LYCEUM OF THE PHILIPPINES UNIVERSITY

Cavite Campus

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING, COMPUTER STUDIES AND

ARCHITECTURE
Department of Engineering

PHYSICS FOR ENGINEERS 2

EXPERIMENT MANUAL

Aldren B. Narzoles
 INTRODUCTION

This laboratory manual contains exercises and experiments covering the topics
of oscillations and mechanical waves, thermodynamics, and electricity and magnetism.
It will give insights into the significance of the physical ideas anchored in the identified
areas through actual manipulation of apparatus and instruments, which brings students
with the methods of substantial investigation.

The prepared exercises and laboratory experiments will sustain the concepts and
principles underlying in mechanics which will also be discussed during the lecture class
and in textbook.

There are nine (9) laboratory experiments in this manual that play important roles
in the covered topics. Primarily, it will test theories and provides basis for scientific
knowledge. At times it will exhibit a new phenomenon hint or evidence for future
investigation and reference to explain. Laboratory experiments were planned according
to the understanding of the students and easily follow the sequencing of the procedures.

OBJECTIVES

Laboratory experiment is designed to:

1. Familiarize students with the fundamental principles of the course, firsthand

manipulation of apparatus, and personal application of the principles studied.

2. Train the students with the methods and thoughtful experience in experimentation,
careful observations and honest recordation of data, critical analysis, correlation, and
interpretation of experimental data.

3. Familiarize students in the use of laboratory apparatus and techniques used in

physical measurement.

4. Train students in making valid and worthwhile conclusion from the observed data.

PHYL02E 2
 GUIDE WHEN PERFORMING LABORATORY EXPERIMENT

1. Read the experiment completely beforehand and refer to the textbook for additional
information.

2. Plan the experiment with the members of the group to finish it successfully within the
specified time by the instructor/professor.

3. Bear to proportionate share of responsibilities in each member of the group when

performing the experimental procedures.

4. Check the number and condition of each laboratory apparatus before using and after
returning to the laboratory staff.

5. Each member of the group should be focused on their respective assigned task. In
case the other member/s need an assistant because to one’s expertise, do not hesitate
to help them but do not leave one’s space unattended to avoid error.

6. In case the member is absent in the scheduled experiment, the member should make
an appointment to perform it other time to the instructor/professor does not conflict to
the class and instructor’s schedule.

SOME SUGGESTIONS IN WRITING LABORATORY REPORT

1. Listen to the discussion of the instructor/professor about the experiment. He/she will
guide the class how to write the data appropriately.

2. Read the procedures again during the experiment to guide the group in the data
recording. Procedures also included guide for the calculation of values.

3. Record the data in the provided tables and spaces. Units for the measurement must
always include when indicated, and all factors influencing the results must be
considered in the report of the experiment.

4. The arithmetical computations need not to be in the report, unless required to

indicate. However, the numerical substitutions of data in a working equation must be
indicated algebraically with the proper units.

5. The observations must be concise statements indicating clearly what have observed
when the experimental procedures were carried out. Record the observation in the form
of complete sentence in so far as possible.

PHYL02E 3
6. At the end of several experiments, the group will be called upon to state the
conclusion. Read all the results with the greatest possible precision and compare the
purpose of the experiment with your observations before you attempt to draw
conclusions.

7. The questions appear at the end of the experimental data are supported to point out
other possible applications of the experiment and report other unexpected phenomena
existed while doing the procedures.

8. Non-performance and non-submission is equivalent to zero (0) on that experiment.

PHYL02E 4
 EXPERIMENT SAFETY GUIDELINES

A. General Policies
1. Refrain from eating, drinking, and littering in all engineering and physics
laboratories.
2. Stay inside the laboratory only during laboratory classes. Only officially enrolled
students are permitted inside the laboratory.
3. Stay away from the Engineering Laboratory Dispensing Room.
4. Use all laboratory fixtures properly. Do not sit on tables and do not open cabinets
or lockers unless there is an instruction to do so.
5. Turn off all electrical appliances in the laboratory if they are not being used. If you
are the last person to leave the laboratory, turn off the lights and fans, lock the
doors, and close the windows.
6. Always maintain the cleanliness of the laboratory.
7. Always observe proper safety procedures in the laboratory.
B. Laboratory Safety
1. Students are advised to read all precautionary notes on all pieces of equipment
before using them. All questions about safety precautions on the equipment
being used must be addressed to the laboratory instructor.
2. The laboratory instructor must first check the set-up for experiments requiring the
use of electrical components before any of these are plugged in or turned on.
3. In case of faulty equipment, students must inform their instructor immediately so
that a replacement can be secured from the Engineering Experiment Dispensing
Room.
4. All injuries, however minor, must be reported to the laboratory instructor.
5. In case of a minor injury, the instructor and/or the laboratory technician may
administer first aid. The student may be sent by the instructor to the university
clinic accompanied by a person designated by the instructor.
6. If the instructor and/or the laboratory technician feel they cannot administer the
proper first-aid treatment, the student must be brought to the clinic immediately, if
possible, accompanied by a laboratory technician.
C. Operating a Fire Extinguisher
In the event of fire, the flames should be extinguished with one of the extinguishers in
the laboratory and the supervisor notified immediately.

1. Hold Upright
2. Remove Safety Pin
3. Stand Back
4. Aim Nozzle at Base of Fire
5. Squeeze Lever
6. Sweep Side to Side

Do not play with this FIRE EXTINGUISHER!

PHYL02E 5
 PREPARATION

Proper preparation allows for a smoother and more efficient laboratory time. Follow
these steps before starting each lab.
1. Start with a clean workspace.
Electronic components are very small and if dropped, could be easily lost in desk
clutter. Therefore, put away papers, keyboards, mouse, clothing, etc.
2. Keep electronic parts precisely organized.
Often, parts come neatly packaged and ready for use. Do not dump all these
parts together, such as in a box. Instead, if parts come separated, try to keep
them that way.
3. Care for tools.
The quality of electronics assembly is based on personal experience and tools
used for assembly. Hence, try to keep tools in the best condition possible. When
using cutting tools, try not to cut things that the tools are not typically used for.
4. Gather all supplies.
When working on a project, double-check all supplies before starting. This
includes manuals, tools, components, pens, and paper.

ACADEMIC DISHONESTY OR MISCONDUCT

Academic dishonesty is any type of cheating that occurs in relation to
academic activities. This can also be defined as a student's use of unauthorized
assistance with intent to deceive an instructor or professor in meeting course
requirements. Such acts include, but are not limited to:
1. Cheating generally includes the possession, communication, or use of
information, and materials not authorized by the instructor/professor during an
activity and/or examination.
2. Plagiarism includes using another’s writing, ideas, or work as one’s own.
3. Fabrication or Falsification of Data or Records. This involves deliberately altering
or changing results to suit one’s needs in a laboratory experiment, reports,
examination, and/or other academic activities.
Consequences for Violations of Academic Integrity
Any of the following sanctions may be imposed to any student who is found guilty of
committing academic dishonesty during the online/flexible learning:
• A grade of 5.0 or failing grade for the subject/course.
• Suspension
• Dismissal from the University
• Expulsion

PHYL02E 6
 Lyceum of the Philippines University
College of Engineering, Computer Studies, and Architecture
Effective First Semester, AY 2021-2022

SYLLABUS

Subject Code : PHYL02E

Subject Title : PHYSICS FOR ENGINEERS 2
No. of Units : Four (4) units
Lecture Hours/Week : Three (3) hours
Laboratory Hours/Week : Three (3) hours
Prerequisite : PHYL01E

Course Description:

This is a one-semester and calculus-based course that provides students with valuable
knowledge about the principles, concepts, and application of fluids; thermal expansion, thermal
stress; calorimetry, heat transfer; oscillation, waves; electrostatics; electricity; magnetism;
optics; image formation by plane and curved mirrors; and image formation by thin lenses.

Course Outcomes:

Course Outcomes Program Objectives

After completion of the course, the student should be
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9
able to:
CO1 – Appreciate the role of science especially
physics and technology in modern life to have a x x x x x x x x x
rewarding career in the technological world.
CO2 – Understand the concepts of fluids,
temperature, heat, waves, electricity, magnetism, x x x x x x x x x
and optics.
CO3 – Solve problems involve in fluid statics and
kinematics; heat, mechanism of heat transfer, heat x x x x x x x x x
measurement; oscillations, vibrations, types of
waves; electricity; magnetism; and optics.
CO4 – Relate the principles involve in fluid statics
and kinematics; heat, mechanism of heat transfer,
heat measurement; oscillations, vibrations, types of x x x x x x x x x
waves; electricity; magnetism; and optics to real-life
situations.

PHYL02E 7
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page

Experiment 1: ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE ............................................................................... 9

Experiment 2: CONTINUITY AND FLOW RATE OF THE WATER ................................ 18

Experiment 3: SOUND LEVEL ...................................................................................... 28

Experiment 4: LINEAR EXPANSION COEFFICIENT OF METAL ................................. 37

Experiment 5: SPECIFIC HEAT OF METALS............................................................... 48

Experiment 6: LATENT HEAT OF FUSION AND VAPORIZATION ................................ 59

Experiment 7: DISCHARGE DISTANCE OF THE VAN DE GRAAFF GENERATOR …72

Experiment 8: INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF THE BATTERY ....................................... 81

Experiment 9: OHM’S LAW .......................................................................................... 89

PHYL02E 8
 EXPERIMENT 1
ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE
OBJECTIVES

At the end of the experiment, the student will be able to:

1. Determine the density of a body immersed wholly in a fluid using Archimedes’
principle
2. Understand the relation of Archimedes’ principle to pressure.

THEORY

Archimedes of Syracuse believes that when a body immersed wholly or partially

in a fluid experiences a buoyant force equal in magnitude to the weight of the volume of
fluid that is displaced.

The buoyant force can be found using the formula:

Fbouyant = W - Wapparent

where: W is the true weight (when the object is in air)

Wapparent is the apparent weight (when the object is totally
submerged in fluid)

Additionally, the weight of the displaced fluid can be found by determining the
volume of the submerged object. Then the fluid’s weight covering the object can be
found as:

W = ρgV

where: W is the weight of the displaced fluid

ρ is the density of fluid
g is the gravitational constant (9.8 m/s2)
V is the volume of the submerged object

EQUIPMENT/MATERIALS

iron ring beaker spring balance

string three (3) sample metals iron stand

PHYL02E 9
Set – up

PROCEDURE

1. Assemble the iron ring to the iron stand.

2. Connect the spring balance to the iron ring.

3. Hold the metal sample with string.

4. Use another string to connect the metal sample covered with string to the spring
balance. (Note: The string should be long enough that water poured into a beaker will
cover its mass.)

5. Read the scale on the spring balance as true mass (mass on air) of the metal
sample.

6. Fill the beaker with water about three fourths (3/4) full of water. Suspend the metal
sample from procedure 5 to the beaker until the metal sample is completely submerged.

7. Read the scale on the spring balance as apparent mass (mass in water) of the metal
sample.

8. Repeat procedures 3 to 7 for another two (2) trials.

9. Repeat procedures 3 to 8 to other two (2) metal samples.

PHYL02E 10
Formula

where: m is the true mass of the metal sample

m’ is the apparent mass of the metal sample

Density (ρ) = specific gravity x density of water

Experimental Value = Average Density

PHYL02E 11
Name : Group Number :
Section : Schedule :
Date Performed : Date Submitted :
Professor : Rating :

EXPERIMENT 1
ARCHIMEDES’ PRINCIPLE

DATA AND RESULTS

A. Density of the sample metals

Table 1
Sample Metal 1
Trial True Mass (kg) Apparent Mass (kg) Specific Gravity Density, ρ (kg/m3)
1
2
3
Average Density, ρave
Type of Metal

Experimental Value :

Accepted Value :

Percentage Error :

Space for Solution

PHYL02E 12
Table 2
Sample Metal 2
Trial True Mass (kg) Apparent Mass (kg) Specific Gravity Density, ρ (kg/m3)
1
2
3
Average Density, ρave
Type of Metal

Experimental Value :

Accepted Value :

Percentage Error :

Space for Solution

Table 3
Sample Metal 3
Trial True Mass (kg) Apparent Mass (kg) Specific Gravity Density, ρ (kg/m3)
1
2
3
Average Density, ρave
Type of Metal

PHYL02E 13
Experimental Value :

Accepted Value :

Percentage Error :

Space for Solution

B. How do you compare the density from the computed experimental value to known
accepted value of the three (3) sample metals?

C. If percentage error is evident to each sample metal or in all sample metals, how will
you explain the reason?

PHYL02E 14
D. Do Archimedes’ Principle is evident to the gathered data and computed results?
Explain your answer.

CONCLUSION

APPLICATION QUESTIONS

1. Explain the Archimedes’ Principle.

PHYL02E 15
2. What is the difference of specific gravity to density?

3. Will a cubical metal with 8 cm on each side and has a mass of 600 grams float in
water? If so, how much of its volume will be submerged?

4. Archimedes’ principle was being stated when Archimedes of Syracuse tested the
crown of King Hieron II. The crown has a mass 13.4 kg but when submerged in water,
an accurate scale reads only 12.1 kg. Is the king’s crown made of gold?

5. What is the specific gravity of the other liquid if the object placed in it has an
apparent mass of 0.0718 kg, when placed in water has an apparent mass of 0.0673 kg,
and its mass in air is 0.0832 kg?

PHYL02E 16
 REFERENCES

Loyd, D. H. (2014). Physics Laboratory Manual.4th edition. United States of America:

BROOKS/COLE Cengage Learning.

Narzoles, A. (2014). Physics 2 Laboratory Manual. Malabon City, Philippines. Mutya

Publishing House, Inc.

Serway, R. A. and Vuille, C. (2012). Physics: Fundamentals 1. Philippine Edition.

Philippines. Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ltd.

Serway, R. A. and Jewett, J. W. (2018). Physics for Scientists and Engineers. Philippine
Edition. Philippines. Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ltd.

PHYL02E 17
 EXPERIMENT 2
CONTINUITY AND FLOW RATE OF THE WATER
OBJECTIVES

At the end of the experiment, the student will be able to:

1. Appreciate the flow rate and equation of continuity using falling water in the faucet.
2. Compute the flow rate and velocity of a smooth stream of falling water decreases as
the falls a known distance.

THEORY

Continuity principle states that when the amount of water is moving into the top of
stream at any time must be same amount of water leaving the bottom of the stream for
continuous steady. This scenario can be observed in an open faucet where water is
flowing with width of the stream narrows as it falls as shown in below figure. The figure
illustrates that the speed of the water following to its streamline is dependent on its
opening area. However, the flow rate (volume of water dispense per time) does not
change.

d1 = the diameter of the stream at point 1

v1 = the velocity of the stream at point 1

d2 = the diameter of the stream at point 2

v2 = the velocity of the stream at point 2

h = the height difference between the two

points

Volume = the amount of water collected in a

time t.

Mathematically, this can also be expressed by the equation:

Flow rate, Q (Volume/time, usually m3/s) = A1v1 = A2/v2 = = constant

PHYL02E 18
 where:
A1 is the area of the stream at one point
v1 is the velocity of the stream at one point
A2 is the area of the stream at another point
v2 is the velocity of the stream at another point
is the amount of water in volume the same as the amount of the
stream at its top and bottom
is any time where the amount of volume of water is collected

For fluid flow, Bernoulli’s equation applies at all points in the stream, especially
when water speeds up its flow. On the other hand, the pressure at both points when
water flow freely in the air equals to the atmospheric pressure as it is considered open
system and so its density is the same at both points.

EQUIPMENT/MATERIALS

Vernier caliper ruler/meter stick flow rate apparatus (with extra nozzle)
1000 mL beaker timer 250 mL graduated cylinder

PROCEDURE

1. Pour water above the neck of the inverted bottle connected in the flow rate apparatus
then mark the water level.

2. Measure 250 mL water using graduated cylinder and pour into the flow rate
apparatus.

3. Get the nozzle. Determine its ends diameter where the water is entering and leaving.

4. Attach the nozzle to the end of the faucet.

5. Open the faucet of the apparatus and set the time until the water level reached the
mark. Record the time. Do it three (3) times.

6. Repeat procedures 1 to 5 for the other two (2) remaining sample nozzles. Record the
data.

Formula

For flow rate, Q

PHYL02E 19
 For A1 and A2

For v1 and v2

where: is the flow rate (in Liter/second)

is the time
is the velocity
is the wide diameter of the nozzle
is the narrow diameter of the nozzle
is the wide area of the nozzle
is the narrow area of nozzle
velocity of the water in wide diameter of the nozzle
velocity of the water in narrow diameter of the nozzle

PHYL02E 20
Name : Group Number :
Section : Schedule :
Date Performed : Date Submitted :
Professor : Rating :

EXPERIMENT 2
CONTINUITY AND FLOW RATE OF THE WATER

DATA AND RESULTS

A. Volume flow rate and velocity of water.

Table 1.a
Volume Flow Rate of Nozzle Number 1
Trial Volume (L) Time (s) Flow Rate, Q (L/s)
1
2
3
Average Flow Rate (L/s)

Space for Solution

PHYL02E 21
Table 1.b
Velocity of the Stream at Points 1 and 2 of Nozzle Number 1
Trial A1 (m2) A2 (m2) v1 (m/s) v2 (m/s)

2
3
Average

Space for Solution

Table 2.a
Volume Flow Rate of Nozzle Number 2
Trial Volume (L) Time (s) Flow Rate, Q (L/s)
1
2
3
Average Flow Rate (L/s)

Space for Solution

PHYL02E 22
Table 2.b
Velocity of the Stream at Points 1 and 2 of Nozzle Number 2
Trial A1 (m2) A2 (m2) v1 (m/s) v2 (m/s)

2
3
Average

Space for Solution

Table 3.a
Volume Flow Rate of Nozzle Number 3
Trial Volume (L) Time (s) Flow Rate, Q (L/s)
1
2
3
Average Flow Rate (L/s)

Space for Solution

PHYL02E 23
Table 3.b
Velocity of the Stream at Points 1 and 2 of Nozzle Number 3
Trial A1 (m2) A2 (m2) v1 (m/s) v2 (m/s)

2
3
Average

Space for Solution

B. Compare the velocity of the stream at point 1 to the velocity of the stream at point 2
in each nozzle.

C. Why speed in narrow diameter nozzle is faster than the wider diameter nozzle?

PHYL02E 24
CONCLUSION

APPLICATION QUESTIONS

1. Explain the concept of volume flow rate.

2. Give the four (4) behavioral conditions of ideal fluid motion.

PHYL02E 25
3. Twenty Liters of water flows in 1.3 minutes through a faucet with a diameter of 2.50
cm. (a) What is the speed of the water leaving the end of the faucet? (b) A nozzle with
one-third the diameter of the faucet is then attached to it, what now is the speed of the
water leaving the nozzle?

4. A liquid flows through horizontal pipe of varying cross section as the figure below. The
cross-sectional area in the wider section is 10.0 cm 2 and the flow speed is 275 cm/s.
While in the narrow section, the cross-sectional area is 2.50 cm2. Based on the
dimensions, what is the flow speed in the narrow section of the tube?

PHYL02E 26
 REFERENCES

Loyd, D. H. (2014). Physics Laboratory Manual.4th edition. United States of America:

BROOKS/COLE Cengage Learning.

Narzoles, A. (2014). Physics 2 Laboratory Manual. Malabon City, Philippines. Mutya

Publishing House, Inc.

Serway, R. A. and Vuille, C. (2012). Physics: Fundamentals 1. Philippine Edition.

Philippines. Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ltd.

Serway, R. A. and Jewett, J. W. (2018). Physics for Scientists and Engineers. Philippine
Edition. Philippines. Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ltd.

PHYL02E 27
 EXPERIMENT 3
SOUND LEVEL
OBJECTIVES

At the end of the experiment, the student will be able to:

1. To understand the sound intensity level or pressure level.
2. To determine the sound intensity level by using sound level meter.

INTRODUCTION AND THEORY

The sound intensity level measured in decibel (dB) can be determined by using
the formula

where (“beta”) is the symbol of sound level in decibel, is the sound intensity in
, and is sound intensity of the threshold of hearing equivalent to
. The threshold intensity is roughly an indication of the softest sound
(in vicinity of 1000 Hz) which can be heard by a person with normal hearing. The sound
intensity level provides information on how soft is the sound heard by a person.

There many mobile applications in measuring the sound intensity level in decibel.
This gives an indication of a quantity called sound pressure level (in dB). For this
experiment, and good approximation, the sound pressure level and the sound intensity
level have the same value. Thus, the value of sound pressure level in decibel can be
taken as a value of sound intensity level created by a particular sound.

The sound level meter that will use in this experiment is a mobile application
named as Decibel X: dB Sound Level Meter on the Apple Store. It provided weighting
networks referred as A and C weighting. The two (2) weighting will use to give sound
level intensity values in decibel. The A weighting strongly discriminates against low-
frequency sounds as exhibited in Figure 1. This type of weighting is frequently used in
sound level measurements because readings made with A weighting corresponds
reasonably well to the subjective impression of a person listening to the measured
sound. Like the human ear, this effectively cuts off the lower and higher frequencies that
the average person cannot hear.

On the other hand, C weighting is nearly independent of frequency from 32 Hz to

8Hz and thus gives an indication of the true (unweighted) over-all sound pressure level.
C weighting is usually used for peak measurements and in some entertainment noise
measurement, where transmission of bass noise can be a problem. See the Figure 2 for
the C weighting.

PHYL02E 28
 Figure 1. A Weighting

Figure 2. C Weighting

PHYL02E 29
EQUIPMENT/MATERIALS

Phone with downloaded Decibel X: dB Sound Level Meter

Set – up

Sound Level Intensity in “A Weighting” Sound Level Intensity in “C Weighting”

PHYL02E 30
PROCEDURE

1. Download the Decibel X: dB Sound Level Meter in your phone.

2. Open the mobile application in your phone and project on the screen the shown set-
up.

3. Measure and record the sound level pressure (SPL) produced in your chosen
different conditions (e. g. whistling, conversation, car horns, traffic, silent room). Ten
different conditions must be done and to be recorded for the purpose of this experiment

4. Use A weighting and C weighting as indicated to the set-up to measure the sound
intensity level in decibel to your chosen condition. Record all the data in Table 1 in the
data sheet that includes source of the sound, estimated distance (in meters) where the
source (sound) is coming from, SPL in decibel found in A weighting, SPL in decibel
found in C weighting, and your subjective judgments of the loudness of the sounds
(such as “very quiet”, “medium”, “loud”, “very loud”, etc.). Please cover your ears for
all sounds which could be potentially damaging.

For reference, Table 1 shows the permissible noise exposures. The noise that measures
above 115 dB(A) (“A” refers to A weighting) is automatically too high for any time over
about one second.

Table 1
Permissible Noise Exposures
Duration (hours per day) Sound Level [dB(A)]
8 90
4 95
2 100
1 105
1/2 110
1/4 115

PHYL02E 31
Table 2
Loudness of Typical Sounds
Source of Sound Sound Intensity Level (dB)
Nearby jet airplane 150
Jackhammer, machine gun 130
Siren, rock concert 120
Subway, power mower 100
Busy traffic 80
Vacuum cleaner 70
Normal conversation 50
Mosquito buzzing 40
Whisper 30
Rusting leaves 10
Threshold of hearing 0

PHYL02E 32
Name : Group Number :
Section : Schedule :
Date Performed : Date Submitted :
Professor : Rating :

EXPERIMENT 3
SOUND LEVEL

DATA AND RESULTS

A. Recording of Sound Intensity Level

Table 1
Sound Intensity Level of Different Sources (Conditions)
Estimated
Source of SPL SPL Comments on Subjective
Distance
the Sound (A Weighting) (C Weighting) Loudness
(m)

B. What difference (if any) found between the measurements of sound intensity level in
A weighting and C weighting?

PHYL02E 33
C. Why difference (if any) exists in A weighting and C weighting?

D. In ten (10) different conditions or situations encountered, what type have recorded
the highest sound intensity level? Is this situation can be hazardous based on the
reference tables in the introduction and theory?

CONCLUSION

PHYL02E 34
APPLICATION QUESTIONS

1. Define the sound intensity level.

2. What is difference between the sound intensity level to the sound intensity?

3. In a factory, the two machines are positioned with the same distance from a worker.
The intensity of the sound delivered by each operating machine at the worker’s location
is .

(a) Find the sound level heard by the worker when only one machine is operating.

(b) Find the sound level heard by the worker when the two machines are operating.

PHYL02E 35
(c) Based on the reference shown in the introduction and theory, describe the sounds
being heard by the worker when the two machines are operating.

REFERENCES

Bertulani, C. (n. d.). PreLab9 – Sound Level. Retrieved on November 24, 2011 from
http://faculty.tamuc.edu/cbertulani/music/labs/Lab9/lab9.pdf

PHYL02E 36
 EXPERIMENT 4
LINEAR EXPANSION COEFFICIENT OF METAL
OBJECTIVES

At the end of the experiment, the student will be able to:

1. Appreciate the use of thermal expansion apparatus.
2. Calculate the linear expansion coefficient of sample metals.
3. Compare the computed and theoretical values of linear expansion coefficient of the
metal samples.

THEORY

Most solids expand when they are heated. When temperature increases, change
in the separation of atoms happen. This phenomenon is called the thermal expansion.
Suppose an object changed its length from its original length due to the increased of
temperature. The fraction of changed of length is in per change in temperature known
as the linear expansion coefficient.

where is the linear expansion coefficient, is the change in length, is the

initial length, and is the change in temperature of the object. This equation can be
used in bot expansion and contraction of the material.

EQUIPMENT/MATERIALS

thermal expansion apparatus three (3) metal rod samples

steam generator steam heating pot
digital thermometer 1000 mL beaker

Set – up

PHYL02E 37
PROCEDURE

A. Instruction on using the Steam Generator

1. Switch will illuminate when the heater starts.

2. Temperature control protection switch is the temperature control knob. Heat up water
by turning the switch clockwise. The generator only works when the switch light is on
and the “No Water” indicator off.

3. The “No Water” indicator. The indicator lights up when it is not at the status of heating
or there is no water in the container.

4. The fuse reversion button. When the device is over-heated or there is no water in the
container, the fuss will trip off. Wait until the device is cool and press the button to
restart the device.

B. Operating the Steam Generator.

1. Add water and cover the lid. Connect the power and turn the switch on.

2. The “No Water” indicator show the device does not start heating. Adjust the
temperature by turning the knob clockwise. Turn the knob until the light of “No Water”
indicator is off, the generator starts to heat up water (note: its takes minutes for water to
become steam).

3. When there is no water in the container; the power automatically goes off.
- If you want to use the device after the power off, pour water into the device and
wait for five (5) to 10 minutes. When the device is cooled, press the fuse
reversion button to restart the device.
- Remember to press the fuse reversion button when you use it next time.

4. To maintain the efficiency of the device, clean the device with citric acid and water
regularly.

5. Keep sockets and switch away from water. Avoid getting water on sockets and
switches.

C. Experimental

1. In the experiment, the temperature of the pot, the steam tube and the metal rod are
very high. Wear globes or use cloth when using the device. Be careful not to burn
yourself.

PHYL02E 38
2. Measure and record the original length of the metal rod sample.

3. Fill the pot with water to eighth full. Set up the experiment.

4. Adjust the reset button so the groove of the metal rod’s end is against the dial
indicator.

5. Record the room temperature and the initial number of dial indicator. (Adjust the reset
button so the dial indicator can start from 4 mm.

6. Open the lid. Adjust the temperature knob until the switch sign is on so the pot starts
heating and generating steam.

7. You will see smoking steam after 15 minutes. Observe the thermometer and the dial
indicator.

8. When the temperature is stable (about 980C to 1000C), record the temperature and
value on the dial indicator.

9. Rest the temperature button. Replace the tube and metal rod when they are cooled.
Calculate the expansion length of the metal rod and its coefficient of linear expansion.

10. Compute for the percent error from the computed value to the accepted value
(theoretical value) of the linear expansion coefficient of the sample metal.

11. Replace the metal rod and repeat procedure 3 to 10.

12. To maintain the efficiency of the device, clean the device with citric acid and water
regularly.

13. Keep sockets and switch from water. Avoid getting water on socket and switches.

Formula

For Linear Expansion Coefficient of Sample Metal

where: – linear expansion coefficient

– Change in length
– Final Length
– Initial Length
– Change in Temperature

PHYL02E 39
 – Final Temperature
– Initial Temperature

For Percent Error

where: – Accepted Value of Linear Expansion Coefficient

– Experimental Value of Linear Expansion Coefficient

For the List of Accepted Value of Linear Expansion Coefficient of Sample Metals,

Accepted Linear Expansion Coefficient of Aluminum

Accepted Linear Expansion Coefficient of Brass

Accepted Linear Expansion Coefficient of Steel

PHYL02E 40
Name : Group Number :
Section : Schedule :
Date Performed : Date Submitted :
Professor : Rating :

EXPERIMENT 4
LINEAR EXPANSION COEFFICIENT OF METAL

DATA AND RESULTS

A. Computed Value of Linear Expansion Coefficient of Metal

Table 1.a
Linear Expansion Coefficient of Sample Metal Number 1 (Aluminum)
Initial Change in Final
Initial Length, Final Length,
Trial Temperature, Length, Temperature,

1
2
3
4
5

Table 1.b
Linear Expansion Coefficient of Sample Metal Number 1 (Aluminum)
Linear Accepted Value
Average Linear Expansion
Change in of Linear Percent
Expansion Coefficient/Experimental
Trial Temperature, Expansion Error
Coefficient, Value of Linear Expansion Coefficient,
Coefficient,

1
2
3
4
5

PHYL02E 41
Space for Solution

Table 2.a
Linear Expansion Coefficient of Sample Metal Number 2 (Brass)
Initial Change in Final
Initial Length, Final Length,
Trial Temperature, Length, Temperature,

1
2
3
4
5

PHYL02E 42
Table 2.b
Linear Expansion Coefficient of Sample Metal Number 2 (Brass)
Linear Accepted Value
Average Linear Expansion
Change in of Linear Percent
Expansion Coefficient/Experimental
Trial Temperature, Expansion Error
Coefficient, Value of Linear Expansion Coefficient,
Coefficient,

1
2
3
4
5

Space for Solution

PHYL02E 43
Table 3.a
Linear Expansion Coefficient of Sample Metal Number 3 (Steel)
Initial Change in Final
Initial Length, Final Length,
Trial Temperature, Length, Temperature,

1
2
3
4
5

Table 3.b
Linear Expansion Coefficient of Sample Metal Number 3 (Steel)
Linear Accepted Value
Average Linear Expansion
Change in of Linear Percent
Expansion Coefficient/Experimental
Trial Temperature, Expansion Error
Coefficient, Value of Linear Expansion Coefficient,
Coefficient,

1
2
3
4
5

Space for Solution

PHYL02E 44
B. What is/are the cause/s of error in the value of linear coefficient of the sample metal
(if any)?

C. What is the effect of change in temperature to the change in length of the sample
metal?

D. How effective the linear expansion apparatus in determining the linear expansion
coefficient of metal?

PHYL02E 45
CONCLUSION

APPLICATION QUESTIONS

1. What is thermal expansion?

2. Give the three types of thermal expansion and differentiate.

3. Give one (1) example in each type of thermal expansion.

PHYL02E 46
4. A 45-cm long steel has an initial temperature of 200C. What will be its change length
when at 700C temperature?

5. What do you think is the initial length of the copper rod if it is heated from 250C to
1000C, and its final length became 120 cm?

REFERENCES

Loyd, D. H. (2014). Physics Laboratory Manual.4th edition. United States of America:

BROOKS/COLE Cengage Learning.

Narzoles, A. (2014). Physics 2 Laboratory Manual. Malabon City, Philippines. Mutya

Publishing House, Inc.

Serway, R. A. and Vuille, C. (2012). Physics: Fundamentals 2. Philippine Edition.

Philippines. Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ltd.

Serway, R. A. and Jewett, J. W. (2018). Physics for Scientists and Engineers. Philippine
Edition. Philippines. Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ltd.

PHYL02E 47
 EXPERIMENT 5
SPECIFIC HEAT OF METALS
OBJECTIVES

At the end of the experiment, the student will be able to:

1. Calculate the specific heat of metals using calorimeter.
2. Comprehend the idea of thermal equilibrium.
3. Relate the mass and temperature changes of metal to its amount of heat.

THEORY

Heat is the amount of energy transfer being added to, or removed from, the total
internal energy of a body because of the temperature changes. Whereas, mass, type of
substance, and change in temperature are the factors that affect its amount. This
relationship can be expressed by the equation:

Q = mc∆T

where:
Q is the amount heat
m is the mass of the substance
c is the specific heat of the substance
∆T is the change in temperature

When heat is added to the body it increases the average molecular kinetic and
potential energies due to temperature changes. Still, this is dependent on the molecular
configurations and bonding patterns of different substances because of its specific heat.
Specific heat is the required amount of heat to change the temperature of the substance
in temperature change.

Calorimetry is one of the processes of determining the specific heat of a

substance using apparatus known as Calorimeter which is shown in the set-up. In the
system, the sample substance required energy to raise its temperature varies from one
substance to another. Specific heat measures how substance is sensitive to the
temperature change which indicates an amount of energy in form of heat.

EQUIPMENT/MATERIALS

calorimeter 500 mL beaker three (3) sample metals

thermometer steam boiler triple beam balance
string masking tape

PHYL02E 48
Set – up

PROCEDURE

1. Weigh the sample metal and record the mass. Tie this with a string then lower it into
the steam boiler for five (5) to 10 minutes. (Note: Fill the steam boiler with half-full of
water and heat to boil.)

2. While heating the sample metal, measure the mass of the inner vessel of the
calorimeter. Fill it with cold water enough to cover the volume of the sample metal being
heated. Make it sure that the water will not overflow once the sample metal is added.

3. Weigh the inner vessel with water.

4. Insert the inner vessel to the insulating shell (outer vessel) with cover.

5. Determine the temperature of water and inner vessel and record this as their initial
temperature. (Record the highest temperature that can be observed before dropping its
scale).

6. For the sample metal under heating, determine its initial temperature after five (5) to
10 minutes. Record the highest temperature that can be observed before dropping its
scale.

PHYL02E 49
7. Lift the sample metal from the boiling water by holding the knotted string on it and
hold it just above the water in the steam for water adheres to the samples metal
evaporate.

8. Immediately, fish the metal sample and place it in the inner vessel with water
protected by insulating shell and cover.

9. Stir the mixture until thermal equilibrium achieves. Record the thermal equilibrium
temperature or temperature of the mixture which will be the final temperature of the
inner vessel, water, and sample metal. (Record the lowest temperature that can be
observed before its rising scale).

10. Repeat procedures one (1) to nine (9) for another two (2) trials.

11. Repeat procedures 1 to 5 for two other sample metals.

Formula

For Heat Gained by Water

where: is the heat gained by water

is the mass of water
is the specific heat of water
is the change of temperature of water

For Heat Gained by Calorimeter (made of aluminum)

where: is the heat gained by aluminum

is the mass of aluminum
is the specific heat of aluminum
is the change of temperature of aluminum

For Heat Lost by Metal (applicable for all sample metals)

where: is the heat lost by metal

is the mass of metal
is the specific heat of metal
is the change of temperature of metal

PHYL02E 50
For the Specific Heat of Sample Metal

For mixture, a substance lost heat, while the other gained heat. Then the net
heat will be equal to zero (0).

Sample metal will lose heat, while water and calorimeter will gain heat. Thus,

Since

Then

PHYL02E 51
Name : Group Number :
Section : Schedule :
Date Performed : Date Submitted :
Professor : Rating :

EXPERIMENT 5
SPECIFIC HEAT OF METALS

DATA AND RESULTS

A. Computed Value of Specific Heat

Table 1
Specific Heat of Sample Metal Number 1
Data Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3
Mass of inner vessel calorimeter (kg)
Mass of inner vessel calorimeter with water (kg)
Mass of water (kg)
Initial temperature of calorimeter (K)
Initial temperature of water (K)
Mass of metal (kg)
Initial temperature of metal (K)
Final temperature (K)
Specific heat of water (J/kg∙K)
Specific heat of calorimeter (J/kg∙K)
Heat gained by water (J)
Heat gained by calorimeter (J)
Calculated specific heat of metal (J/kg∙K)
Average specific heat of metal (J/kg∙K)
Type of metal
Accepted value of the specific heat of metal (J/kg∙K)
Percent error in the specific heat of metal (%)

PHYL02E 52
Space for Solution

Table 2
Specific Heat of Sample Metal Number 2
Data Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3
Mass of inner vessel calorimeter (kg)
Mass of inner vessel calorimeter with water (kg)
Mass of water (kg)
Initial temperature of calorimeter (K)
Initial temperature of water (K)
Mass of metal (kg)
Initial temperature of metal (K)
Final temperature (K)
Specific heat of water (J/kg∙K)
Specific heat of calorimeter (J/kg∙K)
Heat gained by water (J)
Heat gained by calorimeter (J)
Calculated specific heat of metal (J/kg∙K)
Average specific heat of metal (J/kg∙K)
Type of metal
Accepted value of the specific heat of metal (J/kg∙K)
Percent error in the specific heat of metal (%)

PHYL02E 53
Space for Solution

Table 3
Specific Heat of Sample Metal Number 3
Data Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3
Mass of inner vessel calorimeter (kg)
Mass of inner vessel calorimeter with water (kg)
Mass of water (kg)
Initial temperature of calorimeter (K)
Initial temperature of water (K)
Mass of metal (kg)
Initial temperature of metal (K)
Final temperature (K)
Specific heat of water (J/kg∙K)
Specific heat of calorimeter (J/kg∙K)
Heat gained by water (J)
Heat gained by calorimeter (J)
Calculated specific heat of metal (J/kg∙K)
Average specific heat of metal (J/kg∙K)
Type of metal
Accepted value of the specific heat of metal (J/kg∙K)
Percent error in the specific heat of metal (%)

PHYL02E 54
Space for Solution

B. How will you compare the accepted value to the experimental value of the specific
hear of metal?

C. What is the purpose of using cold water in the inner vessel calorimeter instead of
warm water?

PHYL02E 55
D. Why it is necessary to the sample metal to let it dry before placing into inner vessel
calorimeter with water?

CONCLUSION

APPLICATION QUESTIONS

1. Why majority of utensils are made of metal?

PHYL02E 56
2. Is specific heat of metal can be determined by placing it to the ice temperature
instead of heating it to the steam boiler?

3. How much heat must be added to raise the temperature of the aluminum container
with water placed on stove having a mass of 1.5 kg and 4.5 kg, respectively from 300C
to 1000C?

4. A combination of 0.250 kg of water at and 0.400 kg of aluminum at is

mixed in an insulated container and allowed to come to thermal equilibrium. Ignore any
energy transfer to or from the container. What is the final temperature of the water and
aluminum?

PHYL02E 57
 REFERENCES

Loyd, D. H. (2014). Physics Laboratory Manual.4th edition. United States of America:

BROOKS/COLE Cengage Learning.

Narzoles, A. (2014). Physics 2 Laboratory Manual. Malabon City, Philippines. Mutya

Publishing House, Inc.

Serway, R. A. and Vuille, C. (2012). Physics: Fundamentals 1. Philippine Edition.

Philippines. Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ltd.

Serway, R. A. and Jewett, J. W. (2018). Physics for Scientists and Engineers. Philippine
Edition. Philippines. Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ltd.

PHYL02E 58
 EXPERIMENT 6
LATENT HEAT OF FUSION AND VAPORIZATION
OBJECTIVES

At the end of the experiment, the student will be able to:

1. Calculate the latent heat of fusion and vaporization of water using calorimeter.
2. Compare the computed to the accepted value of the latent heat of fusion and
vaporization of water.

THEORY

Matter has three (3) approximate phases such as solid, liquid, and gas. These
phases vary according to the temperature of the substance due to the amount of heat
being added or removed. However, when heat is added or removed during the phase
change, the temperature does not change. Like latent heat of fusion, this is the amount
of heat required to change the phase solid to liquid without changing the temperature of
the substance. Likewise, latent heat of vaporization is the amount of heat required to
change the phase liquid to gas of the substance. This is because during the phase
change, the heat breaks the force of attraction and separates molecules of the
substance instead of increasing its temperature. This definition can be expressed by the
equation:

where:
Lf – is the latent heat of fusion
Lv – is the latent heat of vaporization
m – is the mass of the substance
Q – is the amount of heat of the substance

Supposed an ice at initial temperature of less that 0 0C and we want to increase

its temperature to greater than 1000C. Five (5) types of amounts of heat will be needed
to satisfy this occurrence. This includes the heat required ton increase its temperature
from less than zero temperature to 00C, the amount of heat required to change its
phase from being solid to liquid in which no temperature change is necessary, the
amount of heat required to raise the temperature from 0 0C to 1000C in which the ice
becomes liquid form, the amount of heat required to change the phase of the melted ice
to steam (gas phase) in which no change of temperature is necessary, and lastly, the
amount of heat required to increase the temperature of the steam to more than 100 0C.

PHYL02E 59
EQUIPMENT/MATERIALS

calorimeter 500 mL beaker 1000 mL beaker

thermometer steam boiler triple beam balance
rubber tubing masking tape ice
glass tubing

Set – up

For Latent Heat of Fusion

For Latent Heat of Vaporization

PHYL02E 60
PROCEDURE

A. Latent Heat of Fusion

1. Weigh the inner vessel of the calorimeter then add water and reweigh.

2. Insert the inner vessel calorimeter into its shell then cover.

3. Determine initial temperature of the inner vessel calorimeter and water.

4. Grab two or three ice cubes then remove the adhering water by wiping it with towel
and transfer it to the inner cup calorimeter containing water carefully.

5. Stir the mixture until thermal equilibrium achieves and record this as the final
temperature of the melted ice, inner vessel calorimeter, and water.

6. Remove the inner vessel calorimeter from its shell and determine the mass of the
mixture.

7. Repeat the procedures for another 2 more trials.

B. Latent Heat of Vaporization

1. Set-up the steam boiler (see Figure 2). Heat the steam boiler with half-filled of water.

2. While heating the water, determine the mass of the inner vessel calorimeter. Add
water half-fill of it then reweigh and place it back inserted on its shell with cover.
Measure the temperature of the inner vessel calorimeter and water.

3. Set-up the apparatus as seen in Figure 2 to transfer steam from boiler to calorimeter.

4. Measure the temperature of the steam in the boiler while it is transferring to the
calorimeter.

5. When an amount of steam is being collected, remove the tube connected to the
calorimeter. Mix the mixture until thermal equilibrium achieves. Record this as the final
temperature of the inner vessel calorimeter, condensed steam, and water.

6. Remove the inner vessel calorimeter from its shell and determine the mass of the
mixture.

7. Repeat the procedures for another 2 more trials.

PHYL02E 61
Formula

For Latent Heat of Fusion

Heat lost by water

where: is the heat lost by water

is the mass of water
is the specific heat of water
is the change of temperature of water

Heat lost by calorimeter (made up of aluminum)

where: is the heat lost by aluminum

is the mass of aluminum
is the specific heat of aluminum
is the change of temperature of aluminum

Heat of ice (to change the temperature to 00C)

where: is the heat of ice

is the mass of ice
is the specific heat of ice
is the change of temperature of ice

Heat of melted ice (due to gained heat)

where: is the heat gained by ice

is the mass of ice
is the specific heat of the melted ice
is the change of temperature of the melted ice

PHYL02E 62
 Latent heat of fusion of ice

where: is the heat of fusion of ice

is the mass of ice
is the latent heat of fusion of ice (to be computed)

Calculating the heat of fusion of ice

For Latent Heat of Vaporization

Heat gained by water

where: is the heat gained by water

is the mass of water
is the specific heat of water
is the change of temperature of water

Heat gained by calorimeter (made up of aluminum)

where: is the heat gained by aluminum

is the mass of aluminum
is the specific heat of aluminum
is the change of temperature of aluminum

PHYL02E 63
 Heat lost by steam (to change the temperature to 1000C)

where: is the heat lost by steam

is the mass of collected steam
is the specific heat of steam
is the change of temperature of steam

Heat lost by condensed steam

where: is the heat lost by steam (condensed)

is the mass of steam (condensed)
is the specific heat of condensed steam
is the change of temperature of condensed steam

Latent heat of vaporization of steam

where: is the heat of vaporization of steam

is the mass of steam
is the latent heat of vaporization of steam (to be computed)

Calculating the heat of vaporization of steam

PHYL02E 64
For Percent Error

Percent Error in the latent heat of fusion of ice

where: – Accepted value of the latent heat of fusion of ice

– Experimental value of the latent heat of fusion of ice (the

computed average latent heat of fusion of ice)

Percent Error in the latent heat of fusion of ice

where: – Accepted value of the latent heat of vaporization of steam

– Experimental value of latent heat of vaporization of steam (the

computed average latent heat of vaporization of steam)

PHYL02E 65
Name : Group Number :
Section : Schedule :
Date Performed : Date Submitted :
Professor : Rating :

EXPERIMENT 6
LATENT HEAT OF FUSION AND VAPORIZATION

DATA AND RESULTS

A. Computed Value of Latent Heat of Fusion of Ice

Table 1
Latent Heat of Fusion of Ice
Data Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3
Mass of inner vessel calorimeter
(kg)
Mass of inner vessel calorimeter
with water (kg)
Mass of water (kg)
Initial temperature of calorimeter (K)
Initial temperature of water (K)
Initial temperature of ice (K)
Final temperature (K)
Mass of ice (kg)
Specific heat of water (J/kg∙K)
Specific heat of calorimeter (J/kg∙K)
Specific heat of ice (J/kg∙K)
Heat lost by water (J)
Heat lost by calorimeter (J)
Heat gained by melted ice (J)
Calculated latent heat of fusion of
ice (J/kg)
Average latent heat of fusion of ice
(J/kg)

PHYL02E 66
Accepted value of the latent heat of
fusion of ice (J/kg)
Percent Error (%)

Space for Solution

PHYL02E 67
B. Computed Value of Latent Heat of Vaporization of Steam

Table 1
Latent Heat of Vaporization of Steam
Data Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3
Mass of inner vessel calorimeter
(kg)
Mass of inner vessel calorimeter
with water (kg)
Mass of water (kg)
Initial temperature of calorimeter (K)
Initial temperature of water (K)
Initial temperature of steam (K)
Final temperature (K)
Mass of steam (kg)
Specific heat of water (J/kg∙K)
Specific heat of calorimeter (J/kg∙K)
Specific heat of steam (J/kg∙K)
Heat gained by water (J)
Heat gained by calorimeter (J)
Heat lost by condensed steam (J)
Calculated latent heat of
vaporization of steam (J/kg)
Average latent heat of vaporization
of steam (J/kg)
Accepted value of the latent heat of
vaporization of steam (J/kg)
Percent Error (%)

Space for Solution

PHYL02E 68
C. How do you compare the experimental value to the accepted value of the latent heat
of fusion of ice?

D. How do you compare the experimental value to the accepted value of the latent heat
of vaporization of steam?

PHYL02E 69
E. Explain the transition of phase from solid to liquid and gas to liquid?

CONCLUSION

APPLICATION QUESTIONS

1. Compare the burn caused by 5 grams of steam at 1000C and 5 grams of water at
1000C.

PHYL02E 70
2. How much heat in Joule (J) is required to raise the temperature of 5-g of ice from -
20C to 1020C?

3. How much heat in Joule must be removed from an ice cube tray made of aluminum
with a mass of 0.20 kg contains 0.30 kg water at 250C to freeze it at 00C?

REFERENCES

Loyd, D. H. (2014). Physics Laboratory Manual.4th edition. United States of America:

BROOKS/COLE Cengage Learning.

Narzoles, A. (2014). Physics 2 Laboratory Manual. Malabon City, Philippines. Mutya

Publishing House, Inc.

Serway, R. A. and Vuille, C. (2012). Physics: Fundamentals 1. Philippine Edition.

Philippines. Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ltd.

Serway, R. A. and Jewett, J. W. (2018). Physics for Scientists and Engineers. Philippine
Edition. Philippines. Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ltd.

PHYL02E 71
 EXPERIMENT 7
DISCHARGE DISTANCE OF THE VAN DE GRAAFF GENERATOR
OBJECTIVES

At the end of the experiment, the student will be able to:

1. Understand the conservation of charge using Van de Graaff generator.
2. Find the relationship between the speed of the belt and the maximum discharge
distance (spark length).

THEORY

The relationship of the speed built, and the maximum distance is a power law
relationship with exponent of less than one. The graph of maximum distance versus
speed is predicted to be something like the curve as the spark will travel further
in the air and require a lot more energy to break the electric break down field of air and
ionize the electrons of air atoms. The graph will start at the origin due to the motor not
running is impossible to produce discharge. The graph will have a fracture because for
a spark to occur the potential gradient or force on is sufficient to both ionize the air
molecule, and to establish a path for a current to flow through. To achieve dielectric
break down in the air, the electric field reach . The relationship between the
electric field, the potential difference, and the distance corresponds to:

The potential difference equation where is constant (known as Coulomb’s

constant), is the total charge, is the distance, and is the radius of the outer
terminal which remains constant is:

Then

Since . Thus, this equation will determine the length of the spark.

PHYL02E 72
 The equation shows that the is directly proportional to the to the total charge on
the outer terminal. The relationship between the total charge and the sped of the belt is
predicted to be a fractional power law as their leakage of charges. It is believed that the
leakage rate will increase as the speed of the belt increases. Then it is expected that
the relation between the speed of the belt and will be that of a fractional power law.

EQUIPMENT/MATERIALS

Van de Graaff generator black marker pen discharge wand

ruler timer

PROCEDURE

1. Draw five (5) small dots on the belt of the generator using the black marker pen (or
try to determine the reappearance of one dot drawn on the belt on the mark outside the
glass five times using slow-motion camera)

2. Record the Van de Graaff generator and its moving belt.

3. Let the generator run for 30 seconds before moving the discharge wand to the dome
sphere until a spark sound heard.

4. Measure the distance of the wand and sphere using ruler.

5. Move away the wand and let the generator recharge to equilibrium for 30 minutes
until the next trail began.

6. Test five different belts speeds with three trials each. (Change the speed of the belt
by turning the dial).

Formula

For the number of cycles taken for the first dot to re appear at the place is:

The excess distance of the cycle is calculated by setting the scale and measuring the
distance. Approximately 9.35 percent of total distance of one cycle.

PHYL02E 73
The distance of 1 cycle is calculated by using:

The time take for the dot to reappear very close to the first dot is the highest minus the
lowest of the five dots. In alternative, use the slow-mo camera to determine the
reappearance of one (1) dot drawn on the rubber on the mark outside the glass five
times. Then, find its average.

PHYL02E 74
Name : Group Number :
Section : Schedule :
Date Performed : Date Submitted :
Professor : Rating :

EXPERIMENT 7
DISCHARGE DISTANCE OF THE VAN DE GRAAFF GENERATOR

DATA AND RESULTS

A. Speed of the Belt and the Distance of the Spark Discharge

Table 1
Speed of the Belt
Time ( 0.01) sec
Dot/Reappearance of Dot
Time 1 Time 2 Time 3 Time 4 Time 5
1
2
3
4
5
Excess Distance
Distance of one Cycle
Number of Cycles
Time (for the dot to reappear
very close to the first dot or
average time where the dot
reappears)
Speed of the Belt

Space for Solution

PHYL02E 75
Table 2
Distance and Average Distance of the Spark Discharge when the Generator Belt Moved
at Different Speeds.
Speed of the Belt ( 0.1) in Maximum Spark Length Average Maximum
cycles per second ( 0.1) in cm Distance ( 0.3) in cm

PHYL02E 76
Space for Solution

B. Use the Grid to Graph the Average Maximum Discharge Distance vs. Speed of the
Belt.

PHYL02E 77
C. Based on the graph in letter C, how will you describe the relationship of the
maximum discharge distance to the speed of the belt?

D. Explain the theory behind the relationship of maximum discharge distance and the
speed of the belt.

CONCLUSION

PHYL02E 78
APPLICATION QUESTIONS

1. Explain the electrostatic charging.

2. Define electrostatic field. How electrostatic field is being related to the electrostatic
force?

3. Determine the magnitude of the force between the proton and electron with distance
of 1 mm.

4. Two charges, and are 100 mm apart. Find the location where
the electric field is equal to zero.

PHYL02E 79
5. Given the figure, find the magnitude and direction of the electric field halfway of
and

REFERENCES

Loyd, D. H. (2014). Physics Laboratory Manual.4th edition. United States of America:

BROOKS/COLE Cengage Learning.

Narzoles, A. (2014). Physics 2 Laboratory Manual. Malabon City, Philippines. Mutya

Publishing House, Inc.

Serway, R. A. and Vuille, C. (2012). Physics: Fundamentals 1. Philippine Edition.

Philippines. Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ltd.

Serway, R. A. and Jewett, J. W. (2018). Physics for Scientists and Engineers. Philippine
Edition. Philippines. Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ltd.

PHYL02E 80
 EXPERIMENT 8
INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF THE BATTERY
OBJECTIVES

At the end of the experiment, the student will be able to:

1. Understand the internal resistance of the battery.
2. Determine the internal resistance of the battery.

THEORY

Generally, battery is either a source of electromotive force or a source of emf.

This emf is the maximum possible voltage the battery can provide between its terminals
with a constant current magnitude and direction known as direct current. This because
of the constant potential difference in the battery terminals in a particular circuit.

Battery is made of matter with a resistance to the flow charge within known as
internal resistance r. For real battery the terminal voltage is not equal to the emf for a
battery in a circuit in which there is a current.

Consider the figure above showing a circuit diagram of a source of emf (in this
case, a battery), of internal resistance r, connected to an external resistor of resistance
and graphical representation showing how the electric potential changes as the circuit
traversed clockwise. The resistor of resistance is connected across the terminals of
the battery. Moving through a battery from to and measuring the electrical potential
at various locations. Passing from the negative terminal to the positive terminal, the
potential increases by an amount of emf. Moving through the resistance , the potential

PHYL02E 81
decreases by an amount where is the current in the circuit. Then, the terminal
voltage of the battery will

Solving the

EQUIPMENT/MATERIALS

9 volts alkaline battery 2 multimeter 5 different resistors 4 alligator clips

Note: Though the internal resistance may be or appear low, around 0.1 for an AA alkaline battery, and
about 1 to 2 for a 9-volt alkaline battery, it can cause a noticeable drop in output voltage if a low-
resistance load is attached to it.

PROCEDURE

1. Measure the resistance of the resistor using multimeter. Check if the resistance falls
within the tolerance.

2. Set up the circuit contains battery series with a resistor.

3. Measure the potential difference across the load and current in the circuit
simultaneously. Make it sure that the first reading in the multimeter measuring the
potential difference is the also the first reading in the multimeter measuring the current.

4. Record the reading for the potential difference and current in the circuit.

5. Repeat steps 1 to 4 for the remaining 4 resistors.

Formula

For Internal Resistance

Where: – is the internal resistance

– is the current in the circuit
– potential difference in the circuit
– electromotive force of the battery

PHYL02E 82
 Magnitude of

Plotting versus , the data will establish a relationship yielding to the value of and
of the battery.

PHYL02E 83
Name : Group Number :
Section : Schedule :
Date Performed : Date Submitted :
Professor : Rating :

EXPERIMENT 8
INTERNAL RESISTANCE OF THE BATTERY

DATA AND RESULTS

A. Potential Difference and Current at Difference Resistance

Table 1
Potential Difference and Current
Potential Difference Internal
Resistor Resistance , Current ,
Resistance ,
1
2
3
4
5
Average Internal Resistance , *
Note: * - The average internal resistance will be the value of to compare with the value of computed
graphically.

Space for Solution

PHYL02E 84
B. Use the grid to graph versus and use the features in determining the and by
choosing two (2) points in the established linear equation in the slope-intercept form.

C. Do data create a perfect straight line? If not, why? What do you think is/are the
error/s?

PHYL02E 85
D. Compute the difference in the computed value of internal resistance from the table
and graph.

CONCLUSION

APPLICATION QUESTIONS

1. What is the internal resistance of the battery?

PHYL02E 86
2. Explain the difference of the electromotive force and terminal voltage of the battery.

3. What is the internal resistance of a battery with an emf value of 12 volts and potential
difference across its terminals of 10 volts when a current 4.0 A is flowing through the
battery when connected in a circuit?

4. Find the current in the circuit and the terminal voltage of the battery if it has an emf of
12 volts and an internal resistance of 0.050 connected to the external load resistance
of 3.00 .

PHYL02E 87
 REFERENCES

Loyd, D. H. (2014). Physics Laboratory Manual.4th edition. United States of America:

BROOKS/COLE Cengage Learning.

Narzoles, A. (2014). Physics 2 Laboratory Manual. Malabon City, Philippines. Mutya

Publishing House, Inc.

Serway, R. A. and Vuille, C. (2012). Physics: Fundamentals 1. Philippine Edition.

Philippines. Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ltd.

Serway, R. A. and Jewett, J. W. (2018). Physics for Scientists and Engineers. Philippine
Edition. Philippines. Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ltd.

PHYL02E 88
 EXPERIMENT 9
OHM’S LAW
OBJECTIVES

At the end of the experiment, the student will be able to:

1. Apply the Ohm’s Law using simple circuit.
2. Evaluate the resistance using different voltage sources.
3. Measure the potential difference with fixed resistance.

THEORY

Ohm’s law determines the relationship between current and voltage. This can be
expressed using the formula , where R is the resistance, V is for voltage applied
across an object, and I for current produced. The formula also implies that the
resistance of an object is directly proportional to the voltage and inversely proportional
to the current. Thus, if the measure of the resistance increases, the measure of voltage
increases and current decreases.

EQUIPMENT/MATERIALS

battery ammeter 5 pcs of resistors (with different resistance)

potentiometer multi tester/voltmeter connecting wires (or alligator clips)
switch

Set-up

potentiometer

connecting
wire
+
switch
ammeter A
-
resistor

voltmeter/ V
multi tester + -

Figure 1. Circuit diagram

PHYL02E 89
Note: Set-up the apparatus as shown in Figure 1.

A. For constant resistance in various currents with voltage

1. Adjust the potentiometer to change the voltage of the set-up apparatus.

2. Record the reading on the ammeter and voltmeter for current and voltage drop,
respectively.

3. Repeat the procedure for four (4) more trials.

B. For constant voltage in various currents with resistance.

1. Prepare five (5) different values of resistors and measure their respective resistance
using multi tester.

2. Connect the resistor as in Figure 1 with constant voltage and record the reading on
the ammeter

3. Repeat the procedure to other four (4) remaining resistors.

Guide for Calculations:

For Resistance

For Potential Drop or Voltage Drop

PHYL02E 90
Name : Group Number :
Section : Schedule :
Date Performed : Date Submitted :
Professor : Rating :

EXPERIMENT 9
OHM’S LAW

DATA AND RESULTS

A. Compute the average resistance and potential difference using the recorded data.

Table 1
Constant Resistance in Various Currents with Voltage
Constant value of resistance or resistor, R (in Ω)
Trial Potential, V (in voltage) Current, I (in ampere) Resistance, R (in Ω)
1
2
3
4
5
Average Resistance, R (in Ω)

Space for Solution

PHYL02E 91
Table 2
Constant Voltage in Various Currents with Resistance
Constant value of potential, R (in Voltage)
Trial Resistance, R (in Ω) Current, I (in Ampere) Potential, V (in Voltage)
1
2
3
4
5
Average Voltage, V (in Voltage)

Space for Solution

PHYL02E 92
B. Plot the voltage (y-axis) versus current (x-axis) from Table 1 then analyze the shape
of the graph.

C. Calculate the reciprocal of the resistance used in Table 2.

PHYL02E 93
D. Plot the current (y-axis) versus the reciprocal of resistance (x) in Table 2 then analyze
the shape of the graph.

CONCLUSION

PHYL02E 94
APPLICATION QUESTIONS

1. When will you say that a circuit element obeys Ohm’s law?

2. What is the resistance of the resistor in a series circuit if the ammeter reads 0.6
Ampere from 9.0 Volts potential?

3. What is the potential difference across each resistor connected in series with
resistances of 25.0 Ω and 50.0 Ω if the current passing through the circuit is 0.35 mA?

PHYL02E 95
 REFERENCES

Narzoles, A. (2014). Physics 2 Laboratory Manual. Malabon City, Philippines. Mutya

Publishing House, Inc.

Serway, R. A. and Vuille, C. (2012). Physics: Fundamentals 1. Philippine Edition.

Philippines. Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ltd.

Serway, R. A. and Jewett, J. W. (2018). Physics for Scientists and Engineers. Philippine
Edition. Philippines. Cengage Learning Asia Pte Ltd.

PHYL02E 96
 ABOUT THE AUTHOR

He earned his Master of Arts in Mathematics at De La Salle

University-Dasmariñas. He graduated with a Bachelor of
Applied Science major in Laboratory Technology at the
Technological University-Manila. He also completed his
Continuous Program for Teacher Education at the same
university.

Currently, he is taking his Doctor of Philosophy in

Mathematics Education at Centro Escolar University-
Manila. He is also a full-time faculty member at the Lyceum
of the Philippines University-Cavite, teaching Mathematics
and Physics under the College of Engineering and Computer Studies.

He enjoys the challenges of art to educate as he seeks a deep understanding and

knowledge from his chosen profession.
Email Address: aldren.narzoles@lpu.edu.ph

PHYL02E 97