Mixing and Agitation

DR. JAYEETA MITRA

DEPT. OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD ENGINEERING
IIT KHARAGPUR

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Content
 Introduction
 Mechanism of Solid mixing
 Mixers for dry powders
 Mixers for cohesive solids
 liquid mixing: flow patterns, Types of agitator
 Power requirement for liquid mixing
 Mixing index and mixing

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Introduction
 Agitation: “establishment of a particular flow
pattern within the liquid, usually a circulatory
motion within a container”.
 Mixing: “random distribution, throughout a system,
of two or more initially separate ingredients”.
 Single homogeneous material can be agitated but
can't be mixed until some other material is added
to it.

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Objectives
 To increase the homogeneity of material in bulk.
 To bring about intimate contact between different species in order for a
chemical reaction to occur
 To enhance heat and mass transfer
 To change the texture
 Dispenses a liquid which is immiscible with the other liquid by forming an
emulsion or suspension of few drops.
 Suspends relatively lighter solid particles

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Applications
 Liquid Blending –flavoured milk
 Solids Suspension –glucose solution
 Gas Dispersion –whipping egg/batter
 Dissolving Solids –ors in water
 Preparation of
 Emulsions
 Pastes
 Creams

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Mixing mechanisms
 Three basic mechanisms:
 Convection: movement of groups of particles because of the direct action of
an impeller or a moving device. Ex: trough mixer with spiral ribbon
 Diffusion: diffusion refers to random dispersion of individual particles in the
inter particle void spaces throughout the mixer. Ex: simple barrel mixer
 Shear mixing: groups of particles are mixed through the formation of slipping
planes developed by the action of blade. Newly formed slipping planes in
turn allow particles to diffuse through new void spaces.

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Mixing mechanisms
 Other Classifications for Mixing Mechanisms
 According to the type of motion applied to a bulk
a. mixing within bulk material
b. centrifugal mixing
c. mixing in a fluidized bed
d. mixing solids in a suspended condition
e. free fall mixing due to gravity

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Degree of mixing
 Mixing index (M): a dimensionless fractional measure of variance or
standard deviation that can be correlated with time.
𝐬𝐬𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟐 − 𝐬𝐬𝟐𝟐
𝐌𝐌 = 𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐
𝐬𝐬𝟎𝟎 − 𝐬𝐬∞
 Where, M- mixing index in fraction 𝐍𝐍
(𝒙𝒙𝒊𝒊 − 𝒙𝒙
�)𝟐𝟐
S2- variance at any given time, 𝐒𝐒 = ��
𝐍𝐍 − 𝟏𝟏
𝐢𝐢=𝟏𝟏
 ‘N’ is the number of samples taken,
 X1, X2, ……….Xn , are the fractional compositions of component X in the 1,
2...... N samples

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Degree of mixing Fraction of ‘p’ in sample X = 1
Sample X
Deviation from the mean
Contain pure ‘p’
composition would be (1 - p)

Fraction of ‘p’ in sample Y = 0

Sample Y
Deviation from the mean
Contain pure ‘q’
composition would be (0 - p)
 For an unmixed system of two separate components: So2 = p(1- p)
 Variance after complete mixing, S2͚ = p(1-p)/n
 Where, n- number of particles in a mixed sample. If sample is large quantity
then n is also large (infinite), then S2͚ = 0

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Degree of mixing
 A biscuit dough is prepared by mixing flour and other ingredients along with
tracer material(2% mass). After 10 minutes of mixing 6 random samples are
collected & their composition (% of tracer material) is given below:
After 10 min 2.021 1.925 1.826 2.125 2.210 2.015
calculate the mixing index after 10 min of mixing.

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Degree of mixing
 Solution: p=0.02, q=0.98, n =6
Avg composition of tracer material=0.0202
𝐍𝐍
By using formula 𝐒𝐒 = ��
(𝒙𝒙𝒊𝒊 − 𝒙𝒙
�)𝟐𝟐
𝐍𝐍 − 𝟏𝟏
𝐢𝐢=𝟏𝟏
S = 1.8762×10-4
So2 = p(1- p)= 0.0196
 For large sample: n= infinite, S2͚ = p(1-p)/n = 0
𝐬𝐬𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟐 − 𝐬𝐬𝟐𝟐
 By using formula 𝐌𝐌 = 𝟐𝟐
𝐬𝐬𝟎𝟎 − 𝐬𝐬∞ 𝟐𝟐

 Mixing index (M) after 10 min = 0.99

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Example 2
A pharmaceutical firm prepares a powder mixture for subsequent compaction into
tablets; 22 kg of the active principle and 78 kg of an inert excipient are put into a
powder mixer and mixed for 7 minutes at constant speed. Ten samples of the mixture,
each weighing 20 g, were analyzed for the active principle content. The results, in
weight percent, were: 21.8, 21.8, 23.0, 21.4, 22.3, 22.0, 22.7, 20.9, 22.0 and 21.7%.
a. Calculate the RMS of the deviation and the variance.
b. Calculate the mixing index, assuming that the particles are small and equal in size.

Solution a) RMS=0.00057
b)Mixing index = 0.998

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Rate of mixing
 Rate of mixing at any time under constant working conditions ought to be
proportional to the extent of mixing remaining to be done at that time.
𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝
= 𝐊𝐊(𝟏𝟏 − 𝐌𝐌)
𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝
 Where (M) is the mixing index and K is a constant, and on integrating from t =
0 to t = t during which (M) goes from 0 to (M),
𝐌𝐌 𝐭𝐭
𝟏𝟏
� 𝐝𝐝𝐝𝐝 = � 𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊
𝟎𝟎 𝟏𝟏 − 𝐌𝐌 𝟎𝟎

−𝐥𝐥𝐥𝐥(𝟏𝟏 − 𝐌𝐌) = 𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊

𝟏𝟏 − 𝐌𝐌 = 𝐞𝐞−𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊

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Rate of mixing
 In a batch mixer, blending starch and dried, powdered vegetables for a soup
mixture, the initial proportions of dried vegetable to starch were 40:60. The
variance of the sample compositions measured in terms of fractional
compositions of starch was found to be 0.0823 after 300s of mixing. For how
much longer should the mixing continue to reach the specified maximum
sample composition variance of O.02? Assume that sample contains 24
particles.
 Given: p=0.6, q=0.4, N=24

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Rate of mixing
 So2 = p(1- p)= 0.24
 S2͚ = p(1-p)/n = 0.24/24=0.01
𝐬𝐬𝟎𝟎𝟐𝟐 − 𝐬𝐬𝟐𝟐
𝐌𝐌 = 𝟐𝟐 𝟐𝟐
… … (𝟏𝟏)
𝐬𝐬𝟎𝟎 − 𝐬𝐬∞
 After 300s: S2=0.0823 then M=0.685 (from eqn.1)
 Substituting in eqn 𝟏𝟏 − 𝐌𝐌 = 𝐞𝐞−𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊

 K=3.85×10-3
 If S2=0.02, then M=0.957 (from eqn.1)
 t=820s from eqn 𝟏𝟏 − 𝐌𝐌 = 𝐞𝐞−𝐊𝐊𝐊𝐊

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Powder mixers
 Tumbling mixer:
 Types: horizontal drum, double-cone, V-cone, Y-cone, and cube.
 Operated in batch mode being partially filled with solids
 Tumbling mixers are run at a fraction of the critical speed required for
centrifugation with a practical maximum speed of about 100 rpm.
 Such mixers may have baffles fitted to the inner walls which help to lift
solids or alternatively may be fitted with ploughs to assist convection.

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Powder mixers
a. Horizontal cylinder :
b. Double cone blender: The double cone blender consists of
Fig. a
two cone-shaped sections, typically with 45◦ slopes.
c. V-cone blender : V-cone blender consists of two large diameter pipe
sections cut at a 45o and welded together to form a V.
d. Y-cone blender: In the same way, the Y-cone blender has a third section that
extends the volume of the blender in a bisectional direction with respect to
the other pipe sections.

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Tumbling mixer

Double cone type V cone type Y cone type

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Ribbon blender
 It consists of a trough & shaft with two
helical screws
 Inner helical ribbon moves the solids slowly
in one direction, while the outer one moves
it quickly in the opposite direction.
 There is a resultant movement of solids in
one direction due to difference in peripheral
speed of ribbons.

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Ribbon blender
 Radial mixing also achieved due to rotational motion of ribbons
 Mixing is strongly convective and segregation is far less pronounced than in
tumbling mixers
 Dry applications: cake and muffin mixes, flour, bread improvers, cereals,
trail mixes, snack bars, spices & herbs, tea & coffee
 When dry blending food products, relatively small amounts of liquid may be
added to the solids in order to coat or absorb coloring, flavoring, oils or
other additive solutions.

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Vertical screw mixer
 Cylindrical or cone shaped vessel.
 The screw may be mounted centrally or orbit
around the central axis of the vessel near the
wall.
 Materials are lifted from the bottom are then
exchanged with materials on the way up.
 Useful for mixing small quantities of additives
into large masses of material.

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Fluidized bed mixer
 The resulting turbulence of passing air through a bed of particulate material
causes material to blend.
 Materials to be mixed have to be relatively fine and fairly narrow in their size
distribution, as well as not too cohesive.
 Mixing times required in fluidized beds are significantly lower than those
required in conventional powder mixers.

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Mixers for cohesive solids
 Mixing elements cannot generate flow currents
 High viscosity
 High power consumption
 Types:
1) Change-Can mixer
2) Kneaders, Dispersers & Masticators
3) Mixer extruders & Mixing rolls
 Mixing is by combination of low speed - Shear, Smearing, Folding, Stretching
& Compressing.

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Change can mixer
 Principle: Change can mixers work by the relative
motion of the blades and the can
 Types: pony mixer & beater mixer
 In the pony mixer, the rotating agitator carries
several vertical blades positioned near the vessel
wall.
 The can is driven by a turntable in a direction
opposite to that of the agitator.

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Change can mixer
 Beater mixer
 Can or vessel is stationary
 Agitator has a planetary motion
 Beaters are shaped to pass with close
clearance over the side & bottom of
mixing vessel

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Kneader mixer
 Working Principle: Some kneaders achieve their mixing action by squashing
the mass flat, folding it, and squashing it again. Others tear the mass apart
and shear it between a moving blade and a stationary surface.
 It consist of two contra-rotating arms which fold and shear the material.
 The arms rotate at differential speeds (nearly 3:2).
 Cooling is provided commonly
 Large energy requirements

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Kneader mixer
 Sigma blade:
 Used for general purpose kneading
 Edges are serrated to give a shredding action
 S-type Double-naben (fish-tail blade):
 Effective with heavy plastic materials
 Develop high shear force
 Z-type Disperser blade:
 Heavier and develop high shearing forces
 Disperse powders or liquids into rubbery masses.

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Kneader mixer

Fig. a) sigma blade

b) S-type Double-naben (fish-tail blade)
c) Z-type Disperser blade

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Mixer extruder
 The discharge of continuous kneader is
restricted by covering it with an extrusion die
 Pressure is built by reducing the pitch of helix
or by reducing the diameter of chamber or
both.
 Material is cut and folded and subjected to
additional shear
 Heating jacket is provided.

29
Liquid mixing
 Liquids are mixed usually by impellers, which produce shear forces for
inducing the necessary flow pattern in the mixing container.
 Mixing occurs due to the resultant effect of 3 components acting on liquid:
1. Radial component
2. Tangential / Circular component
3. Axial / Longitudinal component
 The type of flow depends on
1. Type of impeller
2. Characteristic of fluid
3. Size proportion of tank, baffle & impellers

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Flow patterns
 Radial component:
 Direction: acts in the direction perpendicular to the
impeller shaft.
 Effect: excessive radial flow takes the material to the
container wall, then the material falls to the bottom
and rotates as a mass beneath the impeller.

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Flow patterns
 Tangential component:
 Direction: acts in the direction tangent to the
circle of rotation around the impeller shaft.
 Effect: if shaft is placed vertically & centrally,
tangential flow follows a circular path around the
shaft & creates a vortex in the liquid.

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Flow patterns
 Axial component:
 Direction: acts in the direction parallel to the
impeller shaft.
 Effect: inadequate longitudinal component causes
the liquid and solid to rotate in layers without
mixing.

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Types of agitator/impeller
 Type of agitator / impellor – Paddle, propeller,
turbine.
 Paddle agitator:
 Consisting of a pair of flat blades mounted on a
shaft.
 Paddles rotate at a low speed of 100rpm.
 They push the liquid radially and tangentially with
almost no axial action unless blades are pitched.

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Types of agitator/impeller
 In deep tanks several paddles are attached one
above the other on the same shaft.
 Advantages: Vortex formation is not possible with
paddle impellers because of low speed mixing.
 Disadvantages: Mixing of the suspension is poor
therefore baffled tanks are required
 Anchor agitator: Used for high viscous fluids

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Types of agitator/impeller
 Turbine mixer:
 In turbine mixers , the impeller consists of a larger number (four or more) of
flat or curved blades, mounted on a (usually vertical) shaft.
 They exert considerable shear on the fluid and are therefore suitable in
applications involving mass transfer (e.g. oxygen transfer in fermentors) or
phase dispersion (e.g. emulsification and homogenization).
 The diameter of the impeller is, typically, one-third to one-half of the
diameter of the vessel.

36
Types of agitator/impeller

Disc turbine

Flat blade turbine Curved blade turbine

37
Types of agitator/impeller
 Propeller
 Primarily used to blend low viscosity liquids.
 Impeller diameter is much smaller than that of turbine mixers.
 The mixer shaft is usually positioned on an angle and off-
center.
 Two are more propellers are used for deep tank.
 Advantages: high mixing capacity
 Disadvantages: not effective with liquids of viscosity >5Pa.s.
Dr. Jayeeta Mitra
AGFE Dept. 38
Vortex formation
 When an impeller rotates in a liquid the liquid is likely to swirl in a mass
and a vortex will form.
 wastage of energy as the impeller rotates partly in air
 Unwanted dissolution of air
 Controlling the vertex formation:
a. By use of baffles
b. Positioning the mixer shaft off center
c. By use of draft tube
Dr. Jayeeta Mitra
AGFE Dept. 39
Vortex formation

Dr. Jayeeta Mitra

AGFE Dept. 40
Vortex formation

Use of baffles Use of draft tube

Dr. Jayeeta Mitra
AGFE Dept. 41
Power requirement
 Shape factors:
 S1= Da/Dt = 1/3
 S2= H/Dt = 1
 S3= J/Dt = 1/12 to 1/18
 S4= C/Dt = 1/3
 S5= W/Da = 1/5
 S6= L/Da = ¼
 Where, no of baffles =usually 4 Standard agitation system
Dr. Jayeeta Mitra
AGFE Dept. 42
Power requirement
 Power requirement depends on shape factors (dimensionless numbers),
density, viscosity & velocity of liquid
 P= f (μf,ρf,Da,n,g)
𝐛𝐛 𝐜𝐜
 From dimensionless analysis: 𝐏𝐏 𝛒𝛒𝐟𝐟 𝐧𝐧𝐃𝐃𝟐𝟐𝐚𝐚 𝐧𝐧𝟐𝟐 𝐃𝐃𝐚𝐚
𝟓𝟓
= ∅� � � �
𝟑𝟑
𝛒𝛒𝐟𝐟 𝐧𝐧 𝐃𝐃𝐚𝐚 𝛍𝛍 𝐠𝐠

𝐍𝐍𝐩𝐩 = ∅(𝐍𝐍𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑 )𝐛𝐛 (𝐍𝐍𝐅𝐅𝐅𝐅 )𝐜𝐜

 Where, Np=Power no, NRe=Reynolds no & NFr= Froude no

 By including shape factors: Np = Φ(NRe, NFr, S1,S2…Sn)
Dr. Jayeeta Mitra
AGFE Dept. 43
Power requirement
𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞𝐞 𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟 𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩 𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮 𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯 𝐏𝐏
 Power no: 𝐍𝐍𝐩𝐩 =
𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢 𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟 𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩𝐩 𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮𝐮 𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯
=
𝛒𝛒𝐟𝐟 𝐧𝐧𝟑𝟑 𝐃𝐃𝟓𝟓𝐚𝐚

𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢 𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟 𝛒𝛒𝐟𝐟 𝐧𝐧𝐃𝐃𝟐𝟐𝐚𝐚

 Reynolds no: 𝐍𝐍𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑 = =
𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯𝐯 𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟 𝛍𝛍

𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢𝐢 𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟 𝐧𝐧𝟐𝟐 𝐃𝐃𝐚𝐚

 Froude no: 𝐍𝐍𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑 =
𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠𝐠 𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟𝐟
=
𝐠𝐠
 Laminar flow in tank: NRe<10
 Transition flow: 10<NRe<104
 Turbulent flow :NRe>104
Dr. Jayeeta Mitra
AGFE Dept. 44
Power requirement
 a correlation for impeller used with Newtonian fluid in baffled tank. For same
impellor this fig is also used for un baffled tank when NRe<300.
 For definite type of impeller power consumption remains unaffected between
baffled & un baffled tank for NRe<300.
 If higher NRe>300 (higher impeller speed) power consumption in unbaffled
tank attributes to vortex formation. In this region Froude no becomes more
prominent.

Dr. Jayeeta Mitra

AGFE Dept. 45
Power requirement

Fig. Power correlation for Newtonian fluid baffled & un baffled tank (McCabe &. 1993)
Dr. Jayeeta Mitra
AGFE Dept. 46
Power requirement
 Curve 1: flat six blade disc turbine,
S3=1/12, S5=1/5, B=4
 Curve 2: flat six blade open turbine,
S3=1/12, S5=1/8, B=4
 Curve 3: six blade open turbine but
blades at 45o, S3=1/12, S5=1/8, B=4
 Curve 4: propeller, pitch=2Da, B=4,
S3=1/10
 Curve 5: propeller, pitch=Da, B=4,
S3=1/10
Ref: Geankoplis, C. J. (2003)
Dr. Jayeeta Mitra
AFE Dept. 47
Power requirement
A flat blade turbine agitator with disk having six blades operating at 90rpm is
used to mix a liquid (ρf=929kg/m3,μf=0.01Pa.s). (a) Calculate the power
requirement for mixing. (Given: tank dia =1.83m,agitator dia =0.61m, H=Dt,
Width= 0.122m, no of baffles=4, width of each baffle = 0.15m) (b) For the same
conditions, except for the solution having a viscosity of 100000 cp, calculate the required
kW
 Solution: Dt=1.83m,Da=0.61m, H=Dt, W= 0.122m, B=4, J=0.15m,
ρf=929kg/m3,μf=0.01Pa.s
 S3= J/Dt=0.15/1.83= 1/12
 S5=W/Da=0.122/0.61= 1/5
Dr. Jayeeta Mitra
AGFE Dept. 48
Power requirement
 Reynolds no:
𝛒𝛒𝐟𝐟 𝐧𝐧𝐃𝐃𝟐𝟐𝐚𝐚
𝐍𝐍𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑 =
𝛍𝛍

𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗 × 𝟏𝟏. 𝟓𝟓 × 𝟎𝟎. 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟐𝟐

𝐍𝐍𝐑𝐑𝐑𝐑 =
𝟎𝟎. 𝟎𝟎𝟎𝟎

 Using curve 1 (from fig): Np=5

 Power requirement:
𝐏𝐏 = 𝐍𝐍𝐩𝐩 𝛒𝛒𝐧𝐧𝟑𝟑 𝐃𝐃𝟓𝟓𝐚𝐚

𝐏𝐏 = 𝟓𝟓 × 𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗𝟗 × 𝟏𝟏. 𝟓𝟓𝟑𝟑 × 𝟎𝟎. 𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟔𝟓𝟓 = 𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏𝟏 𝐖𝐖

Dr. Jayeeta Mitra

AGFE Dept. 49
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51
52
Ignore gc for SI system

53
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56
 Power requirement for non Newtonian fluid
• In correlating power data for Non-Newtonian liquids the power number P/n3 Da5ρ
is defined in the same way as for Newtonian fluids. The Reynolds number is not
easily defined, since the apparent viscosity of the fluid varies with the shear rate
(velocity gradient) and the shear rate changes considerably from one point to
another in the vessel.
• Successful correlations have been developed, however, with a Reynolds number
defined using an average apparent viscosity µa calculated from an average shear
rate (du/dy)av. The Reynolds number is then

57
• For a power-law fluid, the average apparent viscosity can be related to the average
shear rate by the equation

• For a straight-blade turbine in· pseudoplastic liquids it has been shown that the
average shear rate in the vessel is directly related to the impeller speed. For a
number of pseudoplastic liquids a satisfactory, though approximate, relation is
(ks=11)

58
• Note that the average shear rate of 11n is slightly more than half the maximum
estimated value of 19n . The volumetric average shear rate for the tank is probably
much less than 11n, but the effective value for power consumption depends heavily
on shear rates in the region of the stirrer. Combining previous Eqs. and rearranging
gives

59
Power requirement for non Newtonian fluid

 Fig. power correlation for six blade flat agitator

with disk, Geankoplis, C. J. (2003)

Dr. Jayeeta Mitra

AGFE Dept. 60
Power requirement
 Correlations for the Density and Viscosity of Mixtures
 Empirical relationships are available for both the density and the viscosity of
binary mixtures 𝛒𝛒 = 𝛒𝛒𝐜𝐜 𝐕𝐕𝐜𝐜 + 𝛒𝛒𝐝𝐝 𝐕𝐕𝐝𝐝

 where ν is the volume fraction and the subscripts c and d represent the
continuous and dispersed phases, respectively
 For an un baffled vessel 𝛍𝛍 = 𝛍𝛍𝐜𝐜𝐕𝐕𝐜𝐜 𝛍𝛍𝐝𝐝𝐕𝐕𝐝𝐝

 for a baffled vessel 𝛍𝛍𝐜𝐜 𝟏𝟏. 𝟓𝟓𝛍𝛍𝐝𝐝 𝐯𝐯𝐝𝐝

𝛍𝛍 = �𝟏𝟏 + � ��
𝒗𝒗𝐜𝐜 𝛍𝛍𝐜𝐜 + 𝛍𝛍𝐝𝐝
Dr. Jayeeta Mitra
AGFE Dept. 61
 BLENDING IN PROCESS VESSELS
 The impeller in a process vessel produces a high-velocity stream and
the liquid is well mixed in the region close to the impeller because of
the intense turbulence.
 As the stream slows down while entraining other liquid and flowing
along the wall, there is some radial mixing, as large eddies break
down to smaller ones, but there is probably little mixing in the
direction of flow.
 The fluid completes a circulation loop and returns to the eye of the
impeller, where vigorous mixing again occurs. Calculations based on
this model show that essentially complete mixing (99 percent) should
be achieved if the contents of the tank are circulated about five times.
 The mixing time can then be predicted from the correlations for total
flow produced by various impellers.
 BLENDING IN PROCESS
VESSELS
• The mixing time can then be predicted from the For a standard six-blade turbine
correlations for total flow produced by various
impellers. For a standard six-blade turbine for a (1)
given tank and impeller or geometrically similar
systems the mixing time is predicted to vary
inversely with the stirrer speed. (2)

• Figure 5 shows the results for several systems

plotted as ntT versus Nre for a turbine in a baffled
(3)
tank, with Da/Dt = 1/3 and Dt/H = 1. the value of
ntT is 36 for NRe >2000, compared with a predicted
value of 39 (9 x 4.3=38.7) from eqn 3.
• For a high efficiency impeller (Turbulent regime)
• Figure
Figure 5 9.15. Mixing times in agitated vessels. Dashed lines are
for unbaffied tanks; solid line is for an unbaffled tank.
 BLENDING IN PROCESS VESSELS
• The mixing times are appreciably greater when the NRe in the range 10 to
1000, even though the power consumption is not much different than for the
turbulent range.
• As shown in Fig. 5, the mixing time using baffled turbines varies with about
the ̶ 1.5 power of the stirrer speed in this region and then increases more
steeply as the Reynolds number is reduced still further.
• The data in Fig. 5 are for a fixed Da to Dt ratio. A correlation given by
Norwood and Metzner is shown in Fig. 6. Their mixing-time factor differs
from the prediction for the turbulent regime, Eq. (3):

(4)
Figure 6

• Correlation of blending times for miscible liquids in a turbine-

agitated baffled vessel. (After Norwood and Metzner. )
 BLENDING IN PROCESS VESSELS
 The Froude number in Eq. (4) implies some vortex effect,
which may be present at low Reynolds numbers, but it is
doubtful whether this term should be included for a baffled tank
at high Reynolds numbers.
 When NRe >105, ft is almost constant at a value of 5. For Da/Dt
= 1/3 and Dt/H = 1, and ignoring the Froude number, ntT is
about 45, somewhat greater than predicted from Eq. (3).
 For the HE-3 impeller the mixing time factor shows in Figure 5,
are based on the empirical correlation for the turbulent regime
and a correlation factor for low Reynolds number.
1.67
𝐷𝐷𝑎𝑎 𝐻𝐻 0.5
 𝑛𝑛𝑡𝑡𝑇𝑇 = 16.9
𝐷𝐷𝑡𝑡 𝐷𝐷𝐷𝐷
 Other types of impellers may be preferred for mixing certain liquids.
 A helical ribbon agitator gives much shorter mixing times for the
same power input with very viscous liquids but is slower than the
turbine with thin liquids.
 The mixing times for propellers seem high as compared to turbines,
but of course the power consumption is more than an order of
magnitude lower at the same stirrer speed. Fox and Gex correlation-

(5)

68
 Their data were for Da/Dt of 0.07 to 0.18; the extrapolation to Da/Dt =
1/3 for Fig. 5 is somewhat uncertain.
 In a pseudoplastic liquid, blending times at Reynolds numbers below
about 1000 are much longer than in Newtonian liquids under the
same impeller conditions.
 In the regions of low shear, far from the impeller, the apparent
viscosity of the pseudo plastic liquid is greater than it is near the
impeller.
 In these remote regions turbulent eddies decay rapidly, and zones of
almost stagnant liquid are often formed. Both effects lead to poor
mixing and long blending times. At high Reynolds numbers there is
little difference in the mixing characteristics of Newtonian and
pseudoplastic liquids.
 When gas bubbles, liquid drops, or solid particles are dispersed in a liquid,
the blending time for the continuous phase is increased, even if the
comparison is made at the same specific power input.
 The effect increases with viscosity, and for viscous liquids the blending time
can be up to twice the normal value when the gas holdup is only 10 percent.
Fig 5
 STRATIFIED BLENDING IN STORAGE TANKS
• For effective blending in a large tank a side-entering propeller must
be oriented precisely with regard to both its angle with the
horizontal (for top-to-bottom circulation) and, in the horizontal
plane, the angle it makes with the tangent to the tank wall at the
point of entry.
• For optimum results this angle has been found to be between 7o
and 10o .The time required for stratified blending depends on the
circulation rate but more importantly on the rate of erosion of the
interface between the stratified liquid layers.
• No general correlations are available for stratified blending.
 JET MIXERS
• Circulation in large vessels - one or more jets of liquid.
• The stream from a single jet maintains its identity for a considerable distance, as
seen in Fig. 7.
• The velocity is uniform and constant. It remains so in a core, the area of which
decreases with distance from the nozzle.
• The core is surrounded by an expanding turbulent jet, in which the radial velocity
decreases with distance from the centerline of the jet.
• The shrinking core disappears at a distance from the nozzle of 4.3Dj, (Dj -
diameter of the nozzle)
• The turbulent jet maintains its integrity well beyond the point at which the core
has disappeared, but its velocity steadily decreases.
• The radial decrease in velocity in the jet is accompanied by a pressure increase in
accordance with the Bernoulli principle.
 Flow of a submerged circular jet. (After Rusllton and Oldshue)
The behaviour of a circular liquid jet issuing from a nozzle and flowing at high velocity into
a stagnant pool of the same liquid.
Figure 7
 JET MIXERS
• Fluid flows into the jet and is absorbed, accelerated, and blended into the
augmented jet. This process is called entrainment. An equation applying over
distances larger than 4.3Di is

• qe = volume of liquid entrained per unit time at distance X from nozzle

• q0 = volume of liquid leaving jet nozzle per unit time
• In addition to entrainment, strong shear stresses exist at the boundary
between the jet and the surrounding liquid.
• These stresses tear off eddies at the boundary and generate considerable
turbulence, which also contributes to the mixing action.
• A large flow of liquid alone does not achieve satisfactory mixing. Enough
time and space must be provided for the stream to blend thoroughly into the
mass of fluid by the mechanism of entrainment.
 MOTIONLESS MIXERS
• Gases or low-viscous liquids -blended by passing them
together through a length of open pipe or a pipe(5 to 10)
containing orifice plates or segmented baflles. 50 to 100
pipe diameters is recommended.
• difficult mixing -motionless mixers, commercial devices in
which stationary elements successively divide and
recombine portions of the fluid streams.
• In Fig. 8 each short helical element divides the stream in
two, gives it a 180° twist, and delivers it to the succeeding
element, which is set at 90° to the trailing edge of the
first element.
• The second element divides the already divided stream
and twists it 180° in the opposite direction. For n
elements, then, there are 2n divisions and
recombinations, or over 1 million in a 20-element mixer. Figure 8
• The pressure drop for laminar flow is typically 4 times as large as in
the same length of empty pipe.
• For turbulent flow the pressure drop may be 10 to 100 times greater
because of the kinetic energy losses after each change in direction.
• In other commercial designs the stream is divided 4 or more times
by each element. Mixing, even of highly viscous materials, is
excellent after 6 to 20 elements.
• Static mixers are used for liquid blending, gas and liquid dispersion,
chemical reactions, and heat transfer.
• They are especially effective in mixing low-viscosity fluids with
viscous liquids or pastes.
 Agitator Scale-Up
 Geometric similarity is, of course, important and simplest to achieve.
 Kinematic similarity can be defined in terms of ratios of velocities or of
times.
 Dynamic similarity requires fixed ratios of viscous, inertial, or
gravitational forces. Even if geometric similarity is achieved, dynamic
and kinematic similarity cannot often be obtained at the same time.
Hence, it is often up to the designer to rely on judgment and experience
in the scale-up.
 In many cases, the main objectives usually present in an agitation process
are as follows:
 equal liquid motion, such as in liquid blending, where the liquid motion or
corresponding velocities are approximately the same in both cases;
 equal suspension of solids, where the levels of suspension are the same; and
 equal rates of mass transfer, where mass transfer is occurring between a
liquid and a solid phase, liquid-liquid phases, and so on, and the rates are
the same.
• Scale-up procedure. step-by-step procedure to follow in the scale-up
is as follows for scaling up from the initial conditions where the
geometric sizes given in Tables are Da1 , DT1, H1, W1 and so on, to
the final conditions of Da2, DT2,H2, W2 , and so on.
• Calculate the scale-up ratio R. Assuming that the original vessel is a
standard cylinder with Dt = H1, the volume V1 is
• Using this value of R, apply it to all of the dimensions in Table to calculate
the new dimensions. For example,
 Scale up contd….
• Then a scale-up rule must be selected and applied to determine the agitator
speed N2 to use to duplicate the small-scale results using N1.This equation
is as follows

• where n=1 for equal liquid motion, n = 3/4 for equal suspension of solids,
and n =2/3 for equal rates of mass transfer (which is equivalent to equal
power per unit volume). This value of n is based on empirical and
theoretical considerations.
• Knowing N2, the power required can be determined using
• and Fig. Np vs Re.

82
Thank you

83