Department of Aerospace Engineering

AER 504 AERODYNAMICS

LABORATORY MANUAL

September, 2011

P. Walsh
J. Karpynczyk
 1

Table of Contents

Table of Contents

Laboratory Instructions ..2

General Safety Rules and Regulations ...4

Nomenclature 6

Lab # 1
Wind Tunnel and Airfoil Drag Analysis (room KHE-33) ..7

Lab # 2
Pressure Distribution on the NACA 0015 (room KHE-33).13

Lab # 3
Effect of Flaps and Slats (room KHE-33) .19

Lab # 4
CFD Analysis of NACA 0015 (room W71B) .....23

Lab # 5
Airfoil Design Using CFD (room W71B) ...31

Appendix A: Manometers ..........37

Appendix B: Pitot-Static Tubes....39

Appendix C: Guidelines for Lab Report Writing .41

Appendix D: Calculation of Forces on Airfoils ....46

Appendix E: Lab report grading template .. 49

 2

Laboratory Instructions

(i) ALL students must attend the laboratory in order to receive credit. Lab reports are
to be done in pairs. Students are responsible for performing an equitable share of
the lab report preparation.

(ii) Lab reports are to be prepared with any standard word processor. Hand written
labs will NOT be accepted.

(iii) Guidelines for writing lab reports are given in Appendix C, but as a minimum
each report should contain the following sections:

Title Page
Obtain at: www.ryerson.ca/aerospace/undergraduate/coverassignmentsheet/
Lab report grading table, obtain from Blackboard, AER 504 site
Main Body of Report
Abstract
Short Introduction
Description of the data analysis, theory, and procedures (not for CFD labs)
Results and Discussion
Brief Conclusion
References (if necessary)
Appendix
Graphs of results (if applicable)
A sample calculation
Raw experimental data

(iv) The main body of the report must be concise, with no more than four pages (in 12
point font). Lab reports exceeding this length will be penalized 10% per extra
page. The technical writing in the lab reports is therefore expected to be of high
quality and low quantity.

(v) No restriction is placed on the length of the Appendix. Graphs contained within
the report must have a title, labeled axes, and a legend if more than one set of data
is presented on one plot. Electronically generated plots are expected.

(vi) Sample calculations and raw experimental data should be placed in the report
Appendix and must be presented neatly and be clearly labeled. Figures must be
numbered, have a descriptive caption, and be reference in the text of the report.

(vii) Lab reports are given a grade out of 10, with individual points given for technical
content, formatting, presentation, spelling and grammar. The grading template is
given in Appendix E.
 3

(viii) Material and figures taken from external sources must be clearly referenced.

(ix) Be aware that partial or complete plagiarism will result in a grade of 0 for all
parties concerned and will result in further disciplinary action up to a grade
of F in the course.

(x) Lab reports must use the standard cover page obtained from the departmental
website given in point (iii) above. All students responsible for the report must sign
the cover page in the designated space. Digital signatures are NOT acceptable.
Students not signing the report will not receive a grade for the lab.

(xi) Lab reports are due 1 week after the lab is conducted. Reports submitted late will
be penalized 10% per day. Labs are to be placed in the Instructors box across
from office (ENG 149) before 3:00 pm on the due date.
 4
Campus Security Dial: 5001/5040
Emergency Dial: 80
Jerry Karpynczyk, Safety Officer: 6420
Department of Aerospace Engineering

GENERAL SAFETY RULES AND REGULATIONS FOR

LABORATORIES AND RESEARCH AREAS
The following safety rules and regulations are to be followed in all Aerospace Engineering laboratories and research facilities. These
rules and regulations are to insure that all personnel working in these laboratories and research areas are protected, and that a safe
working environment is maintained.

1.Horseplay is hazardous and will not be tolerated.

2. No student may work alone in the laboratory at any time, except to prepare operating procedures for equipment or data write-
up/reduction/simulations.

3. Required personal protective equipment (PPE) will be provided by the Department for use whenever specified by the Faculty,
Engineering Support or Teaching Assistant, .i.e., hearing protection, face shields, dust masks, gloves, etc.

4. Contact lenses will not be worn in the laboratory when vapours or fumes are present.

5. Safety glasses with side shields and plastic lenses will be required when operating targeted class experiments as outlined in the
experimental procedures. Splash goggles or face shields will also be provided and worn also, for those experiments which have been
identified as a requirement.

6. Each student must know where the location of the First Aid box, emergency equipment, eye wash station is, if required in the
laboratories, shops, and storage areas.

7. All Faculty, Engineering Support and Teaching Assistants must know how to use the emergency equipment and have the
knowledge to take action when an accident has occurred, .i.e., emergency telephone number, location, emergency response services.

8. All Faculty, Engineering Support and Teaching Assistants, and Research Assistants, must be familiar with all elements of fire
safety: alarm, evacuation and assembly, fire containment and suppression, rescue.

9. Ungrounded wiring and two-wire extension cords are prohibited. Worn or frayed extension cords or those with broken connections
or exposed wiring must not be used. All electrical devices must be grounded before they are turned on.

10. All Faculty, Engineering Support and Teaching Assistants, and Research Assistants, must be familiar with an approved
emergency shutdown procedure before initiating any experiment.

11. There will be NO deviation from approved equipment operating procedures.

12. All laboratory aisles and exits must remain clear and unblocked.

13. No student may sniff, breathe, or inhale any gas or vapour used or produced in any experiment.

14. All containers must be labeled as to the content, composition, and appropriate hazard warning: flammable, explosive, toxic, etc.

15. The instructions on all warning signs must be read and obeyed in all laboratories and research facilities.

16. All liquid and solid waste must be segregated for disposal according to Faculty, Engineering Support or Teaching Assistant
instructions. All acidic and alkaline waste should be neutralized prior to disposal. NOTE: NO organic waste material is to be poured
down the sink or floor drains. These wastes should be property placed in designed waste disposal containers, labeled and stored in the
departments flammable storage cabinet which is ventilated and secured.

17. Good housekeeping must be practiced in all teaching and research laboratories, shops, and storage areas.
 5
18. Eating, drinking, use of any tobacco products, gum chewing or application of makeup are strictly prohibited in the laboratories,
shops, and storage areas.

19. Only chemicals may be placed in the Chemicals Only refrigerator. Only food items may be placed in the Food Only refrigerator.
Ice from any refrigerator is not be used for human consumption or to cool any food or drink.

20. Glassware breakage must be disposed in the cardboard boxes marked Glass Disposal. Any glassware breakage and
malfunctioning instruments or equipment must be reported to the Faculty, Engineering Support or Teaching Assistant present.

21. All injuries, accidents, and near misses must be reported to the Faculty, Engineering Support or Teaching Assistant. The
Accident Report must be completed as soon as possible after the event by the Faculty, Engineering Support or Teaching Assistant and
reported to the Departmental Safety Officer immediately. Any person involved in an accident must be sent or escorted to the
University Health Centre. All accidents are to be REPORTED.

22. All chemical spills are to be reported to the Faculty, Engineering Support or Teaching Assistant, whose direction must be
followed for containment and cleanup. Faculty, Engineering Support or Teaching Assistant will follow the prescribed instructions for
cleanup and decontamination of the spill area. The Departmental Safety Officer must be notified when a major spill has been reported.

23. All students and Faculty, Engineering Support or Teaching Assistant must wash their hands before leaving targeted laboratories,
research facilities or shops.

24. No tools, supplies, or any other items may be tossed from one person to another.

25. Compressed gas cylinders must be secured at all times. Proper safety procedures must be followed when moving compressed gas
cylinders. Cylinders not in use must be capped.

26. Only gauges that are marked Use no oil are for Oxygen cylinders. Do not use an oiled gauge for any oxidizing or reactive gas.

27. Students are never to play with compressed gas hoses or lines or point their discharges at any person.

28. Do not use adapters or try to modify any gas regulator or connection.

29. There will be no open flames or heating elements used when volatile chemicals are exposed to the air.

30. Any toxic chemicals will be only be exposed to the air in a properly ventilated Fume Hood. Flammable chemicals will be exposed
to the air only under a properly ventilated hood or in an area which is adequately ventilated.

31. Personal items brought into the laboratory or research facility must be limited to those things necessary for the experiment and
safe operation of the equipment in the laboratories and research facilities.

32. General laboratory coats, safety footwear are not provided by the Department of Aerospace Engineering, although some targeted
laboratories and research areas will be supported by a reasonable stock of protective clothing and accessories, i.e., gloves, welding
aprons, dust masks, face shields, safety glasses, etc.

33. Equipment that has been deemed unsafe must be tagged and locked out of service by the Technical Officer in charge of the
laboratory or research facility. The Departmental Safety Officer must be notified of the equipment lockout IMMEDIATELY!

34. In June 1987 both the Federal & Ontario Governments passed legislation to implement the workplace hazardous material
information system or WHMIS across Canada. WHMIS was designed to give workers the right-to-know about hazardous material to
which they are exposed to on the job. Any person who is required to handle any hazardous material covered by this act should first
read the label and the products material safety data sheet (MSDS). No student is to handle any hazardous materials unless supervised
by a Faculty, Engineering Support or Teaching Assistant. The laboratory Technical Officer, Faculty, Engineering Support or Teaching
Assistant is responsible for ensuring that any hazardous materials are stored safely using WHMIS recommended methods and storage
procedures. All MSDS must be displayed and stored in a readily accessible place known to all users in the workplace and laboratory

35. All the foregoing rules and regulations are in addition to the Occupational Health and Safety Act, 1987.

36. Casual visitors to the laboratory and research areas are to be discouraged and must have permission from the Faculty, Engineering
Support or Teaching Assistant to enter. All visitors must adhere to the safety guidelines and is the responsibility of the visitor.

37. Only the Safety Officer may make changes to these policies upon confirmation of the Safety Committee and approval of the
Department Chair.
 6

Nomenclature

Ai Area of surface i
A Axial force on an airfoil, chordwise direction
C Dimensionless force/moment/location coefficient
c Airfoil chord length
D Drag force on an airfoil, opposite to flight direction
ds, ds Incremental surface area vector, incremental length
i Index variable
L Lift force on an airfoil, normal to flight direction
LE, TE Leading edge, trailing edge
M,m Moment acting on airfoil (Nm)
n Unit vector normal to a surface
N Normal force on an airfoil, perpendicular to the chord
p Static pressure
R Resultant force on an airfoil, vector sum of L,D or A,N
r, Polar spatial coordinates
t Unit vector tangent to a surface
u,v Velocity components in the x,y cartesian directions respectively
V Velocity vector
x,y Cartesian spatial coordinates
xcp, xac location of center of pressure, aerodynamic center (from the LE)
Angle of attack
Doublet strength
Stream function
Air density
 7

Lab # 1

Wind Tunnel and Airfoil Drag Analysis

Wind Tunnel and Airfoil Drag Analysis 8

Wind Tunnel and Airfoil Drag Analysis

Purpose

The objective of this lab is to familiarize the student with some of the
characteristics of wind tunnel operation. In particular, the student will determine the
velocity coefficient, the mean velocity and the theoretical velocity of the test section.
This experiment will also acquaint the student drag prediction using the velocity profile
downstream of a NACA 0015 airfoil.

Preamble

The purpose of an aeronautical wind tunnel is to obtain aerodynamic

measurements on scaled models of actual flight vehicles. If the size of the model and the
conditions inside the test section are precisely known, then the forces and flow
characteristics on and about the model can be directly related to those on the actual flight
vehicle. Therefore, it is critical to know the air properties accurately, and to be confident
that these properties remain uniform and constant throughout the test section.
Early measurements of lift and drag on airfoils did not use sophisticated forces
balances and transducers that are in common use today. Yet reliable force measurements
of numerous airfoils were available as early as the 1920s. If the airfoil is made to
completely span the tunnel, airfoil end effects can be eliminated and the problem is
simplified to an application of two-dimensional theory. The two-dimensional momentum
equation indicates that the forces on an airfoil inside the wind tunnel can be directly
related to the velocity profiles in the air stream and the pressures on the tunnel walls. This
lab will determine the drag force on the airfoil at various angles of attach through
integration of the downstream velocity profile.

Theory

Consider a segment of wind tunnel, with two separate test sections denoted as
1 and 2 (shown in Figure 1). The cross-sectional areas for each section are defined as A1
and A2, while the velocities are V1 and V2, and the air densities are 1 and 2. If no mass is
lost between the two sections then by mass conservation;

V A1
1 1 2V2 A2 (1)

If the flow is incompressible ( as will be the case for this lab ), the density of the air will
be constant throughout the wind tunnel segment and;

V1 A1 V2 A2 (2)

If it is also assumed that there are no losses caused by the viscosity of the air (inviscid),
then by Bernoullis equation;
 Wind Tunnel and Airfoil Drag Analysis 9

1 2 1 2
p1 V1 p2 V2 (3)
2 2

Equations 1 and 2 can be solved to find the theoretical velocity V2th at any section;
2( p1 p2 ) /
V2th 2
A2
1
A1

This velocity is theoretical only since assumptions were made concerning

compressibility and viscous effects. This value is easy to obtain from pressure taps in the
tunnel wall, but it is approximate only. A pitot-static tube can be used to find the actual
velocity at any point in the flow V2act . With this value a velocity coefficient Cv can be
computed;
V2 act
Cv
V2th
If this coefficient remains constant as the velocity in the wind tunnel is varied, it can be
used as a correction factor to find the actual velocity from the theoretical,

V2 act C v V2th

Inlet cross-section 4.75 in.

Outlet cross-section

48 in. 18 in.

45o

Figure 1.1: Dimensions of the cross-sections at the pressure taps.

The steady-state integral momentum equation of fluid dynamics relates the flux of
momentum through the boundary of a control volume to the forces applied to its surface.
Consider an airfoil inside the wind tunnel that completely spans the test section. A
control volume ( bounded with a dashed line ) can be drawn parallel to the upper an
lower surfaces and vertically upstream and downstream of the airfoil, as shown in figure
1.2. If theses boundaries are drawn to coincide with the x and y coordinate directions, the
computation of lift and drag can be further simplified. The airfoil is not within the control
volume but its surface forms another boundary of the control volume allowing the surface
forces to appear in the momentum equations.
Wind Tunnel and Airfoil Drag Analysis 10

The surface forces acting on the control volume are a result of air pressure and the
reaction from the airfoil itself denoted as R.
Surface Forces pdS - R
The integration is carried out over the entire outer surface of the control volume. The net
force acting on the airfoil R, is a result of surface shear stress and pressure. The reaction
R is negative in the integral momentum equation since the force applied to the control
volume is each in magnitude and opposite in direction to the force exerted on the airfoil
by the flow of air, consistent with Newtons third law, as demonstrated in figure 1.3.

Figure 1.2: Outline of the control volume inside the small subsonic wind tunnel,
not including the airfoil.

Figure 1.3: Force exerted on the airfoil by the flow of air and the opposing
reaction on the control volume, by Newtons third law

The steady-state integral momentum equation can be written:

( V dS)V pdS - R
or
R ( V dS)V pdS.
Wind Tunnel and Airfoil Drag Analysis 11

The drag force can be isolated by considering the horizontal component of this equation
only:
Drag R x ( V dS)u pdSx
Since the control volume boundaries were selected to coincide with the Cartesian
coordinate axis, only the inflow and outflow planes need be considered when evaluating
the integral. For low subsonic flight speeds, the pressure and density at these planes will
be nearly uniform and equal. Therefore, the pressure integral can be dropped for the
calculation of the drag force.
t t t
Drag Rx ( V dS)u u i2 dy u o2 dy (u o2 u i2 )dy
b b b

Here, the two-dimensional nature of the flow and the alignment of the boundaries with
the coordinate axis have reduced the equation further. Note that the vector dS is an
outward normal to the local control volume surface with a magnitude equal to an
incremental surface area. With the assumption that the inflow velocity is uniform and the
density constant, the equation can be further simplified.

Experimental Equipment

Small subsonic wind tunnel

Handheld pitot-static tube
Inclined manometer
Manometer rake with 1 cm intervals

Procedure

1. Ensure that the wind tunnel discharge area is clear of objects that could become
airborne when the tunnel is started ( paper, rags, binders, people etc. ) and make sure
that the students are well behind the floor safety strip. Set the baffle at the wind
tunnel inlet to the fully open position (5/5) and start the wind tunnel. Record the wind
tunnel manometer reading (inclined manometer attached to the two pressure taps
located at the two areas). This will provide the theoretical velocity. The actual
velocity is determined from the manometer attached to the handheld pitot-static tube
mounted ahead of the airfoil at the test section, record this value also. Be sure to
record the air temperature in the room. See Appendices A and B for analysis.
2. Close the baffle at the wind tunnel inlet to the 4/5 position and repeat the
measurements. Do the same for the 3/5, 2/5, and 1/5 positions.
3. Calculate V2act, V2th and Cv for each wind tunnel setting. The appendix section on
pitot-static tubes may be of assistance.
4. With the wind tunnel off and the manometer rake in place record the zero reading on
the rake pitot tubes. Set the angle of attack to 10 degrees and open the baffle fully.
Start the tunnel and record all of the pitot tube values of the rake. Be sure to record
the air temperature in the room and the inclination of the manometer. Record the
value of uI using the tunnel manometer. Do the same procedure for angles of attack
of 15 and 20 degrees.
Wind Tunnel and Airfoil Drag Analysis 12

Results

1. With the results obtained in procedure 3, plot V2act vs. V2th and Cv vs. V2act.
Determine if the velocity coefficient can be used as a correction factor for the
theoretical velocity.
2. Compute the drag force on the airfoil at the three attack angles considered by
numerically integrating the velocity profile. Note that the integral between a pitot
tube at j and an adjacent one at j+1 can be approximated as:
j 1
1 2
(u o2 u i2 )dy (u j u 2j 1 ) o (u 2j u 2j 1 ) i y j 1 y j
j
2
Note
a) Density is assumed constant and that ui is constant for all j.
b) This approximation must be repeated between all pitot tubes and summed in order
to estimate total drag.
c) The pitot tubes do not measure velocity at the wall. You will need to extrapolate a
uo value at the wall from nearby internal values.
d) Values of uo will be nearly constant at the wall but will not be the same as ui.
Initial Wake
Profile Profile

ui uo,max

ui uo,max
uo,min
3. Given that the airfoil has a chord length of 15.24 cm, calculate the drag coefficient
per unit span of the three attack angles. Compare to results you find in literature.

Questions

1. How could you improve the measurements of drag using the wake rake?
2. Is the assumption of uo,max > ui a valid one? Explain.

Reference

Rae, W.H., Pope, A., Low-Speed Wind Tunnel Testing 2nd Ed., John Wiley, 1984.
 13

Lab # 2

Pressure Distribution on the NACA 0015

Pressure Distribution in the NACA 0015 14

Pressure Distribution on the NACA 0015

Purpose

The purpose of this lab is to investigate the surface static pressure on a NACA 0015
airfoil at various flight speeds and angles of attack. The lift, drag, and pitching moment
found from the surface pressures are used to define the NACA 0015s performance.

Theory

Y Leading N
Edge (LE)
Upper Surface R
X X=0 L

V
Trailing
D Edge (TE)
Lower Surface
X=c
A
Figure 2.1: Airfoil conventions

Conventions used in this lab are defined in the figure above. The x,y coordinate axis is
aligned with the airfoil as shown. Here, N is the normal force, A the axial force, R the
resultant force, L and D the lift and drag respectively. The normal (n) and tangent (t)
vectors to the airfoil surface are defined as:
n sin( )i cos( ) j t cos( )i sin( ) j
Here, is the angle between a line tangent to the airfoil surface and the positive x axis, or
the angle between a normal line from the surface and the positive y axis ( measured
positive in the clockwise direction). To obtain the proper orientation, note that
-180o o
.
Y
+ n

X
ds t + =0
Airfoil
surface
Figure 2.2: Surface vector orientation convention
The contribution to the total resultant force from a small region on the airfoil surface of
length ds is a sum of normal pressure (p) and tangential shear forces ( ):

dR pn ds t ds
Since the shear stress is assumed small (in this case), it is ignored. The total force due to
pressure is formed by integration around the entire surface of the airfoil:
R pn ds p (i sin( ) j cos( ))ds
Pressure Distribution in the NACA 0015 15

The axial and normal force components are

RA p (sin( ))ds RN p (cos( ))ds

RA pdy RN pdx
The integration above is carried out in a closed loop in the clockwise direction about the
airfoil, consistent with Aerospace convention. To avoid confusion with the class text, the
integration will instead be conducted from leading to trailing edge, on upper and lower
surfaces.
It is convenient to place the pressures in terms of pressure coefficient since the pressure
difference obtained by the manometers is essentially p p , (see Appendix A)
p p
CP
1 2
V
2
The normal force coefficient CN (per unit airfoil length), can be found from;
1
N x
CN (C PU C PL )d
1 2 c
V c 0
2
The subscripts U and L refer to the upper surface and lower surface respectively and c is
the chord length. This integration is easily done since the airfoil is symmetric and the
segments are the same on both surfaces. It should also be noted that the coefficients in
this lab are computed on a per unit length of airfoil basis since only a two-dimensional
pressure profile is used. The axial force coefficient (per unit length):
1
A yu yl x
CA (C PU C Pl )d
1 2 x x c
V c 0
2

The lift and drag coefficients are found from:

CL C N cos( ) C A sin( ) CD C N sin( ) C A cos( )

The pitching moment coefficient at the leading edge caused by the normal force is:
1
M LE N x x
CM N (C PU C PL ) d
1 2 2 c c
V c 0
2
Caused by the axial force:
1
M LE A yU y yl y x
CM A C PU C Pl d
1 2 2 x c x c c
V c 0 U L
2
The Total moment about the leading edge ( per unit length of wing ) is:

C M LE CM A CM N
Pressure Distribution in the NACA 0015 16

Procedure

1. Holding the symmetrical airfoil by its supports, center the model horizontally at the
mouth of the subsonic wind tunnel.
2. Clamp the model with 4 C clamps that are available.
3. Loosen the brass incidence set screw, and gently set the trailing edge (TE) of the
model to zero degrees angle of attack.
4. Hook-up all 21 static pressure lines in numerical order to the multi tube manometer
and incline the manometer to 30 degrees.
5. Ensure that the wind tunnel discharge area is clear of objects that could become
airborne when the device is started (paper, rags, binders, people etc. ) and make sure
that students are well behind the floor safety strip. Set the baffle at the wind tunnel
inlet to the fully open position (5/5) and start the wind tunnel. Observe the pressure
distribution pattern on the multi tube manometer. The pressure distribution for a
symmetric airfoil at zero degrees angle of attack should be symmetric as shown in
figure 2.3 below.

Datum

1 2 3 4 5 .. 11 .. 20 21
Figure 2.3: Pressure tap readings at zero degrees angle of attack

6. Adjust the airfoil to obtain a symmetric pressure distribution by SLOWLY and

GENTLY adjusting the attack angle until the above symmetric pattern is obtained.
7. The airfoil model is now calibrated for zero degrees angle of attack. Record this
value.
8. At this zero angle of attack and with the wind tunnel inlet baffle fully open, record the
wind tunnel manometer and all 21 static pressure tap readings on the multi tube
manometer inclined at 30 degrees. Record the level at the remaining stations, this is
the datum Patm. All pressures will be calculated from this datum.
9. Repeat the procedure at 10 , 12o, 14 , 16 , and 18 degrees angle of attack. Note that
the green fluid is water and that a pressure higher than atmospheric will push the level
in a tube BELOW the datum level. In your calculations, the value of P-Pdatum should
yield a positive value at the stagnation point.
Pressure Distribution in the NACA 0015 17

Report

1. Compute the corrected tunnel velocity for each attack angle using the correction
coefficient found in lab 1. Using a spreadsheet, convert all pressure tap readings to
pressure coefficient values. Average the readings at taps 1 and 21 to get a value for
the trailing edge.

2. Calculate the normal, axial, and moment coefficients for each angle of attack using
the same spreadsheet and an appropriate approximation. Then compute CL, CD, CM,
and Ccp for each angle. Note the appendix on the next page provides numerical
approximations.

3. Plot CL, CD, and Ccp vs. angles of attack.

4. Plot CL vs. CM for all angles of attack. Find the aerodynamic center (as a percentage
of chord) by computing the inverse slope of this line.

5. Discuss the characteristics of the NACA 0015 in terms of its lift/drag behavior. What
was the stall angle of this airfoil? How does this compare with other values found in
literature? Is the aerodynamic center where it was expected?

Table 2.1: Coordinates of the pressure taps and numbering scheme on the NACA 0015
Taps 11 10,12 9,13 8,14 7,15 6,16 5,17 4,18 3,19 2,20 1,21 T.E.
X (cm) 0 0.3048 0.9144 1.524 3.048 4.572 6.096 7.620 9.144 10.668 12.192 15.240
Y (cm) 0 0.5182 0.7010 0.9144 1.0973 1.1582 1.1277 1.0058 0.8534 0.7010 0.4877 0

Figure 2.4: Pressure tap locations on the NACA 0015 airfoil.

6 5 4 3 2
Y 1
11 8 7

X
14 15 21
20
17 18 19
16
Pressure Distribution in the NACA 0015 18

Appendix: Numerical Approximations

i=6 7 8 9 10
Y i=11
1 i=4 5

X
j=4 5 j=11
10
7 8 9
j=6
Figure 2.5: New tap order for upper/lower integration

In order to numerically integrate the surface pressures in a manner consistent with the
class text, the taps need to be renumbered according to Figure 2.5 above. The i index
refers to the upper surface while j the lower. Both i=1, and j=1 are the leading edge
pressure tap. The pressure at the trailing edge can be taken as the average of pressure
values at taps 1 and 21. By averaging these two taps to get a trailing edge value, you are
essentially creating another node, which must be included in any calculation. Remember,
point i+1 is adjacent to i but closer to the trailing edge along the airfoil surface.
Numerical formulas are given below.

c
1 yU yl
CM A CPU yU CPl yL dx
c2 0
x x
n m
1 C P (i ) C P (i yi yi yi yi CP( j ) CP( j yj yj yj yj
1) 1 1 1) 1 1
4c 2 i 1 j 1

c
CM N 1 (C CPL ) xdx
P
c2 0 U
n m
1 C P (i ) C P (i xi xi xi xi CP ( j ) CP ( j xj xj xj xj
1) 1 1 1) 1 1
4c 2 i 1 j 1

c m n
CN 1 (C CPL )dx 1 CP( j ) CP ( j xj xj C P (i ) C P (i xi xi
P 1) 1 1) 1
c0 U 2c j 1 i 1

c
CA 1 (C yu CPl
yl
)dx
P
c0 U x x
n m
1 C P (i ) C P (i yi yi CP( j ) CP( j yj yj
1) 1 1) 1
2c i 1 j 1
 19

Lab # 3

Effect of Flaps and Slats

Effect of Flaps and Slats 20

Effect of Flaps and Slats

Purpose

The purpose of this lab experiment is to familiarize the student with the effects of high
lift devices such as flaps and slats. The student should gain an understanding of the
relative effects of each device on the lift, drag, and stall angle of the wing.

Preamble

Flaps and slats effect the airflow over the airfoil in different ways, and thus effect the
performance of a wing in a dissimilar fashion. Flaps tend to change the effective camber
of the airfoil while slats tend to stabilize the flow over the top surface of the airfoil. These
two effects will change both the stall angle and the lift produced at a given attack angle.
In this lab, the influence of each control surface will be investigated.

Apparatus

Symmetric airfoil with slat and flat components: chord=15.0 cm, span=35.5 cm
Small sub-sonic wind tunnel
Pyramidal strain gage balance
Data signal amplifier and analysis software

Procedure

1. Install the airfoil on the test stand in the wind tunnel. The slat and flap should be in
the retracted position. The windows should cover the test section when the tunnel is
in operation. Be careful not to bump or place any weight on the strain gage balance.

2. Turn on the data acquisition system located under the table by the side of the wind
tunnel. Then turn on the computer. Once the computer is up, double click the wind
tunnel data acquisition icon.

3. Before data can be taken, the lift, drag, and moment gages must be zeroed. Click on
the tare button just underneath each of the five gages. Figure 3.1 below shows the
appearance of the data acquisition display.

4. Ensure that the wind tunnel discharge area is clear of objects that could become
airborne when the tunnel is started ( paper, rags, binders, people etc. ) and make sure
that students are well behind the floor safety strip. Set the baffle at the wind tunnel
inlet to the fully open position (5/5) and start the wind tunnel.

5. Turn on the tunnel again and observing the lift parameter. You may need to
aerodynamically reset the symmetrical wing for zero angle of attack (zero lift at zero
angle of attack) With zero degrees angle of attack indicated on the test stand, adjust
the orientation of the stand with the knob just underneath the model holder. Adjust
Effect of Flaps and Slats 21

the orientation until zero lift is produced. This is the true zero degree angle
orientation. Tare all gages.

6. With the baffle fully open, read the lift, drag, and moment. Increase the angle of
attack in two degree increments up to and including 20 degrees while recording all
parameters. When complete, reduce the angle of attack back to zero. Turn off the
tunnel.

7. Fully deploy the slat on the model without removing it from the test stand. Repeat
procedure 6.

8. Set the flap on the model with the provided tool to 45 degrees flap angle. Repeat
procedure 6.

9. Retract slat on the model while leaving the flap in place. Repeat procedure 6.

10. Shut down the wind tunnel, the computer, and the data acquisition system in that
order.

Report

1. Create three plots: CL D Mle/CL vs. . On each plot, put the results
of the four test cases.
2. Compute the center of pressure xcp and the aerodynamic center xac for each case.

Discussion

In your report, discuss:

1. The airfoil performance with the high lift devices compared to the baseline case.

2. The changes in the lift and drag curves with the flap and slat.

3. The influence of these devices on stall angle. What configuration would you
recommend in take-off? In landing?

4. How do these devices change the center of pressure and aerodynamic center?
Effect of Flaps and Slats 22

Figure 3.1: Display of the data acquisition system window.

 23

Lab # 4

CFD Analysis of NACA 0015

 24

CFD Analysis of the NACA 0015

Purpose

The purpose of this experiment is to gain experience with Computational Fluid

Dynamic (CFD) software applied to external aerodynamic problems. Students should
gain an understanding of the techniques used and demands that aerodynamic analysis
imposes on standard CFD codes.

Theory

The flow of air about aerodynamic shapes can best be described by the Navier-
Stokes equations. In three dimensions, the Navier-Stokes equations comprise a coupled
set of five non-linear equations representing continuity, momentum and energy. In
turbulent and chemically reacting flows, other equations may be necessary to describe the
conservation of relevant parameters or chemical species. The non-linear nature of these
equations makes exact solution impossible in all but the simplest of circumstances.
However, if the domain about an aerodynamic body can be divided into a grid of small
discrete control volumes, approximate linearization methods can be used to reduce the
Navier-Stokes equations to a set of linear algebraic equations. Each discrete control
volume will have its own set of linear equations.

In a two dimensional problem there will be 4 Navier-Stokes equations plus one

or more turbulence model equations if needed. If the domain is divided into N discrete
control volumes, a minimum of 4N algebraic equations must therefore be solved
simultaneously. Although numerical methods have existed for some time, only recently
have they become practical since the development of computers powerful enough to
solve the large number of equations in a typical problem. The number of equations to be
solved can be enormous since the resolution of a numerical model depends on the local
size of the control volumes. In practice, the smaller the grid spacing, the greater the
accuracy and the more control volumes and equations needed. A typical grid is shown in
the figure below with an
enlargement of the
boundary layer region
shown in the next figure.

Fig. 4.1: A typical 2D

grid about a NACA
0015 airfoil.
CFD analysis of NACA 0015 25

Fig 4.2: Enlargement of the

grid near the surface of the
NACA 0015 airfoil. Fine
grid spacing is needed to
resolve the boundary layer.

In boundary layer regions gradients normal to the wall can be several orders of
magnitude larger than streamwise gradients, especially for high Reynolds number flows.
Therefore, to model boundary layers, a very fine grid spacing is used normal to the wall,
creating very elongated control volumes in this region.

In most aerodynamic applications of CFD, solutions are solved using a time

marching technique. The Navier-Stokes equations contain independent variables of both
space and time, therefore variations in both these domains must be considered. Time
marching techniques advance an initial guess solution through time using a specified time
step size, solving the entire system of algebraic equations for each step in time. This
technique is valid over all flight regimes from low subsonic to supersonic flow. Marching
in space only is an alternative so long as the flow remains supersonic everywhere. The
system of equations is solved either simultaneously using an implicit technique such as
Gaussian elimination or with an explicit method such as Runge-Kutta.

Recall that explicit techniques such as Runge-Kutta have stability limits. This
means that the solution will not blow up so long as time step sizes do not exceed a
certain limit. This size limit is dictated by the character of the local solution and by the
local grid spacing. Implicit schemes, although inherently stable, will also encounter a
stability limit on time step sizes due to the non-linearity of the Navier-Stokes equations.
However, the implicit time step limit will usually be more generous that the explicit one.

Apparatus

Note that for this lab you will need to save electronic files containing the data
that you produce. You can download directly from the workstation onto a USB key. Data
files can also be downloaded directly into your Matrix account if you login to the DCN
system remotely. You can use the SSH program available though CCS to transfer files.
CFD analysis of NACA 0015 26

Procedure
The first part of this lab will familiarize you with the start-up and running procedure
for the CFD code Fluent. You will learn to start the code, load in cases, set initial and
boundary conditions, obtain solutions, and analyze results. A case file containing the
computational grid has been prepared for your use. This casefile uses a coarse grid with
only 4000 nodes. A node can be considered the center point of a control volume at which
the discrete Navier-Stokes equations are solved. A small grid such as this will generate
solutions relatively fast, allowing you to experiment with the code. The procedure is
outlined below.

1. Familiarize yourself with the code using the instructions provided below.
2. Run the cases listed in the Cases section below.
3. Save the surface pressure data you obtain to a storage device that you brought with
you. You will need it for comparision to Lab #2 results.
4. In the Results section of your report answer the questions posed under the
Questions section.

Preliminary procedure
- Login to your workstation using your Ryerson user name and password.
- Create a temporary working directory on the local file system
- Transfer the file naca0015.cas to your working directory, the TA will know the
location of the file

Start-up and Run Procedure using Fluent

1. Hit the Windows Start button on the lower left of the screen, then
All Programs > Applications > ANSYS 12.1 > Fluid Dynamics > Fluent
Select the 2D option, leave other options in their default. Or, if you are an impatient
person, under Processing Options, select Parallel and set the number of processors
to 4. From this point on Fluent will use 4 CPU cores.
2. Load in the coarse grid case:
File > Read > Case > naca0015.cas
3. View the grid:
Display > Mesh > Display
- Zoom in on the airfoil outlined in white: with the middle mouse button held drag
within the view panel from top left to lower right.
- To zoom out: middle mouse button, drag lower right to top left.
- Resetting the image is done with ctrl-a.
- You can pan left or right with the left mouse button held.
4. Once a grid has been loaded, the desired running conditions must be specified.
Define > General
- ensure that the following parameters have been set:
Type: Density-based (for compressible flow)
Time: Steady (steady state solution)
Velocity Formulation: Absolute
2D Space: planar
CFD analysis of NACA 0015 27

Define > Models

- You can change settings by highlighting the parameter and pushing the edit
button on the bottom left
- ensure that the following parameters have been set:
Energy: on
Viscous: Spalart-Allmaras 1 eqn model
Everything else: off
- Here we need to specify the turbulence model we wish to use. Since the Reynolds
number is close to the critical value of 500,000, it would be prudent to account
for the effects of turbulence. Many turbulence models are know as eddy
viscosity models, which means that they introduce the effects of turbulence by
adding additional viscosity to the laminar viscosity that appears in the Navier-
Stokes equations. The additional or eddy viscosity is determined by the
turbulence model. In aerodynamic applications, a commomly used model is
Spallart-Allmaras since it requires only one additional equation to be solved and
generally works well in most cases.
- Select Spallart-Allmaras, leaving the coefficients and other parameters in their
default state.
Define > Materials
- Here we define material properties for air.
- Select air under the Fluid banner. Hit the Create/Edit button.
- In the density drop down menu, select ideal-gas since the flow will be
compressible in some regions.
- In viscosity, select the Sutherland law. This allows changes to laminar viscosity as
the air temperature changes.
- Leave other parameters in their default setting.
- Exit buy hitting the Change/Create button, then Close.
5. Now start the individual data run,
Define > Boundary Conditions
- select pressure-far-field, hit the Edit button
- Here, you will set Mach number and angle of attack.
- Beside Mach number specify 0.089
- The angle of attack is specified by a unit vector in cartesian coordinates.
- Use the vector n cos( )i sin( ) j Xcomp i Ycomp j
enter the value of Xcomp in the X window and same for Y.
6. Now set the solution parameters
Solve > Controls
- Set the Courant number to 5. The Courant number is a means of setting the
time step size as the solution time marches to a steady state solution. As the
solution progesses you can increase the Courant number to speed up the run
time. Note, it has NO influence on final solution accuracy.
Solve > Monitors
- Highlight Residuals and hit the edit button
- Under options make sure print to console and plot are selected
- Under Equations select all the buttons under Monitor and de-select all buttons
under check convergence. Hit ok
CFD analysis of NACA 0015 28

Solve > Initialize

- An initial guess solution is needed as a starting point. At the top of this box there
is a drop down menu under compute from. Select the pressure far field which you
have set previously. Hit initialize to initialize the solution. Note you will need to
do this every time you change .

Solve > Run Calculation

- Set the number of iterations to 50 ( the first box ), hit Calculate.
- After 50 iterations, double the courant number (Solve > Controls) and do another
50 and so on. Note some cases tend to be less stable and you may not be able to
increase the Courant number without causing the code to crash.
- When the solution process starts, in the display window will be graphically
plotted the Residuals for each conservation equation being solved. The Residual is
a measure of the degree to which the solution conforms to the conservation
requirements of each equation. As an example, if the continuity equation has a
zero residual, then all mass flows through all control volume faces meet the mass
conservation requirements (ie. they sum to zero). It should be noted that, in
practice, a residual will never fall to zero. Since real numbers to six figures of
accuracy are being used, the lowest a residual will get is 10-6, or 10-12 in double
precision. Generally, if the residuals for all equations drop below 3.0 10-5, the
solution is considered converged and further iteration will not significantly
change the solution. Note that it is important to achieve a residual of 3.0 10-5 or
less for each conservation equation.
Display > Graphics and Animations
- Under Graphics select Contours and hit the Set up button
- You can view the solution with a contour display. Select the filled option to give a
full colour display. The variable you display is specified in the two drop menus on
the top right of the box.
- You can zoom in or out as you did with the grid display.
- You can also display a vector plot under the Graphics submenu
- You can display the velocity field in terms of a vector plot with this option. You
may need to rescale the vectors in order to make them more visible.
7. Solution Output
- you can output a copy of your results using:
File > Save Picture
- Anything in the graphical display window will be saved.
- You can use either a JPG or a TIFF format.
- Set either Monochrome or grey shading ( unless you have a colour printer )
- Set resolution to 1093 width, 820 height or there about.
- Set white background so that the background is white. Otherwise your printer
will use up all its toner when you produce your report.
( you learn these things the hard way )
- You can check your image using the Preview button on the bottom of the
window. Save your image if you wish to keep it.
- To view the surface pressure use;
Display > Plots > XY plot
CFD analysis of NACA 0015 29

- Hit the setup button

- Set pressure and static pressure under the Y axis function.
- Highlight the wall boundaries in the selection menu in the lower right of the box
(named upper and lower for naca0015.cas, other case files will be different)
- Set the plot direction as X=1, Y=0
- hit the axes button at the bottom of the window.
- Set the Y axis in the top left of the window.
- Kill the autorange function and set the max and min Y axes values so that the Y
axis ranges from positive values at the bottom and negative values at the top. (eg.
set max to 2000, min to 600) This is a traditional format for presentation. Hit
apply, then close and finally plot.
- To save an ASCII data file of the surface pressure, in the XYplot window specify
write to file found in the top left. This will save x and pressure data.
- Note that you can plot surface shear stress in the same way as pressure, which will
be useful if you wish to prove flow separation.

8. Lift and Drag Calculation

Report > Reference Values
- To calculate force and moment coefficients, the code needs a set of reference
values. Under the compute from menu, select pressure far field.
- Set length paramters, Length = 0.1524m, Area = 0.1524m2, Depth = 1m. Note,
this is only for the naca0015.cas case file, other cases will be different.
- You can compute the lift ant drag on the airfoil at any time using:
Report > Results Reports > Reports > Forces >set up
- You will need to set the direction in which to compute the forces in order to get
an accurate lift and drag. Note that a calculator is available if you hit the right
mouse button and look under 'accessories'.
- To find the drag, use the components of the vector that you had set for the initial
conditions: n cos( )i sin( ) j Xcomp i Ycomp j
since drag is measured in the direction of flow. This is the same procedure as
specifying the angle of attack components which was done previously.
- To find the lift, compute the vector components using:
n cos( 90o )i sin( 90o ) j Xcomp i Ycomp j
- Once the vector is specified, the forces will be listed on the Fluent window.
Scroll to the right and read the CL and CD under the heading Total Coefficient
Make sure to record the lift and drag coefficients for each solution.
9. Parameters that must be set for each data run
- For each angle of attack that you compute, you must repeat the above procedure
starting at step 5 with the angle of attack specification.

Cases

1. Set the angle of attack to 10o. Compute a converged solution. Save an ASCII data file
of the static pressure on the airfoil surface using the XY plot facility. On one plot,
compare the surface pressure estimated by Fluent with that obtained in the wind
CFD analysis of NACA 0015 30

tunnel in experiment 2 (at 10o angle of attack). See figure 4.3 below for a sample plot
Answer question 1.
o
2. Estimate and compute lift and drag data at increments
of 1o until you are confident stall has been reached. Dont forget to re-initialize the
solution for each angle. Record the CL , CD , and surface shear stress. Tabulate your
CL , CD results. Record an image of the static pressure over the upper surface and a
velocity vector plot at the separation point of the stalled airfoil. Answer question 2
and 3.
Questions

1. Why is there a difference between the experimental and numerical pressures? Which
do you think is the more accurate, and why? How could you improve the numerical
result?
2. Observe the boundary layer on the upper surface of the airfoil. Look at your velocity
vector plot near the trailing edge at stall. What has happened to the boundary layer at
stall? What has happened to surface shear stress at the separation point?
3. Observe the static pressure on the upper surface of the stalled airfoil. Is the pressure
above the trailing edge greater or less than that of an unstalled airfoil with a similar
angle of attack? Comment on how the drag of the airfoil will be influenced.

References

Anderson, J.D. Jr., Computational Fluid Dynamics, The Basics with Applications,
McGraw-Hill, New York, 1995.

Anderson, D.A., Tannehill, J.C., Pletcher, R.H., Computational Fluid Mechanics and
Heat Transfer, McGraw-Hill, New York, 1984.

Patankar, S.V., Numerical Heat Transfer and Fluid Flow, Hemisphere Pub. Co., New
York, 1980.

Fig. 4.3:
Surface guage
pressure on the
NACA 0015 at
5o angle of
attack.
 31

Lab #5

Airfoil Design Using CFD

Airfoil Design Using CFD 32

Airfoil Design Using CFD

Purpose

The purpose of this lab exercise is to provide a student with insight and experience into
the basic process of airfoil design using numerical methods. The process will be iterative
in nature, requiring experience from the previous CFD lab and good judgement to steer
the design process towards and optimal solution.

Preamble

Computational Fluid Dynamics has matured to the point where preliminary aerodynamic
design of basic aircraft and wing configurations can be done numerically. This lab is
intended to give you a simple introduction to the process of aerodynamic design with
CFD to achieve stated performance goals. The process will be iterative; the student
reconfigures an airfoil profile to achieve specific performance criteria, tests the
modifications with CFD, and repeats the process with knowledge gained from previous
design cycles. More sophisticated methods such as genetic algorithms and adjoint
techniques have the promise of completely automating the design process to produce an
optimal shape given a specific set of criteria. However, these methods are still under
development.

The problem to be solved in this lab was outlined at the beginning of the course, namely
the alleviation of separated regions near the trailing edge of a wing in transonic flow. At
the end of the second world war fighter aircraft were being lost inexplicably while in a
steep dive. The aircraft appeared to be unable to pullout of a dive although the aircraft
was undamaged. This problem was not limited to one aircraft design but occurred to all
high-speed propeller driven aircraft of the day. Many aircraft and test pilots were lost
while attempting to find the cause. Figure 5.1 below, produced via a CFD analysis,
clearly shows the cause in the form of a shock-wave induced flow separation near the
trailing edge of the airfoil. The profile shown is symmetric, consistent with that of a
horizontal stabilizer on the tail of a subsonic aircraft. If this was a model of a tail section,
any flaps located aft of the separation point would have substantially reduced
effectiveness. Advanced fighter aircraft in the early 1940s had similar tail profiles.
Considering that the top speed of such and aircraft was 450 mph, a steep dive in full
throttle flight could easily achieve speeds approaching Mach 1. The problem so easily
analyzed with a rudimentary CFD model was completely unfamiliar to aircraft designers
of the day. The goal of the first part of this lab is to design an airfoil that will not suffer
from this problem and will also achieve specific lift and drag performance criteria. The
second part of this lab will explore general airfoil performance and design.

Software required from the AER 504 root directory

1. A profile generator in the form of a Matlab script file, Progen09A

2. An ICEM CFD command file, A504-icem-2d
Download these files to your root directory as you did in Lab 4.
CFD analysis of NACA 0015 33

Figure 5.1: Mach number contours over a NACA 0015 at free stream
M = 0.83, = 0o, showing boundary layer separation.

Procedure

Note that it is assumed that you have performed lab 4 and that you are now capable of
starting Fluent, loading a case, inputting pertinent model parameters, obtaining a solution,
and extracting useful information and figures. If you are at all unsure of conducting any
of these tasks, you should re-read the relevant section in the previous lab before
proceeding.

To begin, students must become familiar with the grid generation process. The entire
grid generation procedure has been abridged to allow the timely performance of this
lab. None the less, the lab will give some insight and experience in grid generation.
The grid generation software package is a called ICEM CFD, which is a commonly
used grid generator.
1. Log into the system
- Log into the computer system and create a temporary working directory on the
file system.
2. Generate an airfoil profile
- Download both Progen09A files to your working directory along with the
ICEM CFD command file AER504-icem-2d.
- Start the profile generator by using the right mouse button (RMB) on the file
named, Progen09A.m selecting to run the file. This will start Matlab and the
profile generator GUI. You can select the airfoil type, either 4 digit or 5 digit
series, the airfoil thickness (in % chord), the maximum camber (in % chord),
and the location of the maximum camber (in % chord from the leading edge).
You will also be asked for a file name for the output file. Note for the 5 digit
series the range of location of the maximum camber is 5% to 30% only.
CFD analysis of NACA 0015 34

- To create a profile, enter the desired airfoil characteristics, hit generate

airfoil, give the profile a name, then hit save.
3. Generate a grid
You can start the grid generator ICEM CFD the same way you started Fluent
in lab 4. First import the desired airfoil data,
File > Import Geometry> Formatted point data, Select the desired airfoil
profile, > Apply. An outline of the airfoil shape will appear.
Now enter the command script to generate the grid. First load in the file,
File > Replay scripts > Load script file, load in A504-icem-2d.rpl
In the Replay Control window, de-select the Record option, and make sure
the first line of the file is highlighted. Then hit the
Do all button. If all goes well, you will see the new grid.
Save the new grid by selecting the tab near the top of the window called,
Output > Write output, the write output button is the last of four just under
the list of function tabs. A solver selection window will appear. Select
Select solver > Fluent_V6 > okay. Another window will appear,
Save as > enter a descriptive name > save
Save current project first > yes
Save project as > enter same descriptive name as above > Save
Open > enter same descriptive name as above. > Open
The Fluent V6 window will open. Enter the following,
Fluent V6 > Grid dimension: 2D
Replace the default name ./fluent with your own, ./name,
Output file > ./name > done.
4. Generate a Solution
Start Fluent using the same procedure you used in lab 4.
Load the grid you just created by,
File > Read > Mesh select the grid
The procedures to set up and run a test case at this point are the same as
procedures 3 through 6 of lab 4. Please refer back to lab 4. Additional
parameters that you will need to set are listed below.
Report > Reference values in the 'compute from' window select the far field'
boundary. This will provide the lift and drag calculations with the proper
dimensionless coefficients. Use length and area values of 1.
Solve > Monitors > Residual > Edit turn off the 'check convergence' flag for
each equation listed. Turn on the 'plot' flag at the top left, hit 'ok'.
It is convenient to see the CL, CD, CM values as the solution converges. To do
this, set the monitoring as follows:
Solve > Monitors > select parameter > Edit, for every option you must do,
Options > Print to console, select crvs, then either,
Drag > Force vectors: x: cos( y
o o
Lift > Force vectors: x: ), y )
Moment > Moment center: x = 0.25, y = 0, Axis: x = y = 0, z = 1

At this point you are now ready to run the following cases with grid generation
and using the same procedure as in the previous CFD lab. Don't forget to
CFD analysis of NACA 0015 35

extract all useful results before proceeding to your next test case. It saves time
if you do not shut down Fluent between cases. Just re-read the next grid you
create. You will only need to reset the material properties, free stream Mach
number and re-initialize the solution if you do leave Fluent open.

Part A
The first part of this lab involves the separation of the boundary layer near the
trailing edge. The objective will be to determine the airfoil thickness that
alleviates the separation problem described previously. The problem
parameters are as follows;

Flight Mach Number: M = 0.85

Angle of Attack: = 0.0o
Maximum camber: camber = 0
Performance Criterion: No boundary layer separation detectable

Recall that boundary layer separation is present when the airflow has
completely stopped at some point on the airfoil surface. You can check this by
looking for flow reversal using a velocity vector plot. Or, you could use a
surface shear stress plot on the airfoil surface and look for a value near 0,
which indicates a stagnation point in the flow (see figure 5.2 below). Make
sure to record thickness, lift and drag data for all test cases you run. Save a
clear vector plot near the trailing edge or surface shear plot showing the state
of the boundary layer.

Part B
In this portion of the lab you will design an airfoil to meet specific design
parameters. The challenge here will be to select a maximum camber, a location
for the maximum camber, and an airfoil thickness to meet specific lift and drag
requirements. Perform an iterative design process with the given constraints,

Flight Mach Number: M = 0.80

Required moment coeff.:
Lift/Drag ratio:
Thickness:
Angle of Attack:
Max. camber range:
Max. cam. location:
CMc/4 = 0.033 ( or less )
L/D = 8 ( or greater )
range = 8% to 16% of chord length
= 0.0o
camber = 1% to 6%
range = 5% to 70% from the LE

For simplicity, vary the Max. camber in increments of 1%, and the location of
Max. camber by increments of 10% for the 4 digit series and 5% for the 5 digit.
Vary the thickness in increments of 2%. Again, make sure to record all Max.
camber, Max. camber location, thickness, lift, and drag data. Include a Mach
contour plot of your final solution. Take a systematic approach, varying one
CFD analysis of NACA 0015 36

parameter completely learning how that parameter influences performance,

then move on to the next parameter.
Note: Fluent uses the mathematical sign convention rather than the
aerodynamic convention for moments.
Note: you can easily obtain the coordinates of any point using;
Surface > Point > Select point with mouse clicking the right mouse button
while the cursor is in the display window will select the point. The coordinates
appear in the surface window.

Questions
1. How does thickness effect shock-wave strength and location over the
airfoil?
2. What implications does thickness have for high-speed aircraft wing design?
3. How does camber, thickness, and location of maximum camber effect lift
and drag?
4. How is the 5 digit series different than the 4 digit series in terms of
performance?
5. What airfoil did you select to complete the requirements?

Figure 5.2: Surface shear stress on an asymmetric NACA airfoil indicating

stagnation, flow separation and re-attachment near x = 0.7m from the leading
edge.
Appendix A: Manometers 37

Appendix A: Manometers
Manometers are simple devices that are used extensively in this course to provide
accurate pressure measurements. It is essential for the students to have a good
understanding of the fundamental principles involved. Any fluid mechanics text will have
a discussion of manometry under the topic of hydrostatics. To assist the student a very
brief discussion is provided here.
In a fluid at rest, the pressure at any point will vary according to:
p
z
z

Here, is the specific weight of the fluid, which is a product of its density and the
gravitational constant g, . The coordinate z , decreases in the direction opposite to
the direction of gravity. In other words, z grows in magnitude with increasing height.
Integration of this expression yields an expression relating the pressure at some point z to
the pressure at the datum po where z = 0,
p( z ) po z

will increase with depth. A more intuitive reference frame measures depth in a positive
sense, with h being the depth of the fluid,
p po h

This simple relation allows an analysis of hydrostatic systems. Consider the manometer
below;
A B
Datum
h=0
h1 1

3
h2
2

The pressure at A can be related to the pressure at B by following a path from A to B

through the fluid and accounting for the changes in pressure with variations in fluid
properties and height.
Appendix A: Manometers 38

pA h
1 1 2 (h2 h1 ) 3 2 h pB

If the fluids have very different specific weights, the fluid with the smaller specific
weight can usually be ignored with very little loss of accuracy. For instance, in the above
3
1 3 ) and fluid 2 was water,
3
2 = 9810 N/m , the effects of the air can be ignored to produce,

pB pA 2 (h2 h1 )

It should be emphasized that the depths included in these expressions are vertical depths.
An inclined manometer can be considered if vertical depths are obtained after conversion
of the inclined depth L via h = . Where, is the angle from the horizontal of the
inclined tube.
Appendix B: Pitot-Static Tubes 39

Appendix B: Pitot-Static Tubes

P2 , P1 P1 , V1
V2 = 0

L
Datum P2 P1

A pitot-static tube determines the velocity of an incompressble flow by

comparing the the total pressure of the fluid to its static pressure. The static pressure is
what an observer would measure if they were moving with the flow, in other words, in
static relation ( P1 ). The total pressure is a sum of the static pressure and the dynamic
pressure which is measured when the fluid is brought to rest ( P2 ). By Bernoullis
equation:
1 2
P1 V P2
2 1 (1)

Therefore;
2( P2 P1 )
V1 (2)

The pressure difference is measured by an inclined manometer, which can measure slight
pressure differences with reasonable accuracy. The manometer fluid is often coloured
water, but other fluids such as mercury can be used if the pressure differences are large.
Whatever the fluid, its specific gravity ( SG ) must be known. Specific gravity is defined
as;
fluid
SG
O
H 2O at 4 C

Hydrostatic relations give the pressure at the bottom of a column of fluid with vertical
height h and specific gravity SG as;
Appendix B: Pitot-Static Tubes 40

p SG H 2O g h

Here, g is the gravitational constant ( g = 9.81 m/s2 ) and H2O is 1000 kg/m3. This
relation provides a means of determining the pressure difference P2 P1 in equation 2.
With the inclined manometer shown in the figure, the vertical height of the column of
fluid is;
h L sin( )

Where, L is the inclined length of the fluid column and the angle of incline of the
column with the horizontal. Caution is advised with the calculation of the vertical height
h, some fixed inclined manometers measure L with the slope already included. This
means that the scale on the manometer reads and not just L.

Combining these relations the air velocity can be found from;

2 SG f H 2O g L sin( )
V1
air

Note that the specific gravity of the manometer fluid is denoted as SGf , and the density
of the air in the wind tunnel is air.
Appendix C: Guidelines for Lab Report Writing 41

Appendix C: Guidelines for Lab Report Writing

The exact format of a lab report is as varied as the number of institutions that
require them. For this reason, lab reports in this course will conform to the universally
accepted format of a formal academic paper. The format of which contains most of the
structure of a lab report from any other university but with additional elements. The
intent of using such a rigid structure is to give each student experience in writing formal
reports, something they will be required to do at some point in their engineering careers.
As a consequence, the structure, format, grammar and spelling are all considered when
determining a grade for an individual lab report. To assist students in preparing their
reports, a set of guidelines covering content and style is given in this appendix.

Writing Style
Formal academic papers in engineering are almost exclusively written in third person
sometimes called passive voice. In first person, the writer tends to present his or her point
of view from a personal prospective, using the terms I and We frequently. While in
third person, a writer refrains from giving written text the appearance of a personal
opinion. This style of writing is used in academic works since it does not readily convey
any bias towards the subject matter on the part of the writer. It is more conducive to
allowing the reader to form an objective opinion on the subject. It should be noted that
this entire lab manual is written in third person. Examples of each;

First person: When I switched on the power to the wind tunnel I realized the model had
not been secured since it flew out the back and hit the wall.

Third person: When the wind tunnel was activated the model flew out the back striking
the wall, leading to the conclusion that it had not been secured.

First person: My analysis of the data leads me to conclude that the stall angle of the
NACA 0004 airfoil is 11 degrees.

Third person: The analysis of the data indicates that the stall angle of the NACA 0004
airfoil is 11 degrees.

Writing Precision
Since your lab report is considered a formal scientific work, the language used to convey
information should be exacting, leaving no possibility for ambiguity or misinterpretation.
Examples:

vague: somewhat noticeable

was relatively small ..
.. it looked good ..

better: fluctuated by +/- 3 cm ..

.. produced a CL of 1.2 ..
.. was 5% less than published NACA results for the same airfoil
Appendix C: Guidelines for Lab Report Writing 42

Title Page
The title of the lab report should be concise, with no more than 10 words. It should give
the reader exact information about the subject of the work only. It should not contain any
information about the results or the conclusions. It should also contain the following:
Names and student numbers of all authors and contributors
The date and time the lab was performed
The section numbers of all authors
The names of the TA and course professor

Abstract
The abstract is a summary of the entire report and should be written last. Usually, an
abstract should be between 100 and 200 words in length and is placed at the beginning of
the report. The function of an abstract is to give a reader a general overview of the report.
The reader can then decide to read further if he or she is interested. The abstract should
be concise and provide specific details of the work and the results. A good abstract will
answer the following questions:
1) What was done in the lab or experiment?
2) How was the lab or experiment performed?
3) What was found?
4) What was concluded?

Introduction
You cannot assume that your reader has an in-depth knowledge of the subject area of the
report. You must then lead the reader from a point of general knowledge of the topic to
the point of specific knowledge necessary to benefit from reading the remainder of the
report. Questions that should be answered are:
1) What has been done in this area in the past?
To answer this, the author must develop a historical prospective based on cited
works that are listed in the References section. Accepted facts and knowledge
gaps in the subject area should be mentioned.
2) What is the significance of the results?
After the literature review given in the last step, it should be easy to place the
present report in it historical prospective. Give an indication of where the results
of the report fit in and how it contributes to the body of knowledge of the subject
area.
3) Why was this specific study performed?
You should present the specific hypothesis and experimental design being
investigated.

Data Analysis, theoretical Background and Procedures

In longer reports based on broad investigations it is sometimes necessary to give the
reader an overview of the subject through a development of its theory. A mathematical
development, if applicable, is appropriate along with a discussion of the assumptions and
limitations of the theory.
Appendix C: Guidelines for Lab Report Writing 43

If the procedures in the experiment are complex or highly detailed then a listing of all the
steps used in its performance should be listed. The objective of this section is to provide
sufficient detail on the equipment and the method such that the experiment can be
repeated to confirm its results. However, the author should be wary of providing to much
detail to the point of overwhelming the reader. Technical drawings and specifications of
the equipment should be provided or referenced. This section should answer:
1) What apparatus was used?
Provide detailed engineering drawings with dimensions and a written description.
2) What instruments and sensors were used?
List the individual components an sensors used in the apparatus with their
specifications.
3) What conditions were required?
List experimental mediums such as water, air, oil, etc. Also provide their
conditions such as temperature, pressure, contamination ( humidity for air ).

Results and Discussion

The Results and Discussion sections are usually combined but can be made separate if
circumstances warrant. This section provides all of the key findings. Sample data
calculations can be provided here or left to the appendix. All presented data should be in
graphical or tabular form unless the amount of data produced is very small. All tables
plots that appear in this section must be numbered and be accompanied by a descriptive
caption of one or two sentences in length. If a table or a plot appears in this section it
must be discuss somewhere in the text. If you have nothing to say about a figure, it
should not be included in this section. All plots must be easy to read with labeled axis and
a title. All tables must have a title and labeled columns and rows to make interpretation
easier.

What you present in this section and how you interpret the results is the most important
part of the report. This is the section where you show understanding and knowledge of
the subject area beyond simple performance of the experiment. Discuss the relationships
and trends that you see in the data and how this relates to achieving the objective of the
investigation. A few examples:

example figure caption: Figure 3: Plot showing the relation between the lift coefficient
and the angle of attack for the NACA 0012 airfoil.

example discussion: Figure three provides a plot of the lift coefficient (CL) as a function
of the angle of attack ( ) for the NACA 0012 airfoil. Clearly, the lift
coefficient increases steadily as the angle of attack is increased. This
indicates that this airfoil will generate higher lift at a given airspeed
by simply increasing attack angle. The rapid decrease in CL seen in
the figure once the angle of attack passes 16 degrees is consistent
with known lift behavior past the stall angle.

Questions that may help you to write a better discussion:

Appendix C: Guidelines for Lab Report Writing 44

1) What do the results indicate clearly?

2) What trends do you see in the results?
3) How do these trends change as various parameters are varied?
4) How accurate are the results and how could you estimate the accuracy?
5) What are the significance of the results?
6) Are there any ambiguities in the data?
7) How do the results compare to know or related values?
8) How do the results relate to the theory?

Conclusion
The conclusion is usually short but concise. It will accomplish the following tasks:

1) Restate known facts or trends presented in the Results and Discussion section.
2) Justify each fact or trend. This is most often done with quantitative data obtained
from the Results and Discussion section. Do not use the conclusion to present new
data or to further discussion. The only data quoted in the conclusion are from the
Results and Discussion section.
3) Indicate any weaknesses or limitations of the experimental design. The Conclusion
can also be used to suggest further research and to discuss the implications of your
findings.

References
A list of publications cited in the report is provided in the Reference section. The format
of this section can vary from one publication to the next but the function is the same in
all. For example, at some point in the text a published work is referenced:

. convective flow was studied extensively by Le Peutrec and Lauriat [2].

In the Reference section a citing with the following format will appear:

[2] Le Peutrec, Y., Lauriat, G., Effects of Heat Transfer at the Side Walls on Natural
Convection Cavities Journal of Heat Transfer, Vol 112, pp. 370-378, 1990.

The number to the left indicates the order in which it appears in the text. For example, the
first work referenced will have number [1], the second [2], and so on. If you need to refer
back to a work previously referenced, you can use the number previously assigned.

another example:
. foundations for numerical turbulence modeling were developed at Imperial
College in London, UK (Launder, B.E., Spalding, D.B.,1972). .

In the Reference section:

Launder, B.E., Spalding, D.B. (1972) Lectures in Mathematical Models of Turbulence,
Academic Press, London, England.
Appendix C: Guidelines for Lab Report Writing 45

Appendices
The appendices contain all raw experimental data ( in tables ), sample calculations,
superfluous plots and drawings. Again, all plots should have a caption and all tables
should have a title. Data for separate sections of the work should be contained in different
appendices. For example, if several airfoil shapes are studied, the data pertaining to each
airfoil would warrant its own appendix section. At some point in the text of the report the
information contained in the appendix should be referenced:

further results on the performance characteristics of the NACA 0012 is provided in

Appendix C.
Appendix E: Calculation of Forces on Airfoils 46

Appendix D: Calculation of Forces on Airfoils

Y Leading N
Edge (LE)
Upper Surface R
X X=0 L

V
Trailing
D Edge (TE)
Lower Surface
X=c
A
Figure D.1: Airfoil conventions

This Appendix is intended for students not satisfied with the method of calculation for
airfoil forces used in the class text. Presented is a more mathematical method of
determining the same result. In the end, a set of compact formulas requiring integration
about a closed loop (the airfoil surface) will be created. The aerospace sign convention on
moments is used only in the calculation on the moments about the leading edge. The
classic mathematical convention of defining moments as positive counter-clockwise in a
right handed system is used to derive normal and tangential vectors. The geometries used
in this appendix are defined in the figure above, D.1 and below D.2. The x,y coordinate
axis is aligned with the airfoil as shown. Here, N is the normal force, A the axial force, R
the resultant force, L and D the lift and drag respectively. The normal outward (n) and
tangent (t) vectors to the airfoil surface are defined as:
1 1
n cos( )i sin( ) j dy i dx j t sin( )i cos( ) j dxi dy j
ds ds
2 2
ds dx dy

Here, is the angle between a line normal to the airfoil surface and the positive x axis (
measured positive in the counter-clockwise direction, see figure D.2). Note that the
integration is conducted counter-clockwise meaning that dx = xi+1 xi, which accounts
for some of the negative signs in the expressions above. To obtain the proper orientation,
note that 0o 0o.
Y
n
Airfoil i+1
surface
ds +
X
dy +
i =0
dx t

Figure D.2: Surface vector orientation convention

Appendix D: Calculation of Forces on Airfoils 47

The contribution to the total resultant force from a small region on the airfoil surface of
length ds is a sum of normal pressure (p) and tangential shear forces ( ):

dR pn ds t ds
The total force is formed by integration around the entire surface of the airfoil in a
counter-clockwise direction:
R pn t ds p(i cos( ) j sin( )) i sin( ) j cos( ) ds

The axial and normal force components are

RA p cos( ) sin( ) ds RN p sin( ) cos( ) ds

RA pdy dx RN pdx dy

M LE , A pdy dx y M LE , N pdx dy x

It is convenient to place these forces in terms of non-dimensional coefficients since the

pressure difference obtained by the manometers is essentially p p , (see Appendix
A)
p p
CP Cf
1 V2 1 V2
2 2
The normal force coefficient CN (per unit airfoil length), can be found from;
RN y
CN C pd x Cf d
1 V 2c c c
2
The axial force coefficient is found with a similar expression. The lift and drag
coefficients are found from :

CL C N cos( ) C A sin( ) CD C N sin( ) C A cos( )

The Total moment about the leading edge ( per unit length of wing ) is:

CM LE CM LE , A CM LE , N

The shear stress term in these expressions is difficult to determine experimentally. Since
pressure force is easier, it will be the only term used in the subsequent discussion. The
force and moment terms due to pressure can be written in numerical form based on the
analytical equations, as shown below. Note, integration is done counter-clockwise. For
example, an element of arc length ds has the component dx = xi+1 xi , where the node
i+1, is further counter-clockwise on the airfoil surface than node i, as in figure D.2. The
integration is a closed loop, which means node i=1 and i=n+1 are the same node.
Appendix D: Calculation of Forces on Airfoils 48

n
CM A 1 C ydy 1 1 C C P (i yi yi yi yi
p P (i ) 1) 1 1
c2 c2 i 1 4

n
CM N 1 C xdx 1 1 C C P (i xi xi xi xi
p P (i ) 1) 1 1
c2 c2 i 1 4

n
CN 1 C dx 1 1 C C P (i xi xi
P P (i ) 1) 1
c c i 1 2

n
CA 1 C dy 1 1 C C P (i yi yi
P P (i ) 1) 1
c c i 1 2
Appendix E: Lab report grade template 49

Appendix E: Lab Report Grading Template

AER 504: Aerodynamics, Laboratory Report Evaluation

Student Name(s): Floyd D'Souza, Dare Olubodun
Lab Number: 1 Section Number: 03 TA: Harpuneet Pabla
Component: Excellent Good Satisfactory Needs Grade
Improvement
Technical writing (/2)
Grammar, spelling
Clear, concise, legible
Logical train of thought
Proper use of citations/references /2
Report content and formatting (/2)
Required formatting
Organization of content
Figures, tables, equations captioned/numbered
Quality of figures /2
Data and calculations (/3)
Observations and data
Calculations and/or results /3
Questions and conclusions (/3)
Discussion points and questions
Conclusions /3
Overall: /10
Comments: