DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE

BASIC ELECTRONICS
ASSIGNMENT # 02
REGISTRATION NO:
UW-22-BS-CS-067
SUBMITTED BY:
LAIBA RAFI
SUBMITTED TO:
MAM FAIZA SABA
Q#1: What is the basis for classifying a material as a conductor, semiconductor, or a dielectric? What is
the conductivity of perfect dielectric?

ANS: Conductors possess high conductivity whereas the characteristic property of insulating
materials (or dielectrics) is poor conductivity. Semiconductors occupy an intermediate position
between conductors and insulators. Though there is no rigid line separating the conductors from
semiconductors and semiconductors from insulators, but still according to resistivity the
materials of resistivity of the order from 10-8 to 10-3, 10-13 to 106 and 106 to 1018 ohm-meters may
be classified as conductors, semiconductors and dielectrics respectively.
Another classification is based on temperature coefficient of resistivity. Metals have positive
temperature coefficient of resistivity. Semiconductors have a small negative temperature
coefficient of resistivity and insulators have a large negative temperature coefficient of
resistivity.
Q#2: Differentiate semiconductors, conductors, and insulators on the basis of band gap?
ANS: The distinction between conductors, insulators and semiconductors is largely concerned
with the relative width of the forbidden energy gaps in their energy band structures. There is a
wide forbidden gap (more than 5eV) for insulators, narrow forbidden gap (about 1eV) in case of
semiconductors and no forbidden gap in case of conductors.
Q#3: What is the importance of valence shell and valence electrons?
ANS: The outermost shell of an atom is called valence shell and the electrons in this shell are
called valence electrons. Formation of energy bands occurs owing to overlapping of energy
levels of these valence electrons in valence shells. With the decrease in interatomic distance
between the atoms in a crystal, the energy levels of electrons in outermost shells of atoms
overlap to form energy bands.
Q#4: What is the forbidden energy gap? How does it occur? What is its magnitude for Ge and
Si?
ANS: The energy gap between the valence band and conduction band is known as forbidden
energy gap. It is a region in which no electron can stay as there is no allowed energy state.
Magnitude of forbidden energy gap in germanium and silicon is 0.72 eV and 1.12 eV
respectively at 300 K and 0.785 eV and 1.21 eV respectively at absolute zero temperature.
Q#5: Define a hole in a semiconductor?
ANS: When an energy is supplied to a semiconductor a valence electron is lifted to a higher
energy level. The departing electron leaves a vacancy in the valence band. The vacancy is called
a hole. Thus, a vacancy left in the valence band because of lifting of an electron from the valence
band to conduction band is known as a hole.
Q#6: Why silicon and germanium are the two widely used semiconductor materials?
ANS: Because the energy required to release an electron from their valence band (i.e. to break
their covalent bonds ) is very small (1.12eV for Si and 0.72eV for Ge).
Q#7: Which of the two-semiconductor materials Si or Ge has larger conductivity at room
temperature? Why?
ANS: Since energy required in transferring electrons from valence band to conduction band is
more in case of Si than that in case of germanium, the conductivity of Ge will be more than that
of Si at room temperature.
Q#8: Why does a pure semiconductor behave like an insulator at absolute zero temperature?
ANS: For a pure semiconductor at a temperature of absolute zero (-273.15 oC)the valence band is
usually full and there are may be no electron in the conduction band and it is difficult to provide
additional energy required for lifting electron from valence band to conduction band by applying
electric field. Hence the conductivity of a pure semiconductor at absolute zero temperature is
zero and it behaves like an insulator.
Q#9: What is the main factor for controlling thermal generation and recombination?
ANS: Temperature, because with the increase in the temperature, concentrations of free electrons
and holes increase, and the rate of recombination is proportional to the product of concentration
of free electrons and holes and the rate of production of electron-hole pairs (thermal generation)
increases with the rise in temperature.
Q#10: What is the mechanism by which conduction takes place inside the semiconductor?
ANS: Conduction occurs in any given material when an applied electric field causes electrons to
move in a desired direction within the material. This may be due to one or both of two processes,
electron motion and hole transfer. In the case of former process, free electrons in the conduction
band move under the influence of the applied electric field. Hole transfer involves electrons
which are still attached to the atoms i.e., those in valence band.
Q#11: What happens to the conductivity of semiconductors with the rise in temperature?
Compare with the conductivity of metals?
ANS: With the increase in temperature, the concentration of charge carriers increases resulting in
an increase in conductivity of semiconductors. The conductivity of metal decreases with the
increase in temperature.
Q#12: Why doping is done in semiconductors?
ANS: Intrinsic (or pure) semiconductor by itself is of little significance as it has little current
conduction capability at ordinary room temperature. However, if a very small amount of
impurity (of the order of one atom per million atoms of pure semiconductor) is added to it in the
process of crystallization, the electrical conductivity is increased many times.
Q#13: Describe the difference between P-type and N-type semiconductor materials?
ANS: When a small amount of trivalent impurity (such as boron, gallium, indium or aluminium)
is added to a pure semiconductor crystal during crystal growth, the resulting crystal is called a P-
type semiconductor.
When a small amount of pentavalent impurity (such as arsenic, antimony, bismuth or
phosphrous) is added to a pure semiconductor crystal during crystal growth, the resulting crystal
is called the N-type semiconductor.

Q#14: What do you mean by donor and acceptor impurities?

ANS: Donor impurities (such as arsenic, antimony, bismuth or phosphorous) when added to a
pure semiconductor lattice , form N-type extrinsic semiconductor. The pentavalent impurities are
called donor impurities as such impurities donate electrons to the lattice.

Acceptor impurities (such as boron, gallium, indium or aluminium) when added to a

Q#15: What is the effect of temperature on extrinsic semiconductors?

ANS: With the increase in temperature of an extrinsic semiconductor, the number of thermally
generated carriers is increased resulting in increase in concentration of minority carriers. At
temperature exceeding critical temperature the extrinsic semiconductor behaves like an intrinsic
semiconductor but with higher conductivity.

Q#16: What are the charge carriers in P-type and N-type semiconductors?

ANS: Fee electrons in n-type semiconductors and holes in p-type semiconductors are the charge
carriers.

Q#17: What is a p-n junction?

ANS: The contact surface between the layers of p-type and n-type semiconductor pieces placed
together so as to form a p-n junction is called the p-n junction.

Q#18: How do the transition region width and contact potential across a p-n junction vary with
the applied bias voltage?

ANS: When the p-n junction is forward biased , the transition region width is reduced and the
contact potential is also reduced with the increase in applied bias voltage.

When the p-n junction is reverse biased, the transition is widened, and the contact potential is
increased and with the increase in applied bias voltage.

Q#19: What do you understand by reverse saturation current of a diode?

ANS: Reverse saturation current of a diode is due to minority carriers and is caused when the
diode is reverse biased. Only a very small voltage is required to direct all minority carriers across
the junction, and when all minority carriers are flowing across, further increase in bias voltage
will not cause increase in current. This current is referred to as reverse saturation current.

Q#20: What is the effect of temperature on the reverse current of a p-n junction?

ANS: Reverse current of a p-n junction increases with the increase in junction temperature.

Q#21: Define peak inverse voltage?

ANS: Peak inverse voltage is the maximum voltage that can be applied to the p-n junction
without damaging the junction. If the reverse voltage across the junction exceeds its peak inverse
voltage (PIV), the junction may get destroyed owing to excessive heat.

Q#22: Why is silicon preferred to germanium in the manufacturing of semiconductor devices?

ANS: Silicon preferred to germanium in the manufacturing of semiconductor devices because

Q#23: Define breakdown voltage?

ANS: Breakdown voltage is defined as the reverse voltage at which p-n junction breaks down
with sudden rise with reverse current.

Q#24: What is the effect of temperature on the reverse current of a p-n junction?

ANS: Reverse current of a p-n junction increases with the increase in junction temperature.

Q#25: We use half wave rectifier for

ANS: a) to run AC care

Q#26: Zener diode is …

ANS: none of these

Q#26: Write a note on Photodiode and it VI- curve?

ANS: PHOTODIODE:

A photodiode is a PN-junction diode that consumes light energy to produce an electric current.
They are also called a photo-detector, a light detector, and a photo-sensor. Photodiodes are
designed to work in reverse bias condition. Typical photodiode materials are Silicon, Germanium
and Indium gallium arsenide.
Symbol of Photodiode:
The following image shows the symbol of the photodiode:

The symbol of the photodiode is similar to that of an LED, but here the arrow points inwards.
Photodiode Working:
A photodiode is subjected to photons in the form of light which affects the generation
of electron-hole pairs. If the energy of the falling photons (hv) is greater than the energy gap (Eg)
of the semiconductor material, electron-hole pairs are created near the depletion region of the
diode. The electron-hole pairs created are separated from each other before recombining due to
the electric field of the junction. The direction of the electric field in the diode forces the
electrons to move towards the n-side and consequently the holes move towards the p-side. As a
result of the increase in the number of electrons on the n-side and holes on the p-side, a rise in
the electromotive force is observed. Now when an external load is connected to the system, a
current flow is observed through it.
The more the electromotive force created, the greater the current flow. The magnitude of
the electromotive force created depends directly upon the intensity of the incident light. This
effect of the proportional change in photocurrent with the change in light intensity can be easily
observed by applying a reverse bias.
Since photodiodes generate current flow directly depending upon the light intensity received,
they can be used as photodetectors to detect optical signals. Built-in lenses and optical filters
may be used to enhance the power and productivity of a photodiode.

Applications of Photodiode:

 Photodiodes are used in simple day-to-day applications. The reason for their prominent
use is their linear response of photodiode to light illumination.
 Photodiodes with the help of optocouplers provide electric isolation. When two isolated
circuits are illuminated by light, optocouplers are used to couple the circuit optically.
Optocouplers are faster compared to conventional devices.
 Photodiodes are used in safety electronics such as fire and smoke detectors.
 Photodiodes are used in numerous medical applications. They are used in instruments
that analyze samples, detectors for computed tomography and also used in blood gas
monitors.
 Photodiodes are used in solar cell panels.
 Photodiodes are used in logic circuits.
 Photodiodes are used in the detection circuits.
 Photodiodes are used in character recognition circuits.
 Photodiodes are used for the exact measurement of the intensity of light in science and
industry.
 Photodiodes are faster and more complex than normal PN junction diodes and hence are
frequently used for lighting regulation and optical communication.
Characteristics of Photodiode:

The figure below shows the VI characteristic curve of a photodiode:

Here, the vertical line represents the reverse current flowing through the device and the
horizontal line represents the reverse-biased potential.

The first curve represents the dark current that generates due to minority carriers in the absence
of light.

As we can see in the above figure that all the curve shows almost equal spacing in between them.
This is so because current proportionally increases with the luminous flux.

The figure below shows the curve for current versus illumination:
It is noteworthy here that, the reverse current does not show a significant increase with the
increase in the reverse potential.