoid bringing any dirt inside.
But cleanliness was only part of the reason. Another came down to manners, and how they
considered their house a sacred place.
It’s suggested the origin of this came from the raised floor storehouse used to house the rice
paddies during the Meiji period. The amount of rice paddy you collected represented power, so
bringing dirt into the storehouse after a long day was seen as an insult to the work you did.
A tradition began that’s still practiced throughout modern-day Japan. Not just in people’s homes,
but in certain restaurants, schools, temples, and even tea ceremonies. Tradition has become a part
of Japanese culture.
What is Culture?
Culture is the collective term to identify certain ideas, customs, and social behaviors. It represents
a group of people or a society, combining their knowledge, beliefs, morals, and laws.
For the most part, culture looks at the big picture. It’s a general term that represents the whole. It
includes everything from the food you eat to the TV shows you watch, as well as art, language,
fashion, dance, and more.
When you think of Japanese culture, for instance, certain foods, movie genres, dances, art, and
language likely come to mind. Culture is what brings an entire group of people together. It not

only represents what you do but also what you believe. It’s deep-rooted into your personality and
behavior, often resulting in shared morals and values. It’s a shared sense of community identity.
In short, culture is everything a certain group of people has amassed throughout their history. It’s
a way of life that you learn through immersion as you experience it each and every day.
What is Tradition?
Tradition, on the other hand, is a more specific term. It’s often used to describe an individual event
or practice, such as removing your shoes when entering your home.
Traditions are ideas and beliefs passed down from one generation to the next. They’re not rules,
but rather guidelines. Each family within a culture can have its own unique traditions while sharing
other common ones.
For example, each year on the 3rd March many Japanese families celebrate their daughters,
wishing them happiness and success. This is a shared tradition that goes back many generations.
It isn’t a law you must abide by, but most families celebrate it because they consider it a part of
their culture. Yet different families may celebrate it in different ways. A tradition to go to a certain
location, for instance, or to present a specific gift.
In short, traditions present a link to the past. They allow you to honor your ancestors and pay
respect to certain aspects of your culture.
Difference between Culture and Tradition

The main difference between culture and tradition is that traditions describe a group’s beliefs and
behaviors that are passed down from one generation to another. Culture describes the shared
characteristics of the entire group, which has been amassed throughout its history.
For example, the tradition to remove your shoes when entering a home in Japan is a shared custom
passed down from parent to child. It’s rooted in good manners, as is the tradition of bowing to
those you greet. These honor Japan’s greater culture, which largely centers around showing
respect.
Culture acts as the underlying thread that connects you to everyone else, with traditions acting as
the events and customs to honor these.
We witness this not only in Japan but across every country in the world. In Mexico, for instance,
the importance of family plays a huge role in its culture.
There are certain traditions that honor this. The Day of the Dead (Día de los Muertos) is a widely
celebrated tradition that honors those that have already passed. Yet other traditions, such as the
role of friends and family at weddings, and huge family get-togethers for birthdays are customs
that center around the importance of family.
Each culture has certain traditions that help honor it. They play a huge role in the culture’s
continued evolution, yet no tradition alone can tell the whole story.
CULTURAL APPROPRIATION – Possibility of Question on Terminology related to culture.
Cultural appropriation is the inappropriate or unacknowledged adoption of elements of one culture

or identity by members of another culture or identity. Cultural appropriation can include adoption
of another culture's religious and cultural traditions, dance steps, fashion, symbols, language, and
music. Linda Martín Alcoff writes that as a concept it is controversial in its applications. This is
often seen in cultural outsiders' use of an oppressed culture's elements, such as music, dance,
spiritual ceremonies, modes of dress, speech, and social behaviour being trivialized and used for

fashion, rather than respected within their original cultural context. Mutual cultural exchange
happens on an "even playing field", whereas cultural appropriation involves pieces of an oppressed
culture being taken out of context by a people who have historically oppressed those they are
taking from, and who lack the cultural context to properly understand, respect, or utilize these
elements.
Case study: The Swastika and Nazi Hakenkreuz (hooked-cross)

The swastika is a sacred symbol to many cultures from around the globe including to
Buddhists, Jains, Hindus, as well as to many indigenous peoples. The symbol signifies
fertility and good luck, and has for many thousands of years. In the 1930s, the Western
world began to largely associate the ancient swastika with the Germanic/Nordic
Hakenkreuz due to appropriation and use of a similarly shaped symbol that Adolf Hitler
and the Nazi Party called the "Hakenkreuz" ("hooked-cross"). There are modern groups
such as the Coalition of Hindus of North America that are seeking to reverse or reclaim
the hold that the Hakenkreuz has over the swastika in the West.
THEME :- Culture drives human evolution more than genetics

(can be used as part of Chapter 1.4 regarding evolution of humans as well as in 2.1)
Insights from article:
According to the recent research Tim Waring and Zach Wood. have just published their
findings in a literature review in the Proceedings of the Royal Society B, the flagship biological
research journal of The Royal Society in London. Humans are experiencing a "special
evolutionary transition" in which the importance of culture, such as learned knowledge,
practices and skills, is surpassing the value of genes as the primary driver of human evolution.
Like genes, culture helps people adjust to their environment and meet the challenges of
survival and reproduction (BIO CULTURAL ADAPTATION) however culture does so more
effectively than genes because the transfer of knowledge is faster and more flexible than the
inheritance of genes, according to Waring and Wood.
Reasons:
• It's faster: gene transfer occurs only once a generation, while cultural practices can be
rapidly learned and frequently updated.
• Gene transfer is rigid and limited to the genetic information of two parents, while cultural
transmission is based on flexible human learning and effectively unlimited with the ability
to make use of information from peers and experts far beyond parents.
(See Recombination and formation of chiasma from chapter 1.7 paper 1 cell cycle)
Conclusion:
"This research explains why humans are such a unique species. We evolve both genetically and
culturally over time, but we are slowly becoming ever more cultural and ever less genetic,"
According to the researcher culturally organized groups appear to solve adaptive problems more
readily than individuals, through the compounding value of social learning and cultural
transmission in groups." Cultural adaptations may also occur faster in larger groups than in small
ones.

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ANTHROPOLOGY OPTIONAL

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Definitions by various anthropologists

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Components or Elements of Culture

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4. Culture pattern- A culture pattern is “a unique configuration of integrated arrangement of

Culture patterns by various Anthropologists:

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Ideal, Real Culture and Cultural Construct

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Sub-Culture and Counter-Culture

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Different Outcomes of Acculturation:

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Relevance of acculturation in India’s context:

Comparison between Acculturation and Enculturation:

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Superorganic View Of Culture

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Uniqueness of Culture to Humans

Characteristics that made culture unique to man:

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Thus, it is best to conclude that presently, culture is unique to human beings.

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Definition of culture area by various anthropologists:

Classification of culture areas in India:

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Difference Between Culture And Society

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Society and culture:

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Approaches to study civilization:

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Relation between culture and civilization:

Difference between culture and civilization:

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Ethnocentrism in 19th and 20th century:

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Negative fallouts of ethnocentrism:

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Ethnocentrism And Nationalism

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Features of cultural relativism:

Significance of cultural relativism OR its dearness to anthropologists:

Criticism of cultural relativism OR Cultural relativism and human rights:

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CULTURAL RELATIVISM AND HUMAN RIGHTS

Opinion of cultural relativists:

Opinion of advocates of human rights or universalists:

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Difference between Ethnocentrism and Cultural Relativism