School of Chemical &

Energy Engineering

SKTP 3731
RESERVOIR ENGINEERING LABORATORY

Supervisor: Dr. Muhammad Noorul Anam

Lab Staf : Mr. Roslan Jas

Mr. Zulkifle Nasir

Petroleum Engineering Department

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 Table of contents

Page

Laboratory rules and safety 3

Laboratory report writing 5

Experiment 1: Porosity 8

Experiment 2: Permeability (Using Liquid Permeameter) 15

Experiment 3: Permeability (Using Gas Permeameter) 18

Experiment 4: Kinematic Viscosity 22

Experiment 5: Smoke Point 26

Experiment 6: API Gravity 29

Experiment 7: Gas Density 33

Experiment 8: Water Content (by Distillation) 36

Appendix 1 - Cover page of laboratory report 39

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LABORATORY’S RULES AND SAFETY
General Rule
1. Students are responsible for any laboratory apparatus used.
2. Always cautious whilst conducting experiment in order to obtain good outcome of result
and preventing accident from happened.
3. Working table and laboratory surrounding should always tidy and clean. Students should
clean and tidy back all laboratory apparatus used before leaving the laboratory.
4. Students are forbidden from conducting an experiment after the stipulated time except
after getting permission from the supervisor.
5. All special laboratory security directives must be obeyed. Students should not smoke,
drink or eat in the laboratory.
6. Students should familiarize themselves with the position of emergency equipment in the
laboratory (e.g. fire extinguisher, etc).
7. Any accident must be reported immediately to the officer on duty.
8. Raw experiment data has to be certified by the officer in charged (supervisor or
technician on duty).
Attendance
1. Students are obligated to be presence on each experiment that has been scheduled.
Failure to turn up in one of the experiments will cause overall course failure. Students
are also required to record their presence in the Attendance Book.
2. Students must be presence in the laboratory five minutes earlier from the stipulated time.
3. Each experiment is about two hours. Students will be divided into several groups. A
supervisor/lecturer on duty will supervised the experiment, assisted by
technician/laboratory assistant.
4. Students are required to read and understand the experiment theory and methodology that
has to be carried out before entering the laboratory. This practice will ensure smooth
running of the experiment.
Safety Attire
1. Students are required of wearing “lab coat” whilst conducting an experiment. Failure to
comply will cause students barred from doing any experiment.
2. Ensure of wearing shoes and use appropriate safety appliances (e.g. safety glasses, heat
resistance glove, etc.) whilst conducting experiment due to most experiments involving
chemical usage, and high temperature and pressure handling.
Laboratory Equipment
1. Students are not allowed to use any laboratory equipment without getting permission and
complete explanation from the officer in charged. Handling complicated laboratory
equipment without supervision will endanger someone or anyone near the equipment, and
could cause damage to the equipment.
2. Before using any laboratory equipment, ensure that the power source used is appropriate
for that particular equipment.
3. Do not move sensitive equipment from its position; use it at its dedicated location.
4. If the equipment is damage whilst in used, report immediately to the officer in charged.
Do not try to repair yourself.

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5. Students are prohibited from using any broken-down equipment.

Laboratory Waste Disposal

1. After each experiment, students should ensure that all facilities and apparatus are put back
in order.
2. All used muds should be discarded in the provided container. Do not dispose used mud
or any chemical waste into the sink.

Note: Failure to do so would result in 20 % deduction of report mark (group) for that
particular experiment.

Gas Cylinder
1. All gas resources, fuels, and gas relief valves must be closed before leaving the laboratory
and when not in used.
2. Ensure that the pressure in the pipeline is zero by opening all valves.

Electrical Appliances
1. Make sure electrical power source is off when not used.
2. If an electrical appliance, which is on operation, have to be left alone, please ensure that
the equipment can operate safely. Student must also inform the officer on duty.

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LABORATORY REPORT WRITING (1 FORMAL REPORT)
Effective scientific report writing is one of the compulsory practices for every engineer and
scientist. In research, written matter should enable other person to know about the work and
important discovery that have been carryout. In the field of engineering, documentation is
required to follow-up study, support for new study, and provide information to be
disseminated. As such, student must produce a well-defined documentation, simple,
professional, following format, and have right grammatical use.

All reports must be prepared using Microsoft Word as word processing software. Various
supporting software such as Microsoft Excel, PowerPoint and others can be used in preparing
tables, graphs, mathematical equations, and pictures.

The purpose of report writing is to summarise the methodology that have been used in the
experiment, evaluate or interpret the findings from the experiment, comparing the discovery
of the experiment to theoretical studies or results that have been acquired from earlier
research published in journals or from other sources, which have been validated.

The report should be written in English and include pictures, graphs, tables and appendices
wherever appropriate. Use font type Times New Roman, size 12, with 1.5 line spacing. The
format of the report should follow the arrangement below:
1. Front Page
This page consist of experimental subject, section number, group name, group members,
supervisor’s name, technician on duty, experimental date, and date of the report
submission (see the Appendix 1 on page 39).
2. Abstract (Report Summary)
Abstract is prepared on separate page in only 1 paragraph, I page format . The main
purpose of abstract documentation is to summarise the entire report, using 100 to 200
words. This section explains the system that had been studied and the main experimental
result. Abstract must be clear, short, and containing quantitative statement that had been
made, findings and its meaning. Abstract documentation is the last part that has to be
done after resolving the table of contents in report writing.
3. Table of Contents
This part shows the page location of each opening title and its fraction. The page number
of the figure, schedule, and appendix lists also needs to be included.
4. Introduction
Explanation of the background, objective and scope of the experiment has to be done in
this part. Introduction must done in stages, facilitate reader on the important of the
experiment and it is meaningful to read.
5. Theory/Literature Review
Theory part states briefly the general theory and equation that are used. Problems string,
which has been highlighted theoretically, may contain reaction equation, statement with
particular regards, validity level, and the equation used to analyse data. All equations
must be numbered sequentially. You do not have to define the variable used in the text
but need to be stated in the list of symbol section. The derivation of equation and
complete calculating work has to be placed in the appendices.

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6. Methodology
This part must contain complete information so that other reader can repeat the stated
experiment, but did not too elaborate as those occur in directive module experiment. State
the important method that has been done.
7. Results
This part must contain important data that are acquired, usually in tabular forms, graphs,
and pictures. Think the best means to present results of the study so that the objective of
the study can be achieved. Each table, graph, and picture must be numbered and
associated with text. Make sure that each graph axis is labeled properly. Information
about the table or graph must clear. Comparison between the experiment data with the
theoretical data and the literature also could be loaded in this part.
8. Discussions
This part comprises evaluation and interpretation of results, including the validity of
evaluation and the accuracy (error analysis) of the results. In the discussion, citation must
take into account on the question how, why etc. However, discussion should follow or
approaching theory. (Note: Results and discussions can be combined).
9. Conclusion
This part must contain important summary from the results and discussions. In fact,
conclusion is also a general statement about how and where the experiment you doing can
be applied.
10. Suggestion
This part should consist idea or proposal which lies against theoretical and logical which
could be implemented to reduce error. In other words, this move can improve the
outcome of the experiment those carried out.
11. References
All references, which are quote from journals, books, standards, and laboratory manuals,
have to be listed in the references section. Reference writing system should follow UTM
thesis documentation format. Students are required to submit at least three main
references related to the experiment conducted.
12. Appendices
This part consists detailed analysis of the experiment, which includes raw data, error
analysis of data, material physical properties, and detailed example of calculations,
figures and pictures, which are not primary but are required to explain the content of the
report.

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RAW EXPERIMENT DATA
Raw experimental data, which has to be certified by the officer in charged (supervisor or
technician on duty), should be scan and attached to the report in the appendix.

REPORT SUBMISSION AND EVALUATION

Each group is required to prepare and submit one report, one week after the experiment. A
late submission of the report will be subjected to a deduction of mark. Report has to be
printed, ring bind and hand in during next lab session.

Supervisor: Section 01: Dr Muhd Noorul Anam b Mohd Norddin

Section 02: Dr Muhd Noorul Anam b Mohd Norddin
Technician: Mr. Roslan Jas (roslanjas@utm.my)
Mr. Zulkifle Nasir (zulmansor@utm.my)

The evaluation will be as follows:

Evaluation Marks
Report
 submit within 1 week after execute  60%
experiment
 > 1 week  40%

Attendance
 Full attendance  20%
 > 3 times absent without any notices  0%
 Late  15% (10 min), 10% (15 min),
5% (20 min) and 0% (>30 min)

Peer Evaluation 20%

Total 100%

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 EXPERIMENT 1

POROSITY

Objective : To measure the porosity of rock samples.

Apparatus : Helium Porosimeter

Mercury Porosimeter
Vanier Caliper

THEORY

a) Porosity

Porosity is a measure of storage capacity of a reservoir. It is defined as the ratio of the

pore volume to bulk volume. In general, a core sample can have three types of volumes,
namely the pore volume, the grain volume, and the bulk volume. Thus, porosity can
determine from these equations:

Vp Vb  Vg Vp
Porosity   
Vb Vb Vp  Vg
(1)

where,
Vp = pore volume
Vg = grain volume
Vb = bulk volume

Porosity can be expressed in percent or fraction.

Two types of porosity may be measured: total or absolute porosity and effective
porosity. Absolute porosity is the ratio of all the pore spaces in the rock to the bulk

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 volume of the rock. Effective porosity is the ration of interconnected void spaces to
the bulk volume. Thus only the effective porosity contains fluids that can be produced
from the wells. For granular materials such as sandstone, the effective porosity may
approach the total porosity, however, for shales and for highly cemented or vugular
rocks such as some limestones, large variations may exist between effective and
absolute porosity.

Total pore volume

Absolute porosity = Bulk volume (2)

Interconnected pore volume

Effective porosity = Bulk volume (3)

Bulk Volume Measurement

There are several methods may be used to measure bulk density:

a. Determination with caliper to measure the diameter and length of core sample, and
calculate the bulk volume.
b. Determination with mercury displacement.
c. Determination with core sample immersion, and calculate the volume using Archimedes
principle.
d. Determination with total grain volume and pore volume.

Pore Volume Measurement

There are several methods may be used to measure bulk density:

a. Direct measurement using porosimeter apparatus.
b. Gravity method – core is saturated with liquid with known density.
c. By subtracting grain volume from bulk volume.

Grain Volume Measurement

There are several methods may be used to measure bulk density:

a. Direct measurement using porosimeter apparatus.
b. By using Archimedes principle.
c. By subtracting pore volume from bulk volume.

b) Grain Density

Sometime density of the grain is required in the porosity calculation, for example, in the
determination of grain volume if the weight of grain is known. Furthermore, grain density
may be also needed in the porosity calculation by density log. In equation form

Wg
g 
Vg
(4)

where,
g = grain density
Wg = grain weight
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 Vg = grain volume

HELIUM POROSIMETER

Helium porosimeter is an equipment to measure volume. It may be used to measure the grain
volume (Vg) or the pore volume (Vb) of a rock sample. It is applying the Boyle Law of gas
expansion principle.

Some quantity of helium gas with known volume (reference cell volume) as measured at an
initial pressure is let to expand isothermally to fill the cell of the unknown volume. After
expansion, the resulted pressure is recorded. How big the value of this unknown cell volume
is further calculated using Boyle’s law.

The processes are illustrated in the following figure:

Referring to above figure, some standard pressure (usually 100 psig) is applied between
source valve and core holder valve. When the core holder valve is opened, 100 psig pressure
will expand and fill the unknown volume (initial at 0 psig). When both pressures have
reached equilibrium, Boyle Law may be used to calculate the total unknown volume.

The processes are summarized as follow:

From Boyle’s law,

P1 VR P2 V P3  VR  V 
 
T1 T2 T3 (5)

where,
P1 = pressure of reference cell (core holder valve is closed), psia
P2 = pressure in the unknown volume, psia
P3 = pressure at equilibrium (core holder valve is opened), psia
VR = volume of reference cell, cm3
V = the unknown volume, cm3
T1, T2, T3 = absolute temperatures, oR or oK

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Normally, P1 = 100 psig, and P2 = 0 psig.

Eqn. 5 becomes,

 P1  B  VR  BV   P3  B   VR  V 
P1VR  BVR  BV  P3 VR  BVR  P3 V  BV

P3 V  VR  P1  P3 
P   100 
V  VR  1  1   VR   1
 P3   P3  (6)

where,
B = barometer pressure, psi
P1, P3 = pressure in psig

However, the values of VR and V are constant. Volume VR which is consist of Heise gauge
with bourdon tube will expand and shrink according to pressure changes. This is due to small
changes of volume in pipe and valve during pressure equilibrium process. It may be proofed
that:

P  P B
V  VR  1  1   3  G   100  P3 
P
 3  P3
(7)

where,
G = system expansion factor, cm3/psi

Procedures:

1. Weight the core sample, and measure the core length and diameter using Vanier caliper.

2. Connect the helium gas source at the panel with all valves are closed except the core
holder valve and exhaust valve are opened. Adjust the pointer to 0 psi.

3. Close the core holder valve, and then open the supply valve and the source valve. Adjust
the pointer of cylinder measuring gauge to 100 psi with the regulator. Slowly tap the
porosimeter so the dial reading is at 100 psi.

4. Repeat steps 2 and 3 above several times until the stable reading is achieved.

5. Insert core sample into the matrix cup, followed by the disk until both are at the same
level or slightly lower than the height of the cup, and tighten the lid up to maximum.

Note:
For 1.5 inch diameter core the height of the disk must be slightly lower than the height
of the cup to avoid it from touching the internal O ring (actually the O ring is for 1 inch
core). Otherwise, remove the internal O ring.

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6. The volumes are determined by the following steps:
a) Close the Cell 1 Valve, the Cell 2 Valve and the Core Holder Valve.
b) Open the Supply Valve and the Source Valve.
c) Adjust regulator until the dial reading shows exactly at 100 psi.
d) Close the Source Valve, followed by the Supply Valve and the Exhaust Valve.
e) Open the Core Holder Valve, and observe the movement of the dial in opposite
direction from the clockwise.
f) When the dial stops, tap the porosimeter and record the reading of the outside scale.
This is a “volume with sample” (i.e. sample volume + disk volume). Record the gauge
reading.
g) Close the Core Holder Valve so gas is released out.
h) Open Exhaust Valve so the pressure in the matrix cup becomes 0 psi.

7. Loosen up the lid and removed matrix cup from its holder. Remove the core sample but
left the disk inside and retighten the lid.

8. Repeat steps 6(a-h). Record the reading of “volume without sample” (disk volume only).

9. For bigger “unknown volume” such as between 50 cc to 450 cc, open cell 1 and repeat
steps 6 to 8.

10. For much bigger “unknown volume” such as between 150 cc to 880 cc, open cell 1 and
cell 2, and repeat steps 6 to 8.

11. Loosen up the matrix cup lid and remove it.

12. Open core sample holder valve.

13. When finish, close the gas cylinder valve.

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 EXPERIMENTAL DATA

1. Basic Data

Volume Volume
Name of Weight Length Diameter with without
Sample (gm) (cm) (cm) Sample Sample
(cc) (cc)

2. Bulk Volume, Grain Volume, Pore Volume and Porosity Data

Bulk Grain Pore Grain

Name of Volume Volume Volume Density Porosity ()
Sample (Vb) (Vgr) (Vp) gm/cc (%)
(cc) (cc) (cc)

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QUESTIONS

1. Determine the values of porosity and density for the all rock samples. What type of
porosity that you are measured?

2. Make comparison of the bulk volume of the rocks measured from mercury displacement
method and ordinary measurement method.

3. Give three reasons why helium gas is used not other gases for this experiment.

4. Is it possible for the helium porosimeter to be used for other than cylindrical core
samples, such as square or irregular shape core samples?

a) If not, explain your reasons.

b) If yes, which shape gives the most accurate porosity result

5. A core sample was taken from a well and porosity measurement was conducted. Is true
that the porosity measured in the laboratory is the same with the porosity of the sample at
the reservoir conditions?

6. What are the advantages of the porosity measurement in the laboratory as compared to
from the logging tools?

7. The porosity of the rock sample can also be determined by measurement of grain volume
method. This method requires the weight and the density of the grain. Explain the
calculation procedures, and give advantages and disadvantages of this method.

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 EXPERIMENT 2

PERMEABILITY (USING LIQUID PERMEAMETER)

Objective : To measure the absolute permeability of a rock sample using liquid

Apparatus : Liquid permeameter

Vernier caliper

THEORY

Permeability

Permeability is a measure of the ability of a porous media to permit fluid to pass through it.
For rocks, it describes the relative ease of the fluid to move through the network of pores
inside the rock.
If only one fluid is present inside the rock, the measured permeability is referred to as
“Absolute Permeability”. If more than one fluid is present, the measured permeability will be
lower and the value is now referred to as “Effective Permeability”.

Darcy’s equation

The equation used to measure rock permeability is called Darcy Equation. For a linear system
with liquid as the fluid, Darcy equation can be written as:

kA  P1  P2 
Q
L
where,
k = permeability (darcies)
A = cross sectional area of the sample (cm2)
P1 – P2 = pressure difference (atmosphere)
 = viscosity (cp)
L = length of the core (cm)
Q = flow rate (cc/sec)

Measurement of rock permeability using Liquid

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Absolute permeability is a rock property. The value can be obtained using Darcy equation.
Fluid of certain viscosity is flowed through the rock sample at certain pressure. The resulting
flow rate is measured. Based on the data, the permeability of the rock sample can be
calculated. The permeability measured using liquid flowed through the rock is the rock
permeability, so long as there is no reaction between the rock and the liquid.

Measurement of permeability

1. Measure the sample dimensions; radius and length

2. Make sure the system is connected to the gas source through a closed “valve”

3. Insert the sample which had been saturated with the liquid into the rubber stopper

4. Insert the rubber stopper containing the sample into the core holder

5. Tighten the core holder underneath the apparatus and connect to the top part. Tighten
using the handle, nether too tight, nor too loose.

7. Open by turning the discharge fill valve to fill the burette and the core holder

8. When the liquid level inside the burette has reached the uppermost mark (with a slight
extra of 1 cm), close the core holder valve

10. Slowly open the gas regulator valve and increase the pressure to 1.5 atm

11. Turn the discharge fill valve to drain the liquid from the burette into the sample

12. Use the stop watch to measure time needed for the liquid to flow from the top level to the
bottom level. Note the flow rate.

13. Calculate the permeability of the sample

15. Repeat steps 10-13 by increasing the inlet pressure to 2 atm

16. Repeat the permeability measurement (step 14) by measuring the sample permeability
from the opposite direction

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 EXPERIMENTAL DATA

L = ___________ cm

 = ___________ cp

D = ___________ cm

Test 1 Test 2 Test 3 ( Opposing

direction)

ΔP = ___________ atm ΔP = ___________ atm ΔP = ___________ atm

V = ___________ cc V = ___________ cc V = ___________ cc

T1 T2 Tavg T1 T2 Tavg T1 T2 Tavg

sec sec sec sec sec sec sec sec sec

Q = ___________ (cc/sec) Q = ___________ (cc/sec) Q = ___________ (cc/sec)

k = ___________ mD k = ___________ mD k = ___________ mD

QUESTIONS

1. Based on the experiment, is there any difference in the value of permeability among the
tests. Explain

2. Explain the sources of error that might be committed during the measurements of
permeability using liquid

4. What is the dimension for permeability, k? Show explicitly how you can obtain it. What
other units can be used for permeability?

5. If the permeability of a sandstone core is measured using salt water, and the permeability
is measured 300 md, what will be the permeability of the same core if fresh water is used
instead? Why is that so?

6. Discuss briefly what is meant by an anisotropic property of the rock permeability

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 EXPERIMENT 3

PERMEABILITY (USING GAS PERMEAMETER)

Objective : To measuring the absolute permeability of a rock sample using gas and
understanding the Klinkenberg Effect.

Apparatus : Gas permeameter

Vernier caliper

THEORY

Rock Permeability

Permeability is a measure of the ability of a porous media to permit fluid to pass through it.
For rocks, it describes the relative ease of the fluid to move through the network of pores
inside the rock.
If only one fluid is present inside the rock, the measured permeability is referred to as
“Absolute Permeability”. If more than one fluid is present, the measured permeability will be
lower and the value is now referred to as “Effective Permeability”.

Darcy Equation

The equation used to measure rock permeability is called Darcy Equation. For a linear system
with liquid as the fluid, Darcy equation can be written as:

kA  P1  P2 
Q
uL

Where,

k = permeability (darcies)
A = cross sectional area of the sample (cm2)
P1 – P2 = pressure difference (atmosphere)
u = viscosity (cp)
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L = length of the core (cm)
Q = flow rate (cc per sec)

If gas was used as the fluid, the equation used to calculate flow in porous media is as follows:

kA  P1  P2 
Q
uL
kA (P1−P 2)
Qm=
μL
or

kA ( P21 – P 22)
Qa=
μL

where
(P1+ P 2)
Qm = cc per sec at pressure Pm=
2
Qa = cc per sec at 1 atmosphere
µ = cp
L = cm
A = cm2
P = atm

1. Measuring rock permeability using gas

Permeability is a rock property. It’s value can be determined using Darcy equation by
flowing fluid through the rock at a specific pressure. The measured permeability is equal to
the permeability measured using liquid. However, if gas was used, the measured permeability
value varied depend on the type of the gas and the pressure used.

As a result, if gas was used as the fluid, the measured permeability value need to be
corrected. The correction method is known as Klinkenberg Correction. Normally the
permeability value measured using gas is greater than the value measured using liquid. This
is because, if liquid was used, the liquid velocity at the pore wall is zero. On the other hand, if
gas was used, the velocity of gas at the wall is not zero. This phenomena is known as gas
slippage.

The amount of slippage depends on flowing average gas pressure and the rock characteristics.
Mathematically the relationship between actual permeability and the measured permeability
can be shown as;

b
(
k a=k l 1+
Pm )
where

ka = permeability measured using Darcy equation with gas as the flowing fluid
kl = actual permeability, when measured using liquid
b = constant, varies according actual permeability, rock characteristics and type
of gas

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 Pm =
( P 1+ P 2)
average permeability
2

Fig. 2 shows example of various relationship different gases and average pressures for a rock
sample. A lighter gas will have bigger slope, which mean greater slippage effect. All the lines
extrapolated to 1/Pm equal to zero will meet at one point. The value of permeability at this
point is the real absolute permeability, kL, i.e. the permeability value measured using liquid.

Fig 2. Variation in gas permeability with mean pressure and type of gas.

Procedure

1. Measure the length and the diameter of the core and calculate the cross-sectional area.
Use cgs unit.
2. Put the core into the rubber stopper and then into the core holder and tighten it.
3. Adjust the variable valve to “large” position. Turn on pressure regulator slowly until
0.1 atm.
4. Record the gas flow rate (Q, cc/sec) using Flowmeter by recording the volumes at
various times
V cc
Q=
t sec

5. Repeat the procedure for pressure different of 0.2, 0.3, 0.4 and 0.5 atm, and record the
volumes and times.

Note:
a. Outlet pressure P2 is 1 atmosphere (1 atm).
b. Pressure gauge reading is the pressure different (ΔP)
( P 1 + P 2)
c. Inlet pressure P1 = Gauge reading + 1 atm
2
d. Average pressure Pm = (Pinlet + Poutlet)/2 =

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 EXPERIMENTAL DATA

Length of core sample (cm) =

Core diameter (cm) =

Viscosity of N2 , μ (cp) =

P1 (atm) P2 (atm) Pm (atm) P (atm) Q = V/t k k x 103

P inlet P outlet Pavg P = P12-P22 (cc/sec) (Darcy) (mdarcy)
Pavg

QUESTIONS:

1. Calculate mean pressures and its reciprocal (1/Pm).

2. Calculate gas permeability using appropriate equation.

3. Plot kgas versus 1/Pm

4. Determine liquid permeability (kl) = absolute permeability sample.

5. What is the dimension for permeability (k)? Show clearly the derivation of the dimension.

6. Measurement of permeability by using gas will usually give permeability value that is
different compared to the one by using liquid. Describe the reason for this phenomena.

7. Permeability of a rock sample measured using gas is given by the following equation;

kA ( P21 – P 22)
Qa=
μL

where
(P1+ P 2)
Qm = cc per sec at pressure Pm=
2
Qa = cc per sec at 1 atmosphere
µ = cp
L = cm
A = cm2
P = atm

Derive the above equation starting with generalized Darcy equation.

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 EXPERIMENT 4

KINEMATIC VISCOSITY

Objectives:

1. To determine the viscosity constants for glass capillary at different temperatures.

2. To determine the kinematic viscosity of liquids by using glass capillary at different
temperatures.
3. To determine the effect of temperature on kinematic viscosity.
4. To determine the dynamic fluid viscosity at different temperatures.

Apparatus :

a. Capillary glass viscometer

b. Bath
c. Thermometer bath
d. Stopwatch
e. Picknometer
f. Balance
g. Vacuum pump

THEORY:

Dynamic Viscosity

As a fluid moves, a shear stress is developed in it, the magnitude of which depends on the
viscosity of the fluid. Sheer stress () can be defined as the force required to slide one unit
area of a substance over another. Thus,  is a force divided by an area and can be measured in
the unit of N/m2 ( or Pa). In a fluid such as water, oil, alcohol or other common liquids the
magnitude of the shearing stress is directly proportional to the change of velocity between
different positions in the fluid.

 =  (  / y) ……………… (Equation 1)

where :

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  = sheer stress
 = change in velocity of fluid particle
y = distance traveled by the fluid particle
 = constant of proportionality, called dynamic viscosity.

For the purpose of clarity, let gives the symbol d for dynamic viscosity.

Unit System Dynamic viscosity ( d ) Units

SI System N.s/m2, Pa.s or kg/m.s
US System lb.s/ft2 or slug (ft.s)
cgs system Poise = dyne.s/cm2=g/(cm.s)=0.1 Pa.s
Centipoises = poise/100 = 0.001 Pa.s = 1.0 mPa.s

Kinematic Viscosity

Many calculations in fluid mechanics involve the ratio of the dynamic viscosity to the density
of fluid.

k = d /  ………………(Equation 2)

where :
k = kinematic viscosity
d = dynamic viscosity
 = density of fluid

Unit System Kinematik Viscosity, (k ) Units

SI system m2/s
US system ft2/s
cgs system Centistokes = stoke/100 = 1x10-6 m2/s = 1 mm2/s

The dimension for kinematik viscosity is L2/T.

Measurement of viscosities

The direct measurement of viscosity is based on the correlation,

 = R4tP/8VL ………………(Equation 3)

where:
V = volume of liquid, cc
t = flowing time, second
r = radius of capillary tube, cm
L = length of pipe, cm
P = Pressure N/cm2
 = absolute viscosity, poise
The direct measurement of absolute viscosity is difficult. For simplicity, the measurement of
viscosity normally used the same equipment and two types of liquid. Using the following
relationship:

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 1/ 2 = (1 t1) / (2 t2) ………………. (Equation 4)

where;
 = density of liquid, gm/cc
t = time taken to flow in the capillary, second
1,2 = type of liquid used

Basically the method used to measure the viscosity is by measuring the time taken for the
liquid to flow in the capillary at a given temperature.

k = c t ………………(Equation 5)

where;
c = viscometer constant, cts/s
t = time of flow, s
k = kinematic viscosity

PROCEDURES:

1. Use water as the standard liquid.

2. Use pipette to pour 10 ml of water into the capillary glass viscometer. Put the
capillary glass viscometer into the bath. Wait until the temperature of water and
instrument is equal.

3. Using a vacuum pump, suck water in the capillary glass viscometer until the water
level is about 5 mm above the level in the viscometer.

4. Measure the time taken for the water to flow from the high level to the low level
of the viscometer. If the flowing time is less than 200 seconds , repeat the test by using a
smaller capillary.
5. Repeat the above experiment at different temperatures.

6. When the kinematic viscosity, k of water is known, the viscometer constant can
then be calculated.

Determination of Kinematic Viscosity of Liquid:

The method similar as above, but now another liquid is used instead of water.

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 EXPERIMENTAL DATA

Sample Temperatures of Constant no. of Time taken to flow Kinematic

Liquid, T (oC) glass capillary from top to bottom of viscosity, k
glass capillary, (cts/s)
t (s)

QUESTIONS:

1. Write down the Poiseuille Equation.

2. Does the above equation applies to turbulent flow? Explain.

3. From Equation 3 , determine the dimension of unit poise in cgs system.

4. Why does in these experiments , the velocity of liquid must not be too
high?

5. What is the effect of temperature on kinematic viscosity. Plot kinematic

viscosities against temperatures. Explain your results.

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 EXPERIMENT 5

SMOKE POINT

Objective : To determine the smoke point of oil samples such as jet A-1 and kerosene by
burning the oil samples in an enclosed smoke point lamp so that the height of
the fire tongue can be estimated.

Apparatus : Smoke point lamp, wick, beaker, oven and graduated cylinder (refer to Fig. 1)

THEORY

Please refer ASTM D1322 for this information and other publish materials.

METHODOLOGY

1. Clean and dry the wick from impurities.

2. Soak the wick into the oil sample to be tested.

3. Insert the 125 mm soaked wick into lamp cover.

4. Fill the lamp with 20 ml oil sample. The lamp should have already cleaned and dried.

5. Screw the lamp cover to the socket. Cut wick to level with the wick guide. Pull the wick
to 6 mm above the end of the wick guide.

6. Light the wick for 5 minutes at flame height approximately 10 mm.

7. Adjust wick (extent the wick) until the flame produces smoke.

8. Reduce the length of the wick slowly until smoke disappear.

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9. Measure the maximum height of the flame tongue in mm (this is the smoke point). The
measurement should be done at point B as shown by Fig 2.

10. Repeat the experiment 3 times for each sample to get the accurate average value.

11. Use new clean and dry wick for new oil sample.

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 EXPERIMENTAL DATA

1. Measure smoke points for 2 different oil samples. Complete Table 2.

2. Calculate the average smoke points for each sample.

Sample 1 Sample 2

No. Height of flame tongue (mm) No. Height of flame tongue(mm)

Averag Averag
e e

QUESTIONS:

1. Write an explanation on the result of the measured smoke point for the 2 different
samples.

2. What are the characteristics the can be inferred from the different values of smoke points
for different samples.

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 EXPERIMENT 6

API GRAVITY

Objective : To determine the API gravity of oil by using hydrometer and pycnometer.

Apparatus : Hydrometer
Bigham Pycnometer

THEORY

Determination of density or specific gravity of petroleum liquid is important for the

calculation of volume and weight of the petroleum. For crude oil, gravity also shows the
quality of the crude oil. Further more, it is also a sign of the composition and the heat of
combustion of a particular petroleum material.

Specific gravity and API gravity

Specific gravity is defined as the ratio of a liquid density to the density of water, both
measured at the same pressure and temperature.

ρo
γ o=
ρ wo

for English unit system:

ρo = lb/cuft oil
ρw = lb/cuft water

Sometimes, specific gravity of a liquid is stated as SG at T 60 / 60 . This is to say that both

o o

density were measured at 60 oF (15.56 oC) and atmospheric pressure.

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For petroleum industry, is is also known that the unit API gravity (oAPI) is defined as
follows:

o 141.5
API = −131.5
❑
γo
with
γ o=SG at 60 o /60o

This unit is always used to state the specific gravity of stock tank oil.

Example

The density of crude oil in a stock tank at 60 oF is 50 lb/cuft. Calculate the SG and the API
gravity of the oil.

1. Calculate SG
SG = 50/62.37 = 0.8017

2. Calculate API gravity

API = 141.5/0.8017 - 131.5 = 45o

Note:
API is a national commercial institution that leads the petroleum industry in standardizing
equipments for drilling and production. It was established in 1920.

Measurement of API by using hydrometer

Apparatus

1. Hydrometer

2. Graduated cylinder
a. Cylinder must be tall enough to provide at 25 mm space between the bottom of the
floating hydrometer and the base of the cylinder.
b. The minimum diameter of the cylinder must be at least 25 mm greater than the
diameter of the bulb of the hydrometer,

3. Thermometer

4. D 1250 Petroleum Measuring Table

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Measuring principle

This method is based on the principle that a floating body in a liquid will have part if its body
submerge in the liquid. The depth of the submerged part is inversely proportional to density
or gravity of the liquid. In this principle the floating body is the API Hydrometer which is a
hydrometer with API gravity scale.

Experimental Procedure

1. Pour a sample into the graduated cylinder. Prevent any formation of bubble. Put the
hydrometer into the sample.

2. Stir the sample with the thermometer, record the thermometer reading.

3. Take out the thermometer and leave the hydrometer freely floating in the sample.
Push the hydrometer into the sample for about 2 scale unit and then release it. Wait
until the hydrometer is exactly stationary. Read the scale to the nearest 0.0001 for SG,
and to the nearest 0.5 for oAPI.

Procedure to read the hydrometer scale

a. For transparent liquid - meniscus across the liquid surface
b. For opaque liquid – above the meniscus, and use meniscus correction Table 1.

4. Record the temperature again. Calculate the average temperature. If the temperature
difference is greater than 0.5 oC from the first reading, the measurement of gravity
need to be repeated.

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 EXPERIMENTAL DATA

1. Make correction on hydrometer readings by converting the API to standard gravity (60
o
F) using Table 5 ASTM D1250
2. Report the corrected hydrometer reading as oAPI.

Determination of API Gravity

Sampl Temperature API Gravity SG Gravity API Gravity API Gravity

e of from ( 60/60 oF ) refer ASTM By
Sample oF (Hydrometer) Refer ( table 5) Calculation
ASTM
( table 3)

Determination of Density

Procedure:

1. Thoroughly clean the pycnometer and stopper with a cleaning fluid, rinse well with
distilled water. Finally rinse with acetone and dry.

2. Weight the dry pycnometer with stopper at room temperature

3. Fill the pycnometer with liquid at the same room temperature.

4. Put on the stopper and be sure there is no gas bubble inside, and then dry the exterior
surface of the pycnometer by wiping with a lint-free cloth or paper.

5. Weight the filled pycnometer.

Weight of empty Weight of pycnometer fill Volume of the liquid Density of the liquid
pycnometer (g) with the liquid (g) (cc) (gm/cc )

QUESTION

1. Other than bubble problem, state other problems encountered during the measurement
which may lead to error in the measurement.

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 EXPERIMENT 7

GAS DENSITY

Objective : To determine the density of gases.

Equipment : Schilling Effusiometer, stop watch, thermometer

Gases : Air, Nitrogen, Oxygen, Carbon Dioxide

Valve 1

Valve 2

Gaske
t

Outer Upper
cylinder mark

Measur
ing
Inner
tube
cylinde
r

Lower
mark

Cross section of Schilling Effusiometer

THEORY

Determining the density of gas relative to air at the same ambient temperature and pressure.

 gas  gas
air

Method of Measurement

This method based on the Graham Law of diffusion. This method based on the fact that the
times taken by equal volumes of gases to flow under the same conditions through a small
orifice are proportional to the square roots of the densities of gases.
 gas t gas
2

Relative density   2
 air tair
where: t = times taken by equal volumes of gases to flow (second).
Procedures:

1. Fill the outer cylinder with water at ambient temperature and open the side cock to let the

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 water enter in the measuring tube.

2. Pour water in the outer cylinder till the level arrives above the upper mark of the
measuring tube.

3. The central 3-way cock being closed, blow air through the side cock till the water reaches
the lower mark on the measuring tube.

4. Wait the few minutes to equilibrate the water and insuffled aim temperatures.

5. Open the 3-way stopcock and let high ten the water level through the calibrated orifice
from the lower to the upper mark. Take the elapsed time.

6. Repeat the test several times at the same temperature. Should the time values differ from
more than 2/5 seconds? Check the calibrated orifice eventually clean it with the help of
compressed air.

7. Calculate the average obtained value, according to the number of tests carried out.

8. Clean the measuring tube with the gas to be tested. Run several tests on the same
temperature as this one of the used air and calculate the average flow time. Repeat several
determinations with air at the same temperature after having completely blowed out the
gas. This operation serves to check the eventual presence for impurities.

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 EXPERIMENTAL DATA

Gas Time Relative density

Gas

1 2 3 Average

QUESTIONS:

1. Determine the relative density of gases. Make conclusion based on differentiation of

molecular weight of gases was used.

2. If experiment conducted at high temperature, what happen for gas flowing time and value
of gas density?

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 EXPERIMENT 8

WATER CONTENT (BY DISTILLATION)

Objective : To determine the percent of water content in oil samples

Apparatus : Dean-Stark Apparatus

Materials : Crude oil

Solvent, toluene or petroleum spirit (100 – 200 oC bp)

Fig. 1 - Dean-Stark Apparatus

Water content in any petroleum product is very important to determine the purity and safety
and also the compatibility of the product in its usage, such as being used in refinery. In this
experiment, the oil samples and an immiscible solvent in the Dean-Stark apparatus is heated
until it boils. Evaporated water and the solvent being cooled by condenser to form water and
solvent again. The water and the solvent are collected in a graduated cylinder.

Refer ASTM D95 for additional information.

Procedure

1. Measure 100 ml crude oil sample and 100 ml solvent using graduated cylinder.

2. Mix the crude oil and the solvent into the Dean-Stark apparatus.

3. Put in 5-10 glass beads into the apparatus.

4. Put the apparatus on an electric heater.

5. Use retort stand to hold the apparatus.

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6. Assemble the apparatus as in Fig 1.

7. Flow water through the condenser.

8. Heat the sample and regulate the heat such that the liquid drop is around 3 drops per
second.

9. Heat until the collected water volume does not change with time.

10. Rinse the condenser with solvent to collect the water on the inner condenser wall.

11. Take the reading of the water volume in the graduated tube water collector.

Result

Complete the data in Table 1 with experimental result and calculate the percent of water in
the test sample.

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 EXPERIMENTAL DATA

Group: Date

Sample

Collector size

Solvent type

Table 1. Measurement of Water Volume

Time (sec) Collected water volume (ml) Observation Note

Sample volume = ___________ ml

Water volume collected = ___________ ml

water volume collected

% water= ×100=¿ ______________ %
sample volume

Note:
Report the result to the nearest 0.05% if collector volume was 2 ml, and nearest to 0.15 if the
collector volume was 10 ml.

QUESTIONS

1. State two other methods to determine water content in oil.

2. Why solvent is used in this experiment.

3. List down several problems if crude oil were polluted with water.

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Appendix 1

Faculty of Chemical &

Energy Engineering

RESERVOIR ENGINEERING LAB REPORT

SESSION/SEM: ____________

Experiment no.
Title
Section
Group no.
Group members 1.
2.
3.
4.
Lecturer
Technician
Date of experiment
Date of submission
(through email*)

*Email your report to the lecturer and cc to the technician.

Petroleum Engineering Department

Universiti Teknologi Malaysia

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