G.D.

GOENKA INTERNATIONAL SCHOOL MODEL UNITED NATIONS 2022

STUDY GUIDE

UNOOSA: Space as a driver for

peace or further conflict

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
1. What is the United Nations Office of Outer Space Agencies?...........3

2. Space Law..........................................................................................4

2.1 The 5 UN Treaties on Outer Space

2.1.1 The Outer Space Treaty
2.1.2 The Liability Convention
2.1.3 The Rescue Agreement
2.1.4 The Registration Convention
2.1.5 The Moon Agreement

2.2 The 5 UN Declarations and Legal Principles on Outer Space

2.3 National Space Law

3. Use of Space Technology for Socio-Economic Development........6

4. Use of space technology for global security by predicting

environmental disasters.....................................................................7

5. Use of space technology by non‐state actors...................................8

6. Is War in Space Inevitable?..............................................................9

7. The Space Race..............................................................................10

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1. What is the United Nations Office of Outer Space Agencies?

The United Nations Office for Outer Space Affairs (UNOOSA) works to promote
international cooperation in the peaceful use and exploration of space, and in the utilisation
of space science and technology for sustainable economic and social development. The
Office assists any United Nations Member States to establish legal and regulatory
frameworks to govern space activities and strengthens the capacity of developing countries
to use space science technology and applications for development by helping to integrate
space capabilities into national development programmes.

It works to help all countries, especially developing countries, access and leverage the
benefits of space to accelerate sustainable development. It also works toward this goal
through a variety of activities that cover all aspects related to space, from space law to space
applications.

The UNOOSA helps countries build their capacity to develop and make the most out of the
space sector through a two-fold approach: on one side, it provides resources such as training,
workshops, conferences and knowledge-sharing portals; on the other side, it complements
these with concrete opportunities for countries to expand their space capabilities, such as
fellowships and competitive programmes, some of which targeting specifically developing
countries, for example under the Access to Space 4 All Initiative.

In the area of disaster risk reduction, a dedicated programme, UN-SPIDER, helps countries
use space data and technologies, such as satellite imagery, to prevent and manage disasters.

Countries receive aid to understand the fundamentals of international space law and increase
their capacity to draft or revise national space law and policy in line with international
normative frameworks on space. This is particularly important as more and more actors enter
the space arena.

UNOOSA supports transparency in space activities, through measures such as the Registry
of Objects Launched in Outer Space, which is maintained and links each object to its
responsible country.

It works not only to promote sustainable development through space but also to ensure the
sustainability of outer space activities, fostering international solutions to problems such as
the rapid increase in space debris, to preserve space for future generations.

Furthermore, it works with space agencies and space leaders around the world to devise
solutions to challenges that require an international response, such as the threat of a Near-
Earth Object impact and the need to accelerate the compatibility of GNSS systems.

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2. Space Law

Space law can be described as the body of law governing space-related activities. Space law,
much like general international law, comprises a variety of international agreements, treaties,
conventions, and United Nations General Assembly resolutions as well as rules and
regulations of international organizations.

The term "space law" is most often associated with the rules, principles and standards of
international law appearing in the five international treaties and five sets of principles
governing outer space which have been developed under the auspices of the United Nations.

2.1 The 5 UN treaties on Outer Space

These are: The "Outer Space Treaty"; The "Rescue Agreement"; The "Liability Convention";
The "Registration Convention"; The "Moon Agreement".

2.1.1 The Outer Space Treaty

Adopted by the General Assembly in its resolution 2222 (XXI), opened for signature on 27
January 1967, and entered into force on 10 October 1967, this Treaty was largely based on
the Declaration of Legal Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and
Use of Outer Space, which had been adopted by the General Assembly in its resolution 1962

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(XVIII) in 1963, but added a few new provisions.

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2.1.2 The Liability Convention

Considered and negotiated by the Legal subcommittee from 1963 to 1972. The agreement
was reached in the General Assembly in 1971 (resolution 2777 (XXVI)), and the Convention
entered into force in September 1972. Elaborating on Article 7 of the Outer Space Treaty, the
Liability Convention provides that a launching State shall be liable to pay compensation for
damage caused by its space objects on the surface of the Earth or to aircraft, and liable for
damage due to its faults in space. The Convention also provides for procedures for the
settlement of claims for damages.

2.1.3 The Rescue Agreement

Adopted by the General Assembly in its resolution 2345 (XXII), opened for signature on 22
April 1968, and entered into force on 3 December 1968, the Agreement, elaborating on
elements of articles 5 and 8 of the Outer Space Treaty, provides that States shall take all
possible steps to rescue and assist astronauts in distress and promptly return them to the
launching State and that States shall, upon request, assist in launching States in recovering
space objects that return to Earth outside the territory of the Launching State.

2.1.4 The Registration Convention

Adopted by the General Assembly in its resolution 3235 (XXIX), opened for signature on 14
January 1975, and entered into force on 15 September 1976. Building upon the desire
expressed by States in the Outer Space Treaty, the Rescue Agreement and the Liability
Convention to make provision for a mechanism that provided States with a means to assist in
the identification of space objects, the Registration Convention expanded the scope of the
United Nations Register of Objects Launched into Outer Space that had been established by
resolution 1721B (XVI) of December 1961 and addressed issues relating to States Parties
responsibilities concerning their space objects. The Secretary-General was, once again,
requested to maintain the Register and ensure full and open access to the information
provided by States and international intergovernmental organizations.

2.1.5 The Moon Agreement

Considered and elaborated by the Legal Subcommittee from 1972 to 1979. The Agreement
was adopted by the General Assembly in 1979 in resolution 34/68. It was not until June
1984, however, that the fifth country, Austria, ratified the Agreement, allowing it to enter
into force in July 1984. The Agreement reaffirms and elaborates on many of the provisions
of the Outer Space Treaty as applied to the Moon and other celestial bodies, providing that
those bodies should be used exclusively for peaceful purposes, that their environments
should not be disrupted, that the United Nations should be informed of the location and
purpose of any station established on those bodies. In addition, the Agreement provides that
the Moon and its natural resources are the common heritage of mankind and that an
international regime should be established to govern the exploitation of such resources when

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such exploitation is about to become feasible.

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2.2 The 5 UN Declarations and Legal Principles on Outer Space

Several fundamental principles guide the conduct of space activities, including the notion of
space as the province of all humankind, the freedom of exploration and use of outer space by
all states without discrimination, and the principle of non-appropriation of outer space. Thus,
space is the only frontier wherein ownership cannot be attained and thus, may even promote
peace.

2.3 National Space Law

In addition to the implementation of international instruments of space law, states have

developed national regulatory frameworks to govern the conduct of space-related activities.
States that have enacted national space legislations have taken several different approaches
in dealing with national space activities. National space legislation can be contained in
unified acts or a combination of national legal instruments. Furthermore, some States have
adapted their national legal frameworks according to the specific needs and practical
considerations of the range of space activities conducted and the level of involvement of
non-governmental entities.

Issues which States may consider when enacting regulatory frameworks for national space
activities range, for example, from the launch of objects into and their return from outer
space, the operation of a launch or re-entry site and the operation and control of space objects
in orbit to the design and manufacture of spacecraft, the application of space science and
technology, and exploration activities and research. National space-law making is also
important given the increasing participation of nongovernmental entities in space activities,
appropriate action at the national level is needed, in particular concerning the authorization
and supervision of space activities.

3. Use of Space Technology for Socio-Economic Development

Among other approaches, space technologies are currently being deployed for disaster
management, environmental monitoring, urban planning, health applications and
communications. If some of these subjects are combined, space technologies can be used for
socioecological development. To make that happen, the United Nations have set up “three
unique global Conferences on the Exploration and Peaceful Uses of Outer Space -
UNISPACE Conferences - to engage States and international organizations to further their
cooperation in the peaceful uses of outer space.”

The first UNISPACE conference was held in 1968, the second one in 1982 and the third one
in 1999. All three conferences aimed to “provide a platform for a global dialogue on key
issues related to space exploration and exploitation that have yielded tremendous scientific as
well as economic and societal benefits for humankind.” Besides fostering international
cooperation, the conferences always focused on benefits for developing countries. One
outcome of the first conference was the creation of the UNOOSA Programme on Space

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Applications. “Throughout the 1970s, the Programme implemented training and workshops,
using space technology in such diverse areas as telecommunications, environmental
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monitoring and weather forecasting, remote sensing for disaster mitigation and management,
agricultural and forestry development, cartography, geology and other resource development
applications.” Particularly the second UNISPACE conference in 1982 was attended by non-
governmental and intergovernmental organizations. They contributed to the effort of building
regional centres for space science and technology education. These centres “focus on
building human and institutional capacities for exploiting the immense potential of space
technology for socio-economic development.”

Besides establishing regional centres, developing countries were fostered to raise their
indigenous capabilities in the use of space technology applications. UNISPACE III was
organised because of the rapid development in space exploration and technology. The most
important approaches were to protect the global environment and manage natural resources,
increase the use of space applications for human security, development and welfare and
increase developing countries' access to space science and its benefits. “UNISPACE III
concluded with the Space Millennium: Vienna Declaration on Space and Human
Development (Vienna Declaration), which contained 33 recommendations as elements of a
strategy to address new challenges in outer space activities.”

As outlined before, outer space can bring many benefits to humanity, chiefly through
technology and innovation. These benefits must reach beyond those countries that have the
means to explore space. Under the Access to Space4All initiative, UNOOSA works with a
variety of partners to increase opportunities for more member states, in particular developing
countries, to access space. (Annual Report 2018: p. 5) The initiative Space 4 All was
launched in 2018. The goal is to help especially developing countries to access the benefits
of space research and technology. “The initiative offers a wide range of opportunities in
microgravity research, satellite development and deployment, in-orbit research and access to
laboratories in low Earth orbit, such as the ISS and the future China Space Station.” To make
this project happen, a wide range of stakeholders such as governments, space agencies,
private space entities, civil society and academia had to be brought in.

The approach of the Space 4 All initiative is in a wide sense capacity-building of states. “It
comprises research opportunities to develop the technologies needed to send hardware into
space, orbital opportunities and a project to increase access to space data.” To achieve the
best possible effect, UNOOSA pursues collaborations with regional and national institutions,
but also with intergovernmental organisations such as the European Space Agency.

4. Use of space technology for global security by predicting environmental disasters

Space technology provides unique images, data and navigation services, among other
applications, that can be used for predicting environmental disasters. Already existing
technology provides real-time, homogenous information from any location, including remote
areas, upon which strategic policymaking decisions can be based. Besides improving
resilience to disasters, space technologies can be used for increasing agricultural output and
profitability; fight the spread of diseases; foster innovation, education and research in

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science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) fields, and expand opportunities
for women in these fields; promote industrialization, productivity improvements through
innovation and
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economic growth; achieve better water management; support clean energy transition;
promote sustainable infrastructure and cities; analyse natural resources and ecosystems for
sustainable consumption and production; monitor and devise strategic responses to climate
change and the risks to life and biodiversity underwater and on land; combat illegal trade and
other criminal activities, foster peace and justice; and promote international cooperation and
partnerships across nations. (Annual Report 2018, p. 36)

To promote the use of space technologies and applications for better water management,
UNOOSA has launched the Space4Water portal. (Annual Report, p. 38) The goal is to enable
all stakeholders involved in the space and water communities to access data and knowledge,
be creative and realize their full potential in contributing to a world in which the availability
and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all have become a reality. This can
help to forecast shortages of water which could lead to upheaval and insecurity among the
population.

Water scarcity is in particular a problem for developing countries, which aren’t able to
compensate for occurring shortages of water. Water resources will become more important in
the next few years, not only in developing countries. Shortages of water can cause conflicts
and global insecurity. It is therefore important to enhance the “capabilities of countries in the
use of space-related technologies, applications, services and information for identifying and
managing water resources” to predict shortages of water and take counteractions.

5. Use of space technology by non‐state actors

Unlike the 1950s, when space exploration began, space has become increasingly accessible.
Due to incredible leaps in technology, manufacturing and launching, Earth’s orbit has been
democratized: While merely 30 years ago, space was essentially the domain of three
governmental space agencies of the USA, Russia and China, today we observe a wide range
of non-state actors challenging that monopoly. Crucially, the democratization of space will
pose new challenges for policymakers, given that the existing legal framework has
effectively applied to only a handful of states. The Outer Space Treaty outlined four basic
concepts:
● the parties agreed to keep space open for exploration and use by all states,
● take responsibility for all activities conducted from within their borders (whether carried
out by governmental or nongovernmental entities),
● assume liability for damage caused by their space objects, and cooperate and
● provide mutual assistance. Due to newly established accessibility, other non-state actors
now have access to space.

“Nongovernmental organizations may start pursuing missions that undermine governments’

objectives. An activist billionaire wanting to promote transparency could deploy a
constellation of satellites to monitor and then tweet the movements of troops worldwide.
Criminal syndicates could use satellites to monitor the patterns of law enforcement in order
elude capture, or a junta could use them to track rivals after a coup.”

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As the number of players in space increases, situational awareness will become even more
important. It is in everyone’s best interest to share data to prevent collisions. The US has so
far been tasked with that tracking; however, recently other countries and non-state actors
have started programmes of their own.

6. Is War in Space Inevitable?

Here on Earth, the air, land, and sea are zones of conflict, clashes and combat. There is a
growing perception that next up is the ocean of space, transformed into an arena for warfare.

There is ongoing chatter regarding the military use of space by various nations. The freshly
established U.S. Space Force, for instance, is busily shaping how best to protect U.S. and
allied interests in the increasingly contested and congested space domain.

The term "warfare in space" could entail things that are already taking place, said Mark
Gubrud, an adjunct assistant professor in the Curriculum in Peace, War & Defence at the
University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill. He pointed to jamming satellite communications,
laser dazzling of photo-snapping satellites, hacking systems to selectively block or eavesdrop
on phone or data streams, and probing systems to see if they can be hacked.

"While the full extent of such activities may not be known, they appear to occur sporadically
up to now," Gubrud said. According to some reports, he said, the U.S. and perhaps others
have made extensive use of the ability to intercept and interfere with commercial telecom
traffic, though this is an asymmetric capability of major powers that presents little risk of
escalation.

Gubrud said that all of these forms of harmful interference could potentially lead to
escalation risks as they are more widely and commonly practised and as adversaries develop
reciprocal capabilities.

"Therefore, we should build on the United Nations Outer Space Treaty with a further treaty
that bans all forms of harmful interference and weapons for causing interference," he said.

The greatest danger will arise from a massive proliferation of Earth-based anti-satellite
systems that are able to affect spacecraft in geosynchronous orbit and beyond, or the pre-
deployment of various types of such weapons in space that would allow them to reach their
targets within minutes or seconds, rather than hours, Gubrud said.

"Here the potential for rapid escalation becomes a severe threat to nuclear stability, as the
main confronting powers would almost certainly be the US, Russia and China," he said. The
only good news here is that this hasn't happened yet, he added, probably because there is
enough recognition of how dangerous it would be.

"So really, the path to war in space is a space arms race, one that has long been postponed
but that is only made more imminent and potentially explosive as technology advances in
the

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abse nce of binding commitments to space arms control," Gubrud concluded.
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7. The Space Race

The Space Race was a 20th Century struggle between two nation-states, the Soviet Union
(USSR) and the United States (US). The pursuit for both was the domination of space flight
technologies. The competition began on 2 August 1955, when the Soviet Union responded to
the US announcement of their similar intent to launch artificial satellites.

Timeline :-

2 August 1955: The USSR responds to the US announcement that they intend to launch the
first artificial satellite into space with a satellite of their own.

4 October 1957: The USSR successfully launches Sputnik 1, the first Earth-orbiting satellite
in history.

3 November 1957: The USSR successfully launches Sputnik 2, carrying a dog named Laika
into space. They become the first nation to successfully send a living organism into orbit.

31 January 1958: The US enter the Space Race by launching Explorer 1, the first US
satellite to reach orbit. It carried experimental equipment that led to the discovery of the Van
Allen radiation belt.

1 October 1958: The National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is created in
the US, replacing the National Advisory Committee on Aeronautics (NACA).

18 December 1958: The US launch SCORE, the world's first communications satellite. It
captured world attention by broadcasting a pre-recorded Christmas message from US
President Dwight D. Eisenhower, becoming the first broadcast of a human voice from space.

2 January 1959: The USSR launches Luna 1, known as the first "cosmic rocket" as it
accidentally escaped the orbit of the Moon due to the object having too much speed. Luna 1
becomes the first human-made object to leave the orbit of the Earth and orbit the sun instead.

2 August 1959: The US launches Explorer 6, the world's first weather satellite and obtains
the first pictures of Earth from space.

12 September 1959: The USSR launches Luna 2 and accomplishes its mission of creating the
first spacecraft to reach the surface of the Moon.

4 October 1959: The USSR launches Luna 3 and succeeds in their mission of sending an
object into orbit around the Moon and photographing the far side of the Moon.

19 August 1960: Aboard the Soviet Union's Sputnik 5, the first animals (two dogs, Belka and

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Strelka) and a range of plants are returned alive from space.

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31 January 1961: Ham, a US chimpanzee, becomes the first hominid (or great ape) in space
and the first to successfully survive the landing.

12 April 1961: The Soviet Union achieved a clear triumph in the Space Race. Aboard the
Vostok 1, Yuri Gagarin makes a single orbit around the Earth and becomes the first man to
reach space. He remained in space for one hour and forty-eight minutes before landing in
Saratov Oblast, west Russia.

5 May 1961: The US achieve the first pilot-controlled journey and the first American in
space with Alan Shepard aboard the Mercury-Redstone 3 (or Freedom 7) spacecraft. On this
flight, Shepard did not orbit Earth. He flew 116 miles high. The flight lasted about 15
minutes.

16 June 1963: Valentina Tereshkova becomes the first civilian and first woman in space. She
spends almost three days in space, orbiting the Earth 48 times aboard her spacecraft, Vostok
6.

18 March 1965: Alexei Leonov leaves his spacecraft, the Voskhod 2, in a specialized
spacesuit and conducts a twelve-minute spacewalk, the first of its kind.

14 July 1965: The US satellite, Mariner 4, performs the first successful voyage to the planet
Mars, returning the first close-up images of the Martian surface.

1967: This year proves the most deadly of the Space Race for both the US and Soviet Union.
In January, American astronauts Ed White, Gus Grissom, and Roger Chaffee die when a fire
ignited in their Apollo 1 capsule on the launch pad. Only a few months later the Soviet
cosmonaut Vladimir Komarov is also killed when the parachute on his Soyuz 1 capsule fails
to open on his re-entry into Earth's atmosphere.

21 December 1968: US spacecraft Apollo 8 becomes the first human-crewed spacecraft to

reach the Moon, orbit it, and successfully return to Earth.

20 July 1969: Neil Armstrong and later Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin become the first men to walk
on the Moon while their crewmate Michael Collins continues to orbit the Moon aboard the
Apollo
11. This secured a victory for America in the Space Race with a televised landing witnessed
around the world by 723 million people.

11 April 1970: The US Apollo 13 mission is known as the first explosion onboard a
spacecraft where the crew survived.

19 April 1971: The USSR launches the first space station. Parts of this spacecraft will
become core segments of the International Space Station (ISS) almost thirty years later in
November 2000.

1 August 1971: David Scott, commander of the Apollo 15 mission, becomes the first person

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to drive on the Moon. He's also remembered for paying tribute to the Soviet Union and US
astronauts who died in the advancement of space exploration. When walking on the Moon,
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Scott places a plaque with a list of the dead. Alongside this, he leaves a small aluminium
sculpture of an astronaut in a spacesuit, created by Belgian artist Paul Van Hoeydonck.

15 July 1975: With tensions between the US and USSR softening, the first cooperative
Apollo- Soyuz mission is launched. With two separate flights, the Apollo and Soyuz
spacecraft dock in space and the two commanders Tom Stafford and Alexei Leonov
exchange the first international handshake. This act can be seen to symbolically end the
Space Race, paving the way for future joint missions, such as the International Space Station
and the Shuttle-Mir programme.

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