FACULTY OF ENGINEERING

Department of Chemical Engineering

PO Box 652
Cape Town
8000
TEL: (021) 460 3159

Practical Manual

Year: 2017

Subject Name: Thermodynamics: Applied 3

Subject Code: APT300S

ND: Chemical Engineering

NQF level: 6

Lecturer: D De Jager

Revision No Approved Date

1 D De Jager July 2017

Purpose Statement for Qualification

This qualification is intended for process or chemical engineering technicians working in the process or
metallurgical related industries. Learners achieving this qualification have the competence to apply
existing process technology to chemical engineering related problems, process design and will illustrate
technical competence thus contributing to the needs of the chemical profession.
1) Introduction:

The main objectives of the practicals are to reinforce some of the concepts covered in theory and to
practically demonstrate their applications. At the same time these sessions present the opportunity
to exercise and improve deductive and observational skills and to cultivate those habits of accuracy,
neatness and thoroughness – qualities that are important for good experimentation.

In this course you will be required to perform one practical: Refrigeration cycle. The students will
operate the vapour compression refrigeration system and then calculate its Coefficient of
Performance, the compressor power, and the evaporator and condenser heat duties.

2) Preparation for a Practical Session:

In the practical manual provided to you, the procedures for the experiments as well as some theory
and background to the experiments have been included. Additional background will be provided
during the pre-practical session, but the onus is on you to read as much about the practical/subject
matter as possible. Sources of information include your prescribed and recommended textbooks as
well as books available in the library. Be sure to read the experimental directions in advance of your
scheduled laboratory session. You will be required to familiarize yourself with the equipment and
procedures before you enter the laboratory – this will ensure that you do not do the experiments
“cook-book” or “recipe” style. Further, the practical write-up should be completed and handed in to
the technical officer no later than 2 weeks after completion of practicals.

3) RULES FOR ATTENDING THE PRACTICAL SESSIONS

The following is important:

 Two practicals per semester will be performed per subject and an average mark will be
calculated. In this subject one practical will be performed during this semester.
 The contribution of the practical mark to the year mark is equivalent to 15% of the final mark.
 Students are required to get a minimum of 50% for the practicals to pass the subject.
 It is expected of each student to do all the practicals and each must be handed in as a complete
or a short report as allocated by the technical officer (For the refrigeration practical all students
must submit a long report). If a student does not attend a practical, a medical certificate must
be shown, or else a mark of “zero” will be allocated to the student in question.
 A student may not hand in a report if the student did not attend the practical.
 Data generated by groups other than the student’s group may not be used in the report unless
provided by the Technical Officer.
 A draft copy of the report must be uploaded onto the anti-plagiarism website SafeAssign via
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 Blackboard to detect plagiarism. Students may alter their reports if plagiarism is detected and
resubmit to SafeAssign until the report meets the requirements. Any irregularities should be
rectified before the hardcopy of the report is submitted.
 A report will be regarded as not submitted if the entire report has not been uploaded to
SafeAssign and as a result can be awarded a mark of zero.
 Students should understand plagiarism and the various types. Students should also heed the
seriousness of the offence and that such an offence will carry the minimum penalty of receiving
a mark of zero for parts of the report plagiarized. A mark of zero can be awarded.
 The report cover page should clearly indicate the report title, student’s full name, student
number, group number, date performed and date submitted. It should also include the mark
allocation for a short report as shown under section 7 below.
 The due date for practical reports is two weeks after the practical was performed unless the
due date falls in the holidays. In such a case the due date falls on the first day of term that the
technical officer is at the campus.
 Students are given the opportunity to submit the report in an allocated time slot and sign for its
submission. Reports submitted outside this time slot should be deposited in the allocated box
but will not receive verification upon receipt.
 If a practical is handed in later than the due-date, 10 % will be deducted from the student's
mark for each day the practical is handed in late. After 3 days overdue, the report will receive
“zero” mark.

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4) GENERAL INFORMATION

Practical Scheduling
The schedule of practicals for each group is provided. Students are expected to perform each
practical on the day and between the hours specified, and will not be permitted to work outside these
hours unless prior agreement has been granted by the Practical Supervisor. Any problems with
regard to the practical schedule should be taken up with the Practical Coordinator as soon as
possible. If scheduling changes are made with the agreement of the Coordinator, hand-in dates will
also be changed; otherwise the original dates will remain in force.

Location of Equipment
The equipment is located in the Chemical Engineering Undergraduate laboratory on Bellville
campus.

5) DECLARATION

While all experimental work will be performed in groups, the practical report must be the student's
own individual work. The following undertaking is incorporated in the cover page of each report and
must be signed by the student:

“I certify that this report is my own unaided work, except for the assistance received from the
teaching staff. I undertake not to pass this report onto any other student”.

6) LAB SAFETY RULES

a. Keep books, briefcases, and other property (especially jewellery) away from your work
bench.
b. DO NOT TASTE anything and AVOID INHALING toxic or noxious fumes.
c. Clean up spills as soon as possible. Wash with water to dilute.
d. When working with concentrated acids, take special care to AVOID SKIN CONTACT. Also
work over the sink to avoid any spillage on the bench.
e. When DISPOSING of LIQUIDS, do so into RUNNING WATER in the sink. Wash down with
lots of water.
f. Any broken apparatus must be reported immediately.
g. Smoking, eating or drinking will not be tolerated in the laboratory.
h. Unauthorized experiments are strictly forbidden.
i. Students are reminded that many of the experiments performed have inherent dangers
associated with them and due precaution should be observed at all time. These dangers
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 include the effects of rotating equipment, electrical machinery, high pressure air and steam.
First aid equipment is available at chemical engineering laboratory. Fire hoses, fire
extinguishers and safety showers are placed on all levels of the building. An eye bath is
located in the analytical laboratory. Students should check to see where these items are
located. Students must wear appropriate footwear and ladies should wear jeans in place of
skirts while performing experimental work. Smoking and eating is not permitted in the
laboratory.
j. REPORT ANY ACCIDENT, however small, to your supervisor immediately.

7) MARK ALLOCATION

Long Report: Refrigeration

% Mark
Title page 5
Synopsis 5
Introduction 5
Literature Review and Theory (including in- 10
text referencing)
Experimental Set-up and Procedure 10
Results and Discussion 55
Conclusions 5
Bibliography and personal impression 5
TOTAL: 100

The discussion must include in–text referencing and relate the some of the results obtained to theory.

Short Report: (7 pages back-to-back) NO SHORT REPORT FOR THERMODYNAMICS: APPLIED 3

% Mark
Title page 5
Synopsis 5
Experimental Set-up and Procedure 10
Results and Discussion 65
Conclusions 10
Bibliography and personal impression 5
TOTAL: 100

The discussion is limited to an overview of the results obtained, the calculations performed as well as
observations made during the experiments.

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 PRACTICAL: REFRIGERATION CYCLE

Refrigeration cycles are used to remove heat from a confined space. The biggest applications for
this kind of cycle are food preservation and air condition. Refrigeration also has many important
chemical engineering applications such as:
 Control of chemical reactions by keeping reactants at reduced temperature as is done is some
of the acid treating processes used in an oil refinery.
 Separation of wax from lubricating oils by a combined chilling and final centrifuging.
 Separation by distillation of normally gaseous mixtures, as is done in fuel production of oxygen
and nitrogen from liquefied air.

Refrigeration cycles use special fluids called refrigerants as the working fluid. The refrigeration
system in this practical is using refrigerant R-134a.

The functioning of the majority of refrigerating plants is based on the vapour-compression cycle and
such is made up of the following basic processes:

Evaporation: Liquid at low pressure is evaporated at a low temperature and absorbs heat
from a cold environment.
Compression: The low pressure vapour at 1 is compressed to a higher pressure.
Condensation: High pressure vapour is condensed and loses heat to the cooling medium
(water or air).
Expansion valve: High pressure liquid at 3 is expanded to a lower pressure through the use of
an expansion valve or a capillary tube.

3 2
Compressor
Expansion

Condenser
valve

4 1
Evaporator
Figure 1: AMATROL T7082 Thermal systems Trainer

In this practical, the AMATROL T7082 Thermal Systems Trainer (Figure 1) will be used as the
refrigeration system.

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Aim(s):
 To provide the student with experience and confidence in the operation of the refrigeration
system.
 To calculate the heat duties for both the evaporator and the condenser.
 To calculate the compressor power.
 To assess the efficiency of the AMATROL T7082 Thermal Systems Trainer by comparing the
actual COP to the theoretical maximum COP.

Theory:
Refer to class notes and literature.

Apparatus and Materials:

Figure 2 below is the schematic representation of the experimental setup.

Capillary tube

Evaporator
Condenser

Figure 2: AMATROL T7082 Thermal Systems Trainer

Operation and experimental procedure:

1. Locate the power switch and make sure that it is in the OFF position.
2. Locate the mode switch and make sure that it is set on STAND-BY.
3. Perform the following to make sure the dual pressure controller is properly set:

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 a. Locate the low pressure cut-out scale and make sure it is set to 5 psi. If it is not, use a
standard screwdriver to turn its adjusting screw.
b. Locate the cut-in scale and make sure it is set to 45 psi. Adjust if necessary.
c. Locate the high pressure cut-out setting on the right side of the pressure controller and make
sure it is set to 200 psi. Adjust if necessary.
4. Reset the refrigerant valves to the following positions (if necessary):
V1: Open V4: Open
V2: Closed V5: Closed
V3: Closed V6: Closed
5. Locate the electric cord and plug into a standard wall outlet.
6. Shut the evaporator damper ¾ closed (notch 6 of 8).
7. Turn the power switch to the ON position. You should see the LCD on the electronic temperature
controller display the room (ambient) temperature.
8. Record the room temperature being displayed by the electronic temperature controller. This is
the HOT RESERVOIR TEMPERATURE.
9. Perform the following to ensure that the electronic temperature controller is set properly.
a. Press the button marked SET on the controller.
b. Use the up and down arrow keys to select degrees Fahrenheit (°F) on the LCD.
c. Press the SET button once again to enter into the set temperature mode. Use the arrow
keys to select 55°F for the set point. The compressor will disengage when this temperature
is reached. This is set lower that the room temperature so that the unit will run constantly.
d. Press the SET button once more to enter the temperature differential mode. Use the arrows
to set this to 10°F. This tells the controller at what temperature above set point to engage
the compressor (65°F in this case).
e. Press the SET button again to enter into the heating / cooling mode selection. Use the arrow
keys to select “C1” on the LCD. This sets the controller for cooling mode.
f. Finally, press the SET button once more and check the LCD to make sure the room
temperature is being displayed.
10. Locate the flow meter and make sure that the knob is turned fully counter-clockwise (full open).
11. Turn the mode switch to the COOLING position. The blowers should come on and the
compressor should engage as well.
12. Allow the trainer to operate until it comes to steady state conditions (there should be no bubbles
flowing through the flow meter). The trainer may take 5 – 20 minutes to attain steady state
conditions.
13. Record the flow in the flow meter (height of the ball). Read the meter from the middle of the ball
against the scale.
14. Record the pressures and temperatures on the system gauges. Convert the indicated gauge
pressure to absolute pressure.

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 PS-1 PS-2 PS-3 PS-4
TS-1 TS-2 TS-3 TS-4
15. Before shutting down the trainer, record the air temperature coming out of the evaporator
(evaporator outlet temperature). This is displayed on the Electronic Temperature control panel.
This is the COLD RESERVOIR TEMPERATURE.
16. To shut down the trainer, turn the mode switch to STAND-BY and then turn the power switch to
the OFF position.

Calculations:
1. Use Table 1 in the appendix to determine the volumetric flow rate. If the flow meter measurement
falls between two entries on the table, use linear interpolation.
2. From the pressure (PS-3) and temperature (TS-3) information, use Table 2 to determine the
specific volume of the liquid refrigerant (vf). The conditions at state 3 are very close to those at
the flow meter. Use linear interpolation if needed.
3. Calculate the mass flow rate of the refrigerant in kg/s.
4. Use Table 2 / Table 3 to determine the enthalpy at each of the four states (h1, h2, h3 and h4).
5. Plot the refrigeration cycle on the P-h diagram for R-134a supplied (Figure 2, appendix).
6. Calculate the heat duty of the evaporator (Capacity, Q) in kW.
7. Calculate the heat duty of the condenser in kW.
8. Calculate the compressor power.
9. Calculate the maximum theoretical coefficient of performance.
10. Calculate the actual coefficient of performance.

Reference(s):
Cengel, YA, Boles MA. “Thermodynamics: An Engineering Approach” 8th edition, 2015, McGraw-Hill
Education. [Tables A12 and A13; Figure A14].

Appendices:
Table 1: Chart used to determine Volumetric Flow Rate.
Tables 2 & 3: Thermodynamic Properties of HFC-134a (R-134a)
Figure 2: P-h diagram for Refrigerant R-134a

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Table 1: Determination of the volumetric flow rate

Table 2: Properties of saturated refrigerant R-134a

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Table 2 (continues): Properties of saturated refrigerant R-134a

10
Table 3: Properties of superheated refrigerant R-134a

11
Table 4 (continues): Properties of superheated refrigerant R-134a

12
Figure 2: P-h diagram for refrigerant R-134a
8) Guide to Report Writing

Introduction:
Engineers who are unable to communicate effectively with their superiors or colleagues will never receive the
credit for their work. Information must be transferred to enable decisions to be made, money to be allocated
or work to be started. The most used method of technical communication is the REPORT.

Before starting a report, certain points should be considered:

i. The reason the report is written. Has the contents been planned so that the reader will understand
what is being said?
ii. Who will the reader be? This decides the level of technical information that is to be included.

The writer must be absolutely clear as to what information is to be conveyed. The reader studies a report for
what he can gain from it.

Some suggestions are given below to improve and simplify the presentation of reports.
i. Choose a short meaningful title.
ii. Include as many sketches and diagrams as you think are appropriate. Remember that a single diagram
will often clarify what would otherwise be a very confusing paragraph.
iii. Describe what you are about to discuss in general terms before giving the details. Nothing is more
confusing or frustrating than reading a very detailed description of some piece of equipment when the
reason for its use is not yet known.
iv. Clearly separate facts from opinions. Opinions certainly have their place but can cause a report to be
misleading if not clearly stated so.
v. Use a simple, clear style of writing. Long and involved sentences are a hindrance to understanding
and frequently contain grammatical errors.
vi. Be precise. For example, a fuzzy statement referring to a “large tank” immediately raises questions:
how much does it hold?
vii. Ensure that the report is legible.

Logical Progression
The structure of a report can be likened to the structure of a joke or a story. There is a section that puts the
work into context followed by a detailed description or the body of the work. Lastly there is the punch line that
can be compared to a report’s conclusion that wraps up the work.

Story Structure: Background Detail (Core) Conclusion

Arrangement of the Material:
Typically the material presented should be arranged in the following sequence:

Title X
Synopsis L
Table of Contents L
List of Symbols A
X required
Introduction X A where appropriate
Theoretical Background L L for long reports

Body of Experiment X
Results X
Discussion X
Conclusions X
Recommendations A
References X
Appendices X

The reports done this semester can be assumed to take the format of a long report. The structure should be
adhered to and the mark allocation is also provided.

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TITLE PAGE:
The title page should include the following:
• Name of the practical (can be larger font)
• Subject
• Name of the student
• Date practical was performed
• Date report handed in
• Declaration that the report is the author’s own work
• Signature

It is the first page (i) but it is not numbered. This page should not contain unusual font and colours. Use black
font and a standard font type. Avoid adding pictures or excessive decoration such as borders. A single border
can look good but keep it to a minimum.

SUMMARY
There are two types of summaries and the choice between the two depends on what is required. These are
the ABSTRACT/SYNOPSIS and the EXECUTIVE SUMMARY.

SYNOPSIS:
The synopsis is also sometimes referred to as the summary or abstract and acts as a standalone section. The
synopsis should be intelligible on its own and should give a clear outline of the contents of the report stating
the purpose, methodology, results and conclusion. Academics find the abstract useful for sifting through
research papers to find relevant information. Only the abstract needs to be read to check if the research paper
is of use to them. In industry the abstract allows managers to prioritise various projects before having to delve
into the report. Sometimes it is all the manager needs to read.

Care should be taken not to use unfamiliar terms, acronyms, trade names, abbreviations or symbols without
explanation. More than one paragraph may be used but the summary should not exceed 2% of the total of the
contribution and should be limited to no more than 250 words. About a quarter of a page to half a page should
be sufficient for the reports in this course.

Here is an example. Try to identify the separate sections in the abstract.

“Polyacrylic acid (PAA) and starch represent two of the most widely used commercial flocculants in the mineral
processing industry. Both are known to behave as selective flocculants in the beneficiation of iron ore slimes.
This paper compares these two types of flocculants in achieving selective separation of iron oxide from clay.
Our results indicate that PAA requires a lower flocculent dosage and yields bigger flocs. Starch is found to be
more selective than PAA. Important differences in the behaviour of these two flocculants, as investigated with
the help of a set of statistically designed experiments, are explained in terms of the proposed mechanisms of
interactions of starch and PAA with iron oxide and clay. Electrostatic interactions play an important role in
achieving selectivity.” Ravishankar et al (1995)

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The executive summary is similar to the abstract but it is more detailed in every aspect. It aims to sell the idea
to the reader (usually management) who may have less technical background on the subject matter. The main
report is usually reserved for the core technical detail. A motivation should be presented and therefore the aim
should feature prominently. The main findings should be clearly stated, along with pertinent discussions in line
with the aim.

The executive summary is usually in the region of 10% of the total report but effort should be made not to
exceed this length. The format of the executive summary is in strategic paragraphs. Headings could be used
but not in the sense of “Literature Review” etc. Tables and figure are allowed to detail the main findings.

TABLE OF CONTENTS AND LIST OF FIGURES/TABLES:

The table of contents should contain the main and sub-paragraph and page numbers:

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CONTENT PAGE

Synopsis ii
List of symbols iv

1. INTRODUCTION 1
2. LITERATURE REVIEW 2
2.1. Heat Exchangers 2
2.2. Heat transfer coefficients (calculations) 4
3. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE 6
3.1. APPARATUS 6
3.2. SAMPLE PREPARATION 7

MS Word has a handy tool for creating a Table of Contents (TOC). On the Toolbar go to:

INSERT – REFERENCES – INDEX AND TABLES – TABLE OF CONTETNS

Various customisations can be performed here including setting the number of levels in the TOC. In the above
example there are two levels. The headings to appear in the TOC need to be identified. Make sure the
OUTLINING toolbar is visible.

VIEW – TOOLBARS – OUTLINING

Scroll though your report and select the first heading you want to have shown in the TOC. Select which level
the heading should be.

To update the TOC either right click on the TOC or use the OUTLINING toolbar.
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Similarly a list of tables and figures can be compiled. The only difference being how the caption is produced
and the how the captions are linked to the list entries.

LIST OF SYMBOLS:
The list may appear immediately after the TABLE OF CONTENTS section or it may appear after the
CONCLUSIONS section. The list can be named Notation or Nomenclature as well. The list should contain
all symbols used in the text and appendices, arranged in ascending alphabetical order, along with a brief
description and their units:

Nomenclature
Ga Galileo number dimensionless
x wall thickness m

Greek Letters
µ viscosity Pa.s
ρ density kg.m-3

Sometimes many subscripts are used and if need be an additional section can be made to accommodate
them, e.g.

Subscripts
d dynamic conditions
e equilibrium conditions
p particle
i i’th screen

Internationally standardised or recognised symbols should be used and if yours are not in general use a list of
their meanings should be included.

Mistakes some students make in this section include omitting symbols, including equations and describing
units, e.g.

W Watts

INTRODUCTION:
The principal object of the introduction is to acquaint the reader with the problem and point out the purpose
and significance of the report as well as putting the work in context. The Introduction should be logically
developed and should also provide the rationale for the present study. Only those references that supply the
most salient background should be used rather than providing an exhaustive review of the topic.

As a guideline the following should be specifically included:

4
 a) A brief description of the Unit Operation or general class (e.g. ‘heat transfer’) to which the experiment
belongs, and of which the particular aspect (e.g. ‘forced convection’) which you investigated, in a few
short sentences.
b) A summary of the relevant theory based on your notes, textbook, Perry, and books and other
references given in lectures. What guidance can theory, empirical correlations, etc., give us in
designing and analysing the equipment? How reliable are these methods? Try to summarise what you
know about the operation.
c) The object of the work.

Remember to cite work correctly. Citing work serves two purposes. It gives credit to people whose work is
being used and acts as a way to substantiate the information used in the report. Certain sources are more
reliable than others. Information not cited is regarded as the author’s own work/findings and if found otherwise
can result in serious consequences. The best that can happen is getting zero marks for that section.

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND/LITERATURE REVIEW:

This section summarizes and evaluates the literature that you have used in your study by considering how that
literature has contributed to your area of research. It also comments on the strengths and weaknesses of
previous studies from a technical point of view. It documents the core technical details of the work and the
methodology the writer adopts. The introduction and theory should supply sufficient theoretical background
knowledge to allow the reader to understand and evaluate the results of the experimental work without needing
to refer to previous publications on the topic.

As an example, imagine the writer was challenged with calculating the volume of an object. The different
methods of this calculation would be explained in detail. Examples thereof would be liquid displacement,
dimension measurements, from density and mass relationships and from pressure volume relationships. The
writer would then introduce their own technique with all the necessary technical details.

Equations used in the calculations can be given here and explained. An example of how to present an equation
is shown below. The equations should be numbered according to the section numbering or as it is done in
journal papers, starting at (1) for the first equation in the report.


Vsphere  d3 ..(1)
6

BODY OF EXPERIMENT OR EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE:

The experimental section should include sufficient technical information so that a competent worker could
repeat the experiments that are described.

As a guideline the following should be specifically included.

5
 a) A description and diagram of the apparatus.
b) A list of the apparatus used.
c) A brief description of the operation of the apparatus (i.e. ‘method’) and the procedure. Do not waste
time in a lengthy description of standard procedures (e.g. titrations) but provide sufficient detail so that
the reliability of your experimental work can be assessed.

Use the past tense and passive voice; “the thermometer was placed in the water”.

RESULTS:
The results should visually and textually represent the experimental findings. In the results section, include
only the results of the experiment; reserve extensive interpretation of the results for the discussion section.
The explanatory text should point out the most significant portions of research findings and indicate trends or
relationships. It should also highlight expected and/or unexpected findings. These can also be included in the
discussion.

Present the results in as a concise way as possible. Figures and tables should be selected to; illustrate the
points being made if they cannot be described in the text, to summarise or present repetitive data or to record
quantitative results. Results may also be referred to in the Appendices. Reserve the Appendices for results
that are voluminous or less significant and would otherwise bulk up the Results section. The results obtained
directly from the experiment should be separated from those calculated. Clearly label a graph or a table with
the associated chapter number and provide a brief description. A table should be presented with the heading
above the table:

Table 4.1: Experimental and theoretical mass over time

Time Mass
Experimental Theoretical
(s) (g) (g)
0 0 0
0.20 0.04 0.04
0.30 0.09 0.10
0.45 0.20 0.22

When plotting graphs, it is neater to have a white background with the legend in the graph area to save space.
The theoretical results are normally represented continuously (as a line) and the experimental results as
discrete points.

6
 0.06

0.05

0.04
+
10°C Theoretical
[Na ] 0.03
10°C Experimental
0.02 20°C Theoretical
20°C Experimental
0.01

0
0 50 100 150
Time (Minutes)

Figure 4.1: Experimental and theoretical sodium concentration over time

Please note, the sample of calculations is not meant to be presented in the results section. It should appear in
the appendices.

A hint: When doing graphs one can often not include the ° sign for °C in the legend and the axis labels.
While pressing ALT, first press 2, then 4 and then 8 in sequence and see what happens. These are
called ASCII codes. Do a search for ASCII codes on Google and see what other signs are easy to make.
(NB: ALT + numbers)

DISCUSSION:
The Discussion should provide an interpretation of the results in relation to the theoretical and/or previously
published work and should not contain extensive repetition of the Results section or reiteration of the
Introduction section.

As a guideline the following points should be considered:

How reliable were the results? Compare estimates of accuracy on an analysis of the experimental procedure
with those based on an analysis of the results. If possible, use your knowledge of statistics to its full extent. No
experimental result has any meaning or use until its reliability has been established.

Where applicable, discuss the effect of the experimental variables under your control (e.g. flow rate) as well
as those that are not (e.g. ambient temperature). Express these quantitatively in the most effective manner.
Compare calculated results for the various runs with each other so that effects of system parameters can be
evaluated. Try to give explanations thereof.

Compare these effects and the numerical results with published figures and with ones predicted from theory.
Try to assess the reasons for the differences (in terms of type of experimental equipment, test system, ranges
of experimental conditions, scale effects).

Did the experiment represent a good (or possible, or the best) way of obtaining the required information?
7
Make your discussion and description as quantitative as possible (always quote errors numerically never refer
to them as merely ‘large’, ‘reasonable’ etc.) Avoid vague and hopeful generalisations.

Back up your statements, either from the literature or from the experimental results you are discussing.

Clearly refer to your graphs and tables. E.g. “… Figure 4.1 vindicates the use of …” or “… the graph of
concentration against time, Fig 4.1, shows that …”)

CONCLUSIONS:
The conclusion should briefly outline what has been learned from performing the experiment. It should state
concisely:

i. what is shown by the work

ii. the significance of the findings

RECOMMENDATIONS:
If, as of a result of the work done, it is possible to make any worthwhile recommendations this should be done
– one should make recommendations for further experimental work necessary to confirm and/or extend them.
The conclusion and the recommendations can usually be combined.

If making recommendations for the elimination of experimental error, try to be specific when stating reasons
for experimental error. Simply stating parallax error is not enough. It is evident that some students do not even
know what parallax error is and mention it as if it were a mystical force that takes a perverse pleasure in ruining
experiments.

REFERENCES:
Cited papers and books must be acknowledged to clearly differentiate between published fact and the author’s
own ideas. References are cited in the text by quoting the authors name and year of publication, while at the
end of the report a full list of references is given in alphabetical order. The Cape Peninsula University of
Technology makes use of the Harvard method for referencing purposes. Here follows examples of references
from the most frequently used sources:

8
BIBLIOGRAPHY TEXTUAL REFERENCE
(Appears before the Appendices at the end of the (Appears in the text of the report where the
report) material is used)
BOOKS
Books: one author

Chase, J. 1979. Advertising in the modern Chase, 1979:page numbers cited

world. New York: Simon & Schuster.

Books: two authors

Ellis, R. & Peters, J.P. 2000. Writing about Ellis & Peters, 2000:page numbers cited
literature. London: Macmillan.

Books: multiple authors (three or more)

Henderson, R.S., Smith, P.G., Rossiter, I. & Henderson, Smith, Rossiter & King,
King, P.Q. 1987. The tenets of modern philosophy. New 1987:page numbers cited
York: Van Nostrand. Subsequent citations use et al.
Henderson et al., 1987:page numbers
cited

INTERNET

Cape Peninsula University of Technology. n.d. Cape Peninsula University of Technology, n.d.
Intellectual property policy. [No date indicated on document.]
http://www.cput.ac.za/polic/ippolicy.html
[15 November 2004]. [Date indicated in square
brackets is date downloaded.]

New Media Publishing. 2005. New Media Publishing New Media Publishing, 2005.
scoops prime position for 2005.
http://www.newmediapub.co.za [16 November
2005].

Look at the reference in the document as an example.

Mistakes sometimes made by students include simply citing Google as the internet site. Google is a search
engine that finds relevant sites for you. Sources cited should have some credibility. Do NOT use
“Wikipedia.com” as a reference. Even though material being published on the online encyclopaedia has been
assessed to be reliable using stricter criteria than before, it is still not good enough because it can be authored
by anyone and is not peer reviewed.

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APPENDICES:
The Appendices should contain:

i. Tables of results where graphs are given in the main part of the report.
ii. Sample of calculations. This is extremely important because it indicates how the calculations were
done. A large portion of the marks for the “Results” section will be come from here.
iii. Physical constants used.
iv. Equipment list: Type, Make, Model and Serial number.
v. Theoretical derivations that are not pertinent to the theory or which would break the flow of the report
if included in the main body.

EDITORIAL AND GENERAL:

Conventions
i. It is usual to report in the third person, past tense, passive voice and indicative mood.
ii. All drawings and graphs should be labelled in such a way that they are read with the page in the
normal position or with the page turned clockwise through 90 degrees.
iii. Text relating to the drawings or tables should come before drawing and should clearly indicate which
object it is referring to.
iv. Use the appropriate number of significant figures. Writers own discretion but not more than 4.

GENERAL
Units and Quantities:
Metric (SI) units should be used.

Paragraphs:
A decimal system of numbering paragraphs should be used where the report is long and there is a need to
reference other parts of the report.

Proofreading:
It is essential that all the content (layout, content, references, diagrams and tables) of the report be read and
checked carefully and objectively. It is a common mistake to gloss over near completed report and assume
that everything is in the correct place and makes sense. Sometimes expressing oneself is challenging and
when describing something technical, the reader could get lost in text that the writer finds perfectly clear
because it is so familiar. When writing, try and see it from the reader’s perspective. The real proof of how
coherently the report has been written is to allow somebody else to proofread it.

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