FST 559 UNIT OPERATIONS

CHAPTER 6
MIXING

CHAPTER OUTCOMES
At the end of this chapter, students should be able to:-

a) Role of mixing
b) Differentiate the type of mixers
c) Emulsification: theory and principle
 
 DEFINITION OF MIXING
• An operation in which two or more components are interspersed in
space with one another.

• Objectives of mixing:   
a. To achieve a uniform distribution of the components by
means of flow.
b. To increases homogeneity of a system by reducing non-
uniformity / gradients in compositions

• Complete mixing – state in which all samples are found to contain

the components in the same proportions as in the whole mixture.
LIQUID MIXING
 Rheology

• Rheology is the science/physics that concerns with the flow of fluids

and the deformation of solids.
• Study of flow properties is important for food scientist working in the
manufacture of different forms of food product e.g. simple fluids,
gels, creams and pastes.
• These products change their flow behaviour when exposed to
different stress conditions.
Classification of fluids
 Shear stress vs shear rate

• Shear rate • Shear stress

The shear rate is the difference in velocity A

between the different layers and can be calculated
as the velocity of the top plate (the bottom plate
does not move) and the distance between the
plates
  liquid is located between two parallel plates.
The shear force, F, divided by the contact area
A
between the liquid and the plate gives the shear
stress,
Exercises

1. Imagine that, in the system described, the upper plate is 1.25 cm

above the lower plate and that the upper plate is moving to the
right at a rate of 2.30 cm per second. If all the assumptions are
met, verify that at steady state, the velocity gradient (shear rate)
will be 1.84 meters per second per meter or 1.84 s-1
2. The distance between two parallel plates is 0.01 m and the lower
plate is being pulled at a relative velocity of 0.4 m/s greater than
the top plate. The fluid is soybean oil with a viscosity of 4 x 10-2
Pa.s at 303 K. Calculate the shear stress and the shear rate
 Flow curves

Correlations between shear stress and shear rate and the viscosity of Newtonian and non-Newtonian fluids: 1
Newtonian; 2 shear-thinning (pseudoplastic); 3 shear-thickening (dilatant); 4 ideal Bingham plastic; 5 non-ideal
Bingham plastic (Hershel Buckley)
Flow curves
 Non-newtonian Fluids

• A non-Newtonian fluid is a fluid whose flow properties are not

described by a single constant value of viscosity.
• In a non-Newtonian fluid, the relationship between the shear stress
and the strain rate is nonlinear, and can be even time-dependent.
Therefore a constant coefficient of viscosity cannot be defined.
 Power Law model

• 

• shear stress (unit: Pa)

• = shear rate (unit: 1/s)
• = the coefficient of consistency (it represents the initial slope of each curve)
• = the flow behaviour index (it determines the shape of the curves)

• It states that apparent viscosity changes with shear rate.

• If = 1, becomes , the curve is a straight line and the fluid obeys Newton’s law. In
that case = or viscosity
• If > 1, the curve bends upward and the fluid is dilatant
• If < 1, the curve bends downward and the fluid is pseudoplastic.
 Apparent viscosity

•   the power law, we can obtain an expression for apparent viscosity.

Using
To do this, factor out of equation .

=
Apparent = = =
Therefore, apparent viscosity () is the slope at given shear rate.
Note: whenever apparent viscosity is reported, corresponding shear rate
must also be given. Otherwise, the apparent viscosity is meaningless.
 The effect of temperature and pressure on
flow properties

•  Liquids decrease in viscosity as the temperature increases (e.g. Hot

cooking oil will tend to flash when heated)
• Pressure has a negligible effect on the viscosity of liquids up to about
40 atm.
• The relationship between temperature and viscosity of liquid is
described by an Arrhenius equation.

• = constant, = activation energy, = the gas constant (8.314 J/mole), =

the absolute temperature
• Taking the logarithm of each side of equation, we get
• ln =ln +
• Log =log +
 Exercise

•The
  versus curve for some fluid fits the equation

a) What shear stress is required to maintain a shear rate of 0.2 s-1?

b) What is the apparent viscosity of the fluid at this shear rate?
c) What is its apparent viscosity at 0.3 s-1?
d) What is your observation on the change in apparent viscosity?
Models describing flow curve
Fluid
Newtonian
Newtonian
Shear thinning
Shear thinning
(pseudoplastic)
(pseudoplastic)
Shear thickening
(dilatant)
Shear thickening
(dilatant)
Ideal Bingham plastic
Ideal Bingham
No ideal plastic
Bingham plastic
(Hershel-Bulkey)
No ideal Bingham plastic
(Hershel-Bulkey)

  = the coefficient of consistency = the slope of the line

= the flow behaviour index
= the y-intercept = the yield stress
Fluid
Newtonian
Newtonian Newtonian
Newtonian viscosity
viscosity == 1
1 0
0
Shear thinning Liquid consistency index <1 0
Shear thinning
(pseudoplastic) Liquid consistency index <1 0
(pseudoplastic)
Shear thickening Liquid consistency index >1 0
(dilatant)
Shear thickening Liquid consistency index >1 0
(dilatant)
Ideal Bingham plastic Plastic viscosity =1 >0
Ideal Bingham
No ideal plastic
Bingham plastic Plastic viscosity index
Liquid consistency <=11 >> 0
0
(Hershel-Bulkey)
No ideal Bingham plastic Liquid consistency index <1 >0
(Hershel-Bulkey)

  = the coefficient of consistency

= the flow behaviour index
= the y-intercept = the yield stress
No. Types of fluid Example
1. Newtonian Fluids with >90% water and many oils (water, milk, honey and
vegetable oils)
2. Shear thinning (pseudoplastic) Salad dressings, concentrated fruit juices, dairy cream, and fruit
and vegetable purees
3. Shear thickening (dilatant) Concentrated suspensions of solid spheres such as gelatinized
starch
4. Ideal Bingham plastic Catsup, molten chocolate, mayonnaise and margarine
5. No ideal Bingham plastic (Hershel- Minced fish paste, raisin paste
Bulkey)
What type of a non-Newtonian fluid is this? Explain.
 TYPES OF MIXER
a) Impeller
b) Non impeller
 TYPES OF MIXER
a) Impeller
A rotor component inside a tube which increases the
rate of flow of a fluid by propelling the fluid outwards
away from the central point in different directions

Mixer consist of stationary vessel containing a moving

stirrer, agitator or impeller mounted on a rotating shaft.

Impeller types can be radial, mixed flow, axial and

peripheral.
b) 3 components of fluid velocity:
• Latitude/radial perpendicular to the shaft
• Longitudinal parallel to the shaft
• Rotational tangential to the circle of rotation of
the shaft
 IMPELLER MIXER
a) An agitator is a device or mechanism to put something into motion by
shaking or stirring
b) The most commonly used form of mixer is the impeller agitator (paddle,
turbine, propeller).
 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN AGITATORS
Types of agitators Propeller Turbine Paddle
No of blades 3 only Mostly 6 2-4

Speed (rpm) > 500 30-500 20-150

Size (% of vessel < 25 30-50 50-75

diameter)

Advantages Good flow in all three Very good mixing Good radial and
directions rotational flow, cheap

Limitations More expensive than Expensive and risk of Poor perpendicular

paddle mixer blockage flow, high vortex risk at
higher speed

Ways to overcome Blade mounted off- Pitched to increase Baffles

vortex centre vertical flow
Application (s) Dispersing solids and Emulsion pre mixing Miscible liquids and
emulsification due to turbulence and solution of solids
shear
APPLICATION OF IMPELLER MIXER
Impeller mixer were used for:
a. blending low viscosity oils in manufacture
margarine & cooking fats
b. diluting concentrated solutions
c. manufacturing fruit squashes & juice
d. preparing liquid sugar mixtures for sweet
manufacture
e. preparing syrups
f. dissolving soluble dye and coloring matter
g. reconstituting dried products such as milk powder
SOLID MIXING
 Measurement of mixing

•  If particles are to be mixed, starting out from segregated

groups and ending up with the components randomly
distributed, the expected variances, of the sample
composition can be calculated.
•=

•,,
 Mixing analysis
•  Theoretical limits of variance: for a two-component system the
theoretical upper and lower limits of mixture variance are:
• Let’s assume a two-component mixture of P and Q.
• In a completely segregated mix, a sample will consist either of pure P
(with a fraction or of pure Q (with a fraction .
• If and the probability that any particle picked at random will be
component P will be and that it is not P.

• Upper limit (completely segregated); 2 =

• Lower limit (randomly mixed); 2 = /N=2/N
• N = number of particles

  completely segregated   Randomly mixed

 Mixing analysis

•  Mixing index (M): a measure of the degree of mixing is the Lacey

mixing index

• In practical terms, the Lacey mixing index is the ratio of ‘mixing

achieved’ to ‘mixing possible’.
• Practical values of this mixing index are found to lie in the range of
0.75 to 1.0
• A Lacey mixing index of zero would represent complete segregation
and a value of 1 would represent a completely random mixture.
• A mixing index M can often be related to the time of mixing by
• =,
 Blending starch and dried vegetables for a
soup mix
In a batch mixer, blending starch and dried-powdered vegetables for a
soup mixture, the initial proportions of dried vegetable to starch were
40:60. If the variance of the sample compositions measured in terms
of fractional compositions of starch was found to be 0.0823 after 300 s
of mixing, for how much longer should the mixing continue to reach
the specified maximum sample composition variance for a 24 particle
sample of 0.02?
Assume that the starch and the vegetable particles are of
approximately the same physical size.
 Powder and Particle Mixers
The essential feature in these mixers is to displace parts of
the mixture with respect to other parts.

The ribbon blender, for example, consists of rotates a shaft

with two open helical screws attached to it, one screw being
right-handed and the other left-handed.

As the shaft rotates sections of the powder move in opposite

directions and so particles are vigorously displaced relative to
each other.
 Mixers for high viscosity paste:
• In high viscosity liquids, pastes or dough, a different action is
needed.

• Mixing occurs by:

 kneading the material against the vessel wall or into
other material
 folding unmixed food into the mixed part
 shearing to stretch the material

• There must be direct contact between the mixing elements and

the materials of the mix.
• Thus, the material must be brought to the mixing elements or
elements must travel to all parts of the mixing vessel.
• Mixer consisting of a stationary vessel containing moving vanes,
knives, paddle or screws.

• Pan mixers, kneaders, horizontal trough mixers,

z-blade mixers are commonly used.

• Applications:
• dough mixing for bread manufacture,
• preparing meat & fish pastes,
• blending of margarine,
• cooking fats & butter,
• preparing cheese spreads & blending of cheese,
• manufacturing of chocolate products.
 DOUGH AND PASTE MIXERS
• Dough and pastes are mixed in powerful machines because of the large power
requirements, as the power is dissipated in the form of heat, may cause
substantial heating of the product.

• Such machines may require jacketing of the mixer to remove as much heat as
possible with cooling water.

• Perhaps the most commonly used mixer for these very heavy materials is the
kneader which employs two contra-rotating arms of special shape,
 IMPELLER:
DRY MIXING EQUIPMENTS
 MIXER FOR DRY SOLIDS
• Dry solid mixing occurs by one or more of the followings:
a) Convection – transfer of masses or groups
(aggregated molecules) of particles from one
location to another

b) Diffusion – the transfer of individual particles from

one location to another arising the distribution of
particles over a freshly developed surface

c) Shear – the setting up of slipping planes within the

mass
• The mixing that is achieved depends on:
a) The relative particle size, shape and
density of each component

b) The efficiency of the mixer for those

components

c) The tendency of the material to aggregate

(stick together)

d) The moisture content, surface

characteristics and flow characteristics of
the component
 1. RIBBON MIXER
a) It consists of semi-cylindrical horizontal vessels in which one or more
rotating devices are located.

b) Two counteracting ribbons are mounted on the same shaft where

one moves the solids slowly in one direction while the other moves it
quickly in the opposite direction (continuous mixer).

c) Batch – troughs may be open or closed due to small clearance

between ribbon and trough wall.

d) Applications: Mixing of dry ingredients for making confectionary

products
 2. TUMBLER MIXER
a) They operate by tumbling the mass of solids inside a revolving vessel.

b) These vessels take various forms and some typical examples are
horizontal cylinder, double cone, Y-cone, V-cone.

c) May be fitted with baffles and or internal rotating devices to break up

agglomerates.
d) The vessels rotate at 100 rpm and the working capacity 50-60%

e) Fitted with ports or valves for filling and emptying

f) Application: Preparation of 3-in-1 coffee mixes, panning of

chocolates, mixing spices.
 3. VERTICAL SCREW MIXER
a) A rotating vertical screw located in a cylindrical or cone-shaped
vessel.

b) The screw may be fixed centrally in the vessel or it may rotate or

orbit around the central axis or the vessel near the wall.

c) The latter arrangement is more effective and stagnant layers near the
wall are eliminated.
d) It is quick and quite efficient and particularly useful for mixing small
quantities of additives into larger masses of material.

e) Application: Mixing anti-caking agent in wheat flour

LIQUID MIXERS
 LIQUID MIXERS

• For the deliberate mixing of liquids, the propeller mixer is

probably the most common.

• In using propeller mixers, it is important to avoid regular

flow patterns such as an even swirl round a cylindrical
tank, which may accomplish very little mixing.

• To break up these streamline patterns, baffles are often

fitted, or the propeller may be mounted asymmetrically.
 SWIRL AND VORTEX FORMATION
• It is due to increasing speed of rotation of the impeller

• As the speed of rotation of impeller increases, the vortex

deepens and once it reaches the suction of the impeller,
the power imparted to the liquid is suddenly reduced and
air is drawn into liquid
 REDUCING VORTEX
• Rotational flow, and vortexing may be reduced by:
a) Slow down the impeller speed
b) Locating the mixer off centre in the mixing vessel

• A vortex in a cylindrical container effectively will cause solid-

body rotation of the fluid, which provides almost no radial or
vertical flow, both of which are necessary to accomplish
mixing.
 The using of baffles
• Consist of vertical strips fixed at right angles to the
inner wall of the mixing vessel (break up rotational
flow pattern and promote better mixing).
• Usually 4 baffles are used with width
corresponding to 5.55% to 8.33% of the vessel
diameter.
 IMPELLER:
WET MIXING EQUIPMENTS
 1. PAN MIXER
• Two types:
a) Stationary pan mixer - The mixing elements
move in a planetary path, visiting all parts of
the stationary mixing pan.

b) Rotating pan mixer - The mixing vessel is

mounted on a rotating turntable. The mixing
elements also rotate but in one position and
are located near the pan wall.

• Applications: batter preparation for chicken nugget

 VIDEO 1

• Elements are used single or in pairs and are usually designed to provide
small clearance between each other and the pan walls.

• Mixing elements design:

a) Gate type
b) Fork like
c) Bread hook
d) K-mixer
e) Egg wire beater
2. DOUBLE –ARM KNEADER MIXER
a) It consists of a pair of heavy duty blades rotating on horizontal axis in
a trough with a saddle shaped bottom

b) The blades rotate towards each other at the point of saddle and
kneaded and sheared between the blades, the container and the
bottom.

c) The blades generally rotate at different speeds and may be driven or

linked by gears
d) Blades vary in design but a common shape is that of the Z-blade or
sigma blade element

e) The vessel can be open or closed and jacketed for temperature

control and usually tips up for emptying

f) Application: heavy duty mixing of solid paste

NON-IMPELLER MIXER
b) Non-impeller mixer
 Re-circulating pump, orifice, injector and static mixer

 An orifice is any opening, hole or vent, as of a pipe

or plate

 A static mixer is a device for the continuous mixing

of fluid materials. Can be used to mix liquid, gas
streams, disperse gas into liquid or blend immiscible
liquids

 Re-circulating pump - A circulating pump used to

move a liquid through a fluid piping system and
require a frequent or continuous flow of liquid. This
type of pump is commonly used in heating and
cooling systems, and in applications that require a
mix of liquids and powders.
 NON IMPELLER (In-line mixers)
• In line mixers are devices through which the liquid to be contacted are
passed, characterized principally by the very small time of contact for
the liquids.

• They are used only for continuous operation or semi batch (in which one
liquid flows continuously and the other is continuously recycled)
 TYPES OF NON-IMPELLER MIXER
a) Mixing and blending with a re-circulating pump
 most widely used
 low viscosity liquid

b) Injector mixer
 the majority liquid is pumped at
relatively high velocity
 not suitable for high viscous liquids
c) Orifices and mixing nozzle
 mainly used for metering
 both liquids are pumped through
constriction in a pipe.

d) Static or motionless mixer

 it consists of static mixing elements
in a housing that is installed in a
processing line
 it eliminates the need for tanks,
agitators and moving parts, thus
reducing costs and maintenance
requirements
 FLUIDISED-BED MIXERS
a) Mechanism: convective mixing
b) High pressure jets of air causing
spouting of the bed are said to
improve the mixing.
c) The resulting turbulence of passing
air through a bed of material causes
material to blend.
d) Materials to be mixed have to be
relatively fine & fairly narrow in their
size distribution, as well as not too
cohesive.
e) Application: It is used for mixing
solids & are quite effective for
particles with similar settling and
good fluidizing characteristics