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Short-Circuit Calculation Methods

Oct 1, 2004 12:00 PM, By Massimo Mitolo, Ph.D., Chu & Gassman Consulting Engineers

The task may seem overwhelming at first, but following a methodical step-by-step procedure can keep you from getting tripped up All electrical systems are susceptible to short circuits and the abnormal current levels they create. These currents can produce considerable thermal and mechanical stresses in electrical distribution equipment. Therefore, it's important to protect personnel and equipment by calculating short-circuit currents during system upgrade and design. Because these calculations are life-safety related, they're mandated by 110.9 of the NEC, which states: Equipment intended to interrupt current at fault levels shall have an interrupting rating sufficient for the nominal circuit voltage and the current that is available at the line terminals of the equipment. Equipment intended to interrupt current at other than fault levels shall have an interrupting rating at nominal circuit voltage sufficient for the current that must be interrupted. When you apply these requirements to a circuit breaker, you must calculate the maximum 3-phase fault current the breaker will be required to interrupt. This current can be defined as the short-circuit current available at the terminals of the protective device. You can assume that 3-phase short circuits are bolted, or have no impedance. In addition, a 3-phase short circuit can be considered a balanced load, which means you can use a single-phase circuit to analyze one of the phases and the neutral.

This over-simplified one-line diagram of a power distribution system included values necessary for working through the two methods of short-circuit calculation referred to in the text.

Distribution equipment, such as circuit breakers, fuses, switchgear, and MCCs, have interrupting or withstand ratings defined as the maximum rms values of symmetrical current. A circuit breaker can't interrupt a circuit at the instant of inception of a short. Instead, due to the relay time delay and breaker contact parting time, it will interrupt the current after a period of five to eight cycles, by which time the DC component will have decayed to nearly zero and the fault will be virtually symmetrical. Closing a breaker against an existing fault makes it possible to intercept the peak of the asymmetrical short-circuit current, which is greater than the rms value of the symmetrical current. For this reason, equipment is also tested at a particular test X/R ratio value typical to a particular electrical apparatus, such as switchgear, switchboards, or circuit breakers, and is designed and rated to withstand and/or close and latch the peak asymmetrical current described above. Fault analysis is required to calculate and compare symmetrical and asymmetrical current values in order to select a protective device to adequately protect a piece of electrical distribution equipment. Methods of calculation. Rather than using a theoretical approach to determine short-circuit currents, published standards offer methods to compute a symmetrical steady state solution to which you can apply a multiplier in order to obtain the peak value of an asymmetrical current. The result is precise enough to fall within an acceptable tolerance to meet NEC requirements. The classical approach and the method defined by ANSI/IEEE are two such industry-accepted methods for calculating short circuits. Both methods assume that the fault impedance is zero (bolted short circuit) and the pre-fault voltage is constant during the evolution of the fault. In actuality, the fault has its own impedance, and the voltage drop, due to the short-circuit current, lowers the driving voltage. The classical approach is used to calculate the Thevenin equivalent impedance as seen by the system at the point of the fault. Thevenin impedance is defined as the impedance seen at any point in a circuit once all the voltage generators have been short circuited and all the current generators have been opened. Transformer and utility impedances and rotating machine subtransient reactances describe all possible contributions to a short circuit. Once we have calculated the symmetrical and peak duties, we can determine the required rating of the protective device by direct comparison to manufacturer equipment ratings.

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The ANSI/IEEE method, which is described in IEEE Std. C37.010-1979 and its revision in 1999, is used for high-voltage (above 100V) equipment. It calls for determining the momentary network fault impedance, which makes it possible to calculate the close and latch rating of the breaker. It also calls for identifying the interrupting network fault impedance, which makes it possible to calculate the interrupting duty of the breaker. The interrupting network fault impedance value differs from the momentary network fault impedance value in that the impedance increases from the subtransient to transient level. The IEEE standard permits the exclusion of all 3-phase induction motors below 50 hp and all single-phase motors. Hence, no reactance adjustment is needed for these motors. The Chart at right clarifies the ANSI/IEEE procedure.

The ANSI/IEEE short-circuit calculation method follows a step-by-step process. Classical calculation. Begin by converting all impedances to per unit values. Per unit base values and formulae used are as follows: Sbase =100MVA Vbase =26.4 kV

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Let's run through an example calculation to make this discussion a little more tangible. Refer to the one-line diagram in the Figure above with the following input data:

Utility: 26.4kV, 1,200MVA, X/R=41 Transformer (T1): 2MVA, 26.4/4.16kV, DY-G, Z=7%, X/R515 Motor 1 (M1): Induction, 4.16kV, 1,000 hp, PF=0.8, efficiency50.8, X"d= 0.16 pu, X/R=28 Motor 2 (M2): Induction, 4.16kV, 49 hp, PF=0.8, efficiency=0.8, X"d=0.17 pu, X/R=10

Now it's possible to calculate the equivalent Thevenin impedance for a fault at Bus 2 by combining the per unit X and R values to obtain the relative impedances. ZFault=(Zutility+ZT1)||ZMotor1||ZMotor2=(0.0021+j0.083+0.005+j0.07)||(0.49+j13.8)||(29.8+j298)=0.166+j2.817 pu=2.823ej We may now calculate the short-circuit current rms at Bus 2:
86.6

The peak duty the breaker is required to close and latch may be evaluated using the following formula, which constitutes a multiplier to the rms current, which was calculated above:

Use Table 1, page 1 in ANSI C37.06-1997 Preferred Ratings and Related Required Capabilities to rate new switchgear. It's useful in comparing calculated duty (4,916A and 12,692A) and standard ratings. The Table includes sample values extracted from the ANSI table.

Compare calculated duty and standard ratings using Table 1 in ANSI C37.06-1997.

These are the short-circuit current ratings required for our switchgear duty corresponding to a continuous current, for example, 1,200A. No further steps have to be taken, as the table itself, by comparison, provides the required specifications for the equipment to be installed.

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ANSI/IEEE calculation. The ANSI/IEEE calculation method is based on the same per unit quantities as calculated before. However, it differs from the classical method because it makes it possible to study two separate circuits derived from the original one: one resistive only and one reactive only. This will be carried out for both momentary and interrupting network fault impedances. For each network, Thevenin equivalent resistance and Thevenin equivalent reactance will then be combined in order to obtain the equivalent Thevenin impedance. This is the significant difference between the ANSI/IEEE procedure and the classical calculation method. As mentioned before, the momentary network fault impedance is based on the subtransient reactances of the rotating machines, which allows for the calculation of the first-cycle peak fault duty. The total fault resistance and reactance values will be calculated separately, following the same formula as the ZFault equation in the classical calculation section, except the Zs must be replaced with the Rs and Xs. Then they'll be combined as total fault impedance ZFault, which will yield ISC3-phase and IPeak according to the formulas. The interrupting network fault impedance is based on individual equipment transient reactances. In the previous example, only the reactance of Motor 1 needs to be adjusted. It's acceptable to neglect Motor 2 at medium voltage levels. The resistances of the network, in fact, don't vary with respect to time. ANSI C37.010-1999 identifies the adjustment factor as 1.5. In this case, the total fault resistance and fault reactance (with adjustments) will be calculated separately as already seen. ISC3-phase, symmetrical duty is calculated as it was in the classical method. However, it's typically characterized by a smaller magnitude because the Zfault interrupting current is larger than the one in the momentary network calculation. ISC3-phase is essential because a multiplier factor is applied to this quantity for comparison to the breaker interrupting rating. This multiplier will account for:

The additive contribution of the DC current component, which might still be alive after the time of contact parting. The eventual subtractive contribution of the AC current decay, due to the evolution of the reactances toward larger values. This effect is possible when the generation of power is local. The multipliers, in function of time of contact parting and of the ratio X/R at the point of fault, are described in curves starting from figure A-8, page 60, C37.010-1999 (Figure). Once ISC3-phase has been multiplied by this factor (between 1 and 1.25), you have the minimum rating of your equipment. As in the classical method, you can also use Table 1, page 1 in ANSI C37.06-1997 to determine a standard rating. Which method is better?

Both methods basically provide the same results. There are no theoretical reasons to prefer one to the other, only practical reasons. The ANSI/IEEE approach is the evolution of a method conceived in the '70s in the United States, when no computerMultipliers necessary for one short-circuit calculation method are assisted calculations were available. shown in ANSI C37.010-1999. ANSI/IEEE C37.010-1999 can only be used at medium or high voltages and only at 60 Hz. Calculation programs have been developed to determine fault currents that apply the multiplier factors called for in this standard. In fact, some clients may ask for the application of this calculation methodology by contract. Manufacturers may also recall the ANSI/IEEE standard in their catalogues. The classical method is used mainly in low-voltage studies and can also be applied at 50 Hz. It's a well-known procedure because it's a common topic in every power system college course. Mitolo is an associate electrical engineer at Chu & Gassman Consulting Engineers in Middlesex, N.J.

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Short-Circuit Calculations: The Easy Way

May 1, 2008 12:00 PM

Short-circuit currents represent a tremendous amount of destructive energy, which can be released through electrical systems under fault conditions. Baseline short-circuit studies should be performed when the facility electrical system is first designed, and then updated when a major modification or renovation takes place but no less frequently than every five years. Major changes would be considered a change in feed by the electric utility, a change in the primary or secondary system configuration within the facility, a change in transformer size or impedance, a change in conductor lengths or sizes, or a change in the motors that are energized by the system. Every electrical system confines electrical current flow to selected paths by surrounding the conductors with insulators of various types. Short-circuit current is the flow of electrical energy that results when the insulation barrier fails and allows current to flow in a shorter path than the intended circuit. In normal operations, as shown in Fig. 1, the impedance of the electrical load limits the current flow to relatively small values. However, a short-circuit path bypasses the normal current-limiting load impedance, resulting in excessively high current values that are restricted only by limitations of the power system itself, and by the impedances of the conductive elements that still remain in the path between the power source and the short-circuit point (Fig. 2).

Fig. 1. Short-circuit current through an impedance.

Using basic Ohm's Law (E = I Z or I = E Z) as a guide, it's obvious that if the voltage remains constant and the impedance suddenly decreases, approaching zero, then the current must simultaneously increase, approaching infinity, to satisfy Ohm's Law. There are three basic sources of short-circuit current: the electric utility, motors, and on-site generators. Obviously, the largest source is the electric utility, although the high- and medium-voltage lines leading to the facility do have finite impedances, as does the utility service transformer. The second largest source is from motors within a facility. With today's high fault currents, it's more important than ever to protect electrical equipment from extremely high current levels. Otherwise, the equipment will explode as it attempts to interrupt the fault. But for many, fault current calculations have always been difficult to get a handle on, until now. Here's a new method to calculate short-circuit currents, one we like to call the Easy Way kVA Method. You can use in it in place of the abstract per-unit method of short-circuit calculations from the past. With the kVA method, you can easily visualize what currents will flow and where they will flow, and you can calculate them using an inexpensive handheld calculator in moments, regardless of the complexity of the electrical power system. This method is simple because there are no awkward base changes to make, because kVAs are the same on both the primary and secondary sides of every transformer. Best of all, you only need one calculation to determine the short-circuit values at every point within the entire electrical power system. With the old per-unit method, you needed a separate calculation for each point in the system.

Fig. 2. Short-circuit current through two impedances.

You can obtain short-circuit kVA values from your electrical utility company, but short-circuit power is also protected by generators and motors. The kVA produced by a motor is equal to its starting inrush current. Likewise, the kVA produced by a generator is equal to its kVA nameplate rating divided by its nameplate subtransient reactance rating (Xd). For example, suppose we have a 1,000kVA generator with a subtransient rating of 0.15. It would instantaneously produce 6,667kVA (1,000 0.15). Or, suppose we have a 100-hp motor with subtransient rating of 0.17. It would instantaneously produce 588kVA (100 0.17). Now suppose this motor and generator connects to the same bus. Then, the short-circuit power available at that bus is the sum 6,667kVA plus 588kVA, or 7,255kVA. If the electrical utility is rated to deliver 100,000kVA to this same bus, then the total short-circuit power available at that bus is 107,255kVA. Using the kVA method also greatly simplifies the calculation of short-circuit power attenuation (or holdback) provided by reactors, transformers, and conductors. For example, a 2,000kVA, 7% impedance transformer will pass through its windings a maximum of 28,571kVA of power (2,000 0.07), if infinite power flows to one side of its windings. If instead of an infinite current source, the above bus connects to this transformer, then the amount of power that will be let through the transformer is the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of the two, or 1 ( [1 107,254] + [1 28,571] ), or 22,561kVA. You can determine transformer impedance, reactor impedance, or cable size with the kVA method quickly enough to make what-if calculations.

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Comparisons over several years have found results of the kVA method to be accurate within 3% of computer calculations using expensive software, so you can even use the kVA method as a check on the input and output of a computer calculation. This is an excellent benefit because standard engineering procedure requires you to check calculations using a different method from the one originally used.

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Basic short-circuit current calculation

Dec 1, 1999 12:00 PM, John A. DeDad

A basic electrical theorem says the amount of current that will flow through a short circuit depends on two variable values: The system voltage and the connected total impedance of the current flow path from the source to the point of the fault. The typical system voltages are very familiar to all of us. The connected total impedance of the short-circuit current flow path needs a little clarification, however. This impedance normally includes the feeder conductors' resistance and reactance, any transformers' impedances (going from the point of fault back to the energy source), and any other equipment connected in the path of current flow. Fig. 1 is a very simple one-line with the following: a power source, transformer, and an overcurrent protective device (OCPD) having a specific short-circuit current interrupting rating. Let's talk about the power source first. In many short-circuit current calculation examples, you'll see references like "Assume the power source has infinite capacity" or "The source has an infinite bus." What does this mean, and why is it important to sample calculation? All that is being said is the source voltage has no internal impedance. As a result, the sample calculation becomes very conservative. Since the source has been assumed to have no impedance of its own, the corresponding short-circuit current will be at its worst case. Now let's look at the transformer. The impedance determining the amount of short-circuit current on its secondary is made up of two separate impedances: Its own impedance plus that of the secondary conductors run to the point of the fault. The transformer's own impedance is the amount of its opposition to the flow of short-circuit current through it. Now, all transformers have impedance, and it's generally expressed as a voltage percentage. This is the percentage of normal rated primary voltage that must be applied to the transformer to cause full-load rated current to flow in the shortcircuited secondary. For instance, if a 480V/120V transformer has an impedance of 5%, this means that 5% of 480V, or 24V, applied to its primary will cause rated load current flow in its secondary. If 5% of primary voltage will cause such current, then 100% of primary voltage will cause 20 times (100 divided by 5) full-load-rated secondary current to flow through a solid short circuit on its secondary terminals. Obviously, then, the lower the impedance of a transformer of a given kVA rating, the higher the amount of short-circuit current it can deliver. Let's take another example for clarification. Suppose we have two transformers, each rated at 500kVA. Since they have the same rating, each has the same rated secondary load current. Suppose one of the units has a 10% impedance. It, therefore, can supply 10 times (100 divided by 10) its rated secondary load current into a short circuit on its secondary terminals. Now suppose the second unit has an impedance of 2%. This unit can supply a much greater multiple of its rated secondary load current into a short circuit on its secondary terminals: 50 times (100 divided 2) this value. Comparing both units, the latter transformer can deliver five times as much short-circuit current as the former unit. Sample calculation Now that we understand the basic variables that determine short-circuit currents, let's do a sample calculation. As shown in Fig. 2, suppose we have a simple distribution system with a fault condition. For the sake of clarity and simplification, let's assume there are negligible line impedances between the transformer secondary and the fault. Step 1. Determine full-load secondary current (IsubS). IsubS = 100,000VA/240V = 417A Step 2. Determine the shortcircuit current (IsubSC) at the transformer's secondary terminals per its impedance. IsubSC * (100% / %ZsubT) x IsubS = (100/2.5) * 417 = 16,680A Therefore, the OCPD must be capable of safely interrupting this amount of current, along with the asymmetrical current value (usually a multiplier times the symmetrical value). Admittedly, this is greatly simplified. In reality, the calculation would consider all impedances and the distance of the fault relative to the transformer. Nevertheless, it gives you a feel for what is involved in short-circuit current analysis.

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Making Short-Circuit Calculations Easy

Jun 1, 2000 12:00 PM, By John Paschal, P.E.

Using the new kVA method, you only need one calculation to determine the short-circuit values at every point within an entire electrical power system. In this day of high fault currents, it's more important than ever to protect electrical equipment from extremely high current levels. Otherwise, the equipment will explode as it attempts to interrupt the fault. But fault current calculations have always been difficult to get a handle on, until now. The new "Easy Way" kVA approach is taking the place of the abstract "Per Unit" method of short-circuit calculations from the past. With the kVA method, you can easily visualize what currents will flow where. And you can calculate them using an inexpensive handheld calculator in moments, regardless of the complexity of the electrical power system. This method is simple because there are no awkward "base" changes to make, since kVAs are the same on both the primary and secondary sides of every transformer. Perhaps best of all, you only need one calculation to determine the short-circuit values at every point within the entire electrical power system. With the old Per Unit method, you needed a separate calculation for each point in the system. You can obtain short-circuit kVA values from the electrical utility company, but short circuit power is also protected by generators and motors. The kVA produced by motors equals the motor starting inrush current, and the kVA produced by generators equals the kVA nameplate rating divided by its nameplate subtransient reactance rating "Xd." For example, a 1000kVA generator with a subtransient rating of 0.15 instantaneously produces 1000/0.15, or 6666kVA. A 100hp motor instantaneously produces 100,000/.17kVA, or 588kVA. If this motor and generator connect to the same bus, then the short-circuit power available at that bus is the sum (6666 + 588), or 7254kVA. If the electrical utility is rated to deliver 100kVA to this same bus, then the total short-circuit power available at that bus is 107,254kVA. Using the kVA method also greatly simplifies the short-circuit power attenuation (or holdback) provided by reactors, transformers, and conductors. For example, a 2000kVA 7% impedance transformer will pass through its windings a maximum of 2000/.07, or 28571kVA of power, if infinite power flows to one side of its windings. If instead of an infinite current source, the above bus connects to this transformer, then the amount of power that will be "let through" the transformer is the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of the two, or 1/(1/107254 + 1/28571), or 22561kVA. You can determine transformer impedance, reactor impedance, or cable size with the kVA method quickly enough to make "what if" calculations. Comparisons over several years have found results of the kVA method to be accurate within 3% of computer calculations using expensive software, so you can even use the kVA method as a "check" on the input and output of a computer calculation. This is an excellent benefit because standard engineering procedure requires you to check calculations using a different method from the one originally used. Editors Note: EC&M's book, "Short-Circuit Calculations The Easy Way," explains the entire "Easy Way" kVA method in a step-by-step format. Available from EC&M Books, call (800) 543-7771 to order.

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