Low Temperature Solar Collector and Thermal Energy

Storage
Behzad Noori, Islamic Azad Uni. Science & Research Branch
Arash Miraali Hosseinieh, Islamic Azad Uni. Science & Research Branch
Hossein Talebi, Islamic Azad Uni. Science & Research Branch

Abstract
As a result of fossil fuels consumption, the associated pollution for
obtaining energy from such sources has introduced a number of damaging
consequences that are facing both environment and humanity which make
governments, organizations and professionals to widen horizons about the
sustainable and renewable sources of energy to reduce mentioned global
impacts. in this way Energy Storages Systems (ESS) play a prominent role owing
to intermittency of the Renewable Energy Sources(RES), in this essay the
authors’ aim is to introduce that part of those technologies which mostly are
considered as the low-temperature, but to keep it more limited and suitable for
readers does not cover all of them in the one hand, and does not involve by
complicated equations as all target society of this study maybe does not familiar
to scientific rituals, so a simple and abbreviated language has been used to make
this technological area more simple for readers from various professions and
even individuals among households and introduce those of this technologies
which is related more to the Solar Energy collectors.
Highlights:(Tian and Zhao 2013)
1- Latest development in solar thermal applications
2- Various types of solar collectors
3- Thermal energy storage approaches and systems
4- Flat plate low temperature solar collectors are focused
5- Related Energy storage methods are discussed
Introduction
In Europe approximately 70% of installed Solar Plates are the flat collector
type, and in worldwide, according to studies upon this subject, about 400 large
scale solar systems were installed by the end of 2019 which were able to
produce more than 350 kW in an area of 500 square meters.(Unterberger,
Lichtenegger et al. 2021)
An integral part of any renewable energy system owing to their
intermittency is to store collected energy to be able to be used when the energy
is not collected, in the case of solar panels it is of high importance to design a
proper efficient energy storage system to response to energy needs. There are
a number of key factors while a STES (Solar Thermal Energy Storage) is designing
to gain its productivity.(Unterberger, Lichtenegger et al. 2021)

Fig.1-Earth energy budget

During ages humans were benefitting from solar energy to benefit from
warmth produced by the sun to prevent themselves of coldness and even use
this natural source of energy for doing some daily rituals like drying their cloths.
The Primary usage of energy was to make fire from wood. However, when
awareness of nature raised for using and offsetting needs of energy, a number
of energy sources were experienced and used.

Nowadays as a result of damaging consequences of fossil fuel and other

type of harmful sources of energy to the environment a decarburization
movement in all sectors of society is needed to reduce the trace of climate
collapse. A General and huge change is required to move to a post-carbon
society in the rapidest way.(Shaqsi, Sopian et al. 2020)

According to IEA (International Energy Agency) related approaches in

technological areas are an important subject for the energy-efficient of systems.
In this way, it emphasizes that energy storage evolution is a prominent area
which needs scientific explorations. Seasonal Storages are STESs, solar-thermal
energy storage, within phase-change materials depends on extra high thermal-
conductivity fillers to develop the rate of thermal-diffusion-based charging,
which often leads to reduced improvement of charging speed and lost energy
storage capacity.(Boer, Segarra et al. 2020),(Wang, Tong et al. 2017)

Although the sustainable energy for the transportation can be considered

as a serious infrastructure in this area but after that the residential sector is the
second large energy consumption area in the EU, which in final energy
consumption it is about 26%.(Villasmil, Troxler et al. 2021)

Energy storage systems which can be from either electrochemical energy

storages, Mechanical Energy Storages or Thermal Energy Storages technologies
involves with a vast range of energies, technologies, scales and usages. Energy
may be converted to storable form for any kind of mentioned technologies. It
can change to a form of energy for final use straight, for example when heat is
taken from a thermal energy store, or secondarily via an energy changing in
system, for instance in the case that electricity is generated via the turbine
generator of a pumped hydro storage system.(Baker 2008)

In this area electrical energy is a commodity which is obtainable owing to

its several ways of production like Renewables and Non-Renewable sources and
at a cheap cost in most cases.(Ibrahim, Ilinca et al. 2008)

As the re-application of waste heat is a considerable subject of study

specifically in EES, Energy Storage Systems, so application of phase change
materials (PCMs) like other possible technologies in the thermal energy storage
(TES) to utilize waste heat for space heating and cooling and other areas of
consumption have been extensively increasing in recent years. (Lin and Al-
Kayiem 2016)

1. Solar collectors
Solar collector is a type of energy exchanger, converts solar irradiation to
thermal energy or electrical energy, thermal energy can provide domestic hot
water, or charge a thermal energy storage tank.(Tian and Zhao 2013)
 Solar Thermal collectors are divided into various groups in designing and
utilization, each one may be used to perform in a particular area. A classification
of solar thermal collectors is shown in fig.2.(Gorjian, Ebadi et al. 2020)
Key characteristics:
Optical optimization
Heat loss reduction
Heat recuperation enhancement
Sun tracking mechanisms
Desirable properties:
Good optical performance, and absorbing as much heat as possible(Tian
and Zhao 2013)

Fig.2-the classification of solar thermal collectors

Here we will categorize and briefly discuss solar collectors in two common types:
- High temperature solar collectors
- Low temperature solar collectors
1.1. High temperature solar collectors (concentrating collectors):(Tian
and Zhao 2013)
These types generally have reflecting concave surface to focus the
light beams to a smaller area to increase heat flux to achieve higher. They
are mostly discussed by their thermodynamic efficiency, higher
temperatures of working fluids, and usually equipped with sun-tracking
modules.
Heliostat Field Collectors:
Also known as Central Receiver Collector, a number of mirrors
concentrate the sun light to a specific tower, the orientation of
every heliostat during the day is precisely adjusted using an
automatic control system, in the center of the tower there is a
fluid coil which is used to produce steam of water, or other fluids
with known usages. They have two types: external type and
cavity type.
There are three considerations in the design of receiver: 1st and the
most significant restriction is the overheating of the receiver fluid
inside the walls and the walls. 2nd is the controlling of
temperature gradients among the panels, and 3rd is the daily
thermal cycling of the receiver pipes.
Parabolic Dish Collectors:
A set of concave mirrors which are located to the common focal point
of the mirrors. There is a small engine attached to the receiver to
generate electricity using the fluid that is warmed to the
desirable temperature and pressure.
Merits: high optical efficiency, low start-up losses, good modularity to
easily scale up in remote areas.
Disadvantage: need three dimensional tracking that makes tracking
system complicated.
Parabolic trough collectors:
Concentration rate is around 40, the focal line temperature could be up
to 400 degrees Celsius. Designing pivotal element is the parabolic
mirrors which can reflect the sun beam to their focal line and a
black metal mounted in the focal line covered with special glass to
reduce heat loss and absorbs the heat.
They are installed in to directions, north-south, and east-west. Tracking
axis systems can collect up to 46% more solar energy.
 Benefits: scalability in mounting mirrors, need only two dimensional
tracking that makes them more accurate tracking than dish
collectors.
1.2. Low temperature solar collectors (non-concentrating
collectors):(Tian and Zhao 2013)
Flat plate collectors:
Fixed in position, have a multi-layer structure including glazing cover,
absorber plates, insulation layers, recuperating tubes. Adding a
Teflon film or net could increase the performance.
Blackened to increase the radiation absorption,
Upper thin layers absorb short wave radiation and is transparent to
long wave ones.
There is a lower reflective layer.
These panels usually have high manufacturing costs,
Heat-transfer performance in a necessity due to prevent system over-
heating. (Oscillating flows, fins, and porous materials improved
heat-transfer rate)

Fig.3 Schematic view of FPCs: (a) conventional Design (b) Simple unglazed design (c) Unglazed typical
TSC(Gorjian, Ebadi et al. 2020)

Hybrid PVT Collectors: (photovoltaic thermal)

Convert solar to electricity and heat.
It is a photovoltaic cell installed on the upper surface of a heat
absorber plate. Conducted researches demonstrates that PVT
systems has a higher efficiency and potential cost benefits
compared with PV systems.
 Enhanced Hybrid PVT Collectors:
These are PVY systems which Hybrid PVT submerged in water. Using
water instead of Air increases the efficiency up to 15%. Water is
fully transparent so that short length waves can pass through to
reach PV cells and long length waves could be absorbed by water
itself to produce heat.

1.3. Evacuated tube collectors (ETCs)(Gorjian, Ebadi et al. 2020)

ETCs consist of several long and parallel glass or plastic tubes containing a
copper heat-pipe and an absorber plate coated with selective surface materials.

The high vacuum formed in the gap between two concentric tubes in ETCs
eliminates convection heat loss and provides effective thermal insulation and
therefore, higher temperature levels in comparison with FPCs

The working principle of the collector is that the working fluid flows naturally
upward by convection to a heat exchanger located at the manifold area where
the heat is transferred to another fluid (typically water or water-glycol mixture)
to run thermal processes or store in a storage tank for later use.

Fig. 4: Classification of evacuated solar collectors

1.4. Compound parabolic concentrators (CPCs)(Gorjian, Ebadi et al.

2020)

The working principle of a CPC refers to a non-imaging concentration that

utilizes the principle of edge optics where a wide range of incident radiation
(within the acceptance angle) is reflected in a receiver area.
 Fig. 5: External concentrating CPC with U-Shaped pipe

Several classifications have been proposed for CPCs till now but the most
comprehensible one has been introduced.

Fig. 6: A comprehensive classification of CPCs, adapted form

Fig. 7: (a) Schematic view of a coaxial tubular CPC, (b) Thermal circuit representation

1.5. Techniques employed in FPCs and ETCs to enhance the

performance:

Drawbacks: poor thermal efficiency, high amounts of heat loss, low

convective heat transfer coefficient.

· Structural modifications
 · Absorber coatings
· Integration with reflectors
· Alternative working fluids
· Thermal energy storage

Flat Plate Solar Collectors which can be considered as the low temperature
solar collectors are designed to work with either liquid or gas
medium.(DeWinter 1990)
In solar collectors to reach the highest efficiencies an important part is to
absorb as much heat as possible which is considered as the Optical Performance
of a collector, and in the case of Energy Storage Systems what plays a prominent
role is that smallest volumes of materials with lowest cost should be able to
store high amount of energy which is having high thermal density in addition to
a proper level of distribution of charged energy to the grid in discharging process
and from collectors to ESS in charging period.(Kalogirou 2004)
Fig.3 shows the classification and types of flat plate collector which are
commonly in use these days.

Fig. 8: the classification and types of Flat Plate Collectors (FPC)

One of the most important aspects of collecting solar energy in flat plate solar
collectors is to adjusting the proper angle of sun light intermittence to the
collectors’ panel as it is demonstrated in Fig.9.
 Fig. 9: The sunlight intermittence angle

1.6. PVT Collectors

Another considerable type of collectors which can be add to even sensible

TES itself, is the PVT collector and is a hybrid PV (Noro, Lazzarin et al. 2016),
which is a conventional PV with an installed thermal panel on the back side of
its module in order to play two prominent roles, one is to decrease the PV panel
temperatures to let it work more effectively and the second is to obtain the heat
which is stored to the PV to let it to perform as a heat source to produce hot
water to store to a Storage Tank to be used for domestic usages like showering
and utilizes in tap water. This type of collectors come with two mediums one is
Air and another is water and this type is preferable because of high heat capacity
of water in one hand and its ability to receive long-wavelength as it is
transparent and left the short-wavelength irradiation to the PV panel to produce
electricity.(Aste, Chiesa et al. 2008), (Liu, Xu et al. 2012)
 Fig. 10: A PVT collector design

In order to increase efficiency of PVT Much effort has been spent on the
development of THE hybrid PVT. The combination of thermal and cell
efficiencies, which is commonly known as “total efficiency of the PVT”, is
influenced by various system related factors and under performance conditions.
Due to the mentioned reason, new design configurations of seven absorber
collectors are suggested, experimented and evaluated. Models performed to
determine the best design which obtains highest efficiency. In these models, the
system is analyzed with different factors, such as solar radiation, ambient
temperature, and flow rate conditions. It is supposed that the collector is
represented as a flat plate thermal collector with single glazing sheet. (Ibrahim,
Othman et al. 2009)
According to these models, the spiral flow design proved to be the best
design with the highest thermal efficiency of 50.12% and matching cell efficiency
of 11.98%. The PVT system collector contains of the Photovoltaic systems for
generating electricity and thermal collector system to producing hot water.
(Kim, Park et al. 2014)

Fig. 11: A PVT collector based system

The integration of PV modules with thermals collectors could cause higher

temperatures in the PV module, and this decreases the efficiency of PVT
collectors.
 In order to have better performance of air-based PVT collectors, it is
necessary to extract the heat, in the form of hot or warm air, from the PV module
and thus decrease its temperature.
The warm air extracted from the PVT collector can be utilized as a heat
source for the building.
In this study, an air-based PVT collector with a mono-crystalline PV module
was designed, and its electrical and thermal performance was analyzed with the
experimental results. The results indicated that the thermal and electrical
efficiencies of the PVT collector were, on average, 22% and about 15%,
respectively.
With that background, for the utilization of PVT air collectors in buildings,
the performance evaluation of a PVT air collector is important. The performance
of a PVT air collector depends on climatic, operating and design parameters
including ambient temperature, solar radiation intensity, wind speed, solar cell
temperature, back surface temperature, inlet and outlet air temperature, inlet
air velocity, and the length and width of PVT air collector.
Therefore, in order to have better performance of PVT air collectors, with
sufficient design consideration of the PVT air collector, it is necessary to properly
extract the heat in accordance with its use, as a form of hot or warm air, from
the PV module such that its temperature decreases. The extracted air from the
PVT air collector can be utilized as a heat source for the building. The heated air
from the PVT collector can be supplied into the ventilation system in the building
as pre-heated fresh air.
It is necessary to take in fresh, outside air in order to improve Indoor Air
Quality (IAQ); however, this increases the ventilation energy load of building.
Thus, a Heat Recovery Ventilation (HRV) system has been introduced to improve
IAQ and thermal efficiency of buildings with heat recovery. (Kim, Park et al.
2014)
In addition Spectral beam splitting is an attractive approach to address this
conflict by thermally decoupling the PV and thermal receivers, allowing the PV
cells to operate at low temperature and the thermal receiver to operate at high
temperature. In this study, SiNx/SiO2 multilayer thin film filters were designed
and fabricated to act as beam splitting devices in a 10 sun, linear Fresnel mirror-
based, concentrating PV/T solar collector.(Crisostomo, Taylor et al. 2014)
 Among advantages of this combination there are three which is described
as:
1. The installation area limited which means the system produces
more energy per unit surface area than a PV panel and a hot
water system.
2. Pleasing in situations that the available roof surface is limited.
3. Replacing the roofing material with the PVT system can reduce the
payback period.
High cost over the low efficiency is one of the downsides of such a system.
It is said that, increasing of solar radiation is likely to gain the temperature of the
PV module, on the other hand it decreases its electrical efficiency. (Chen, Furbo
et al. 2012)
1.7. Absorbent Collectors
New methods should consider to achieve higher efficiency and lower the
cost paid. By increasing the efficiency of the whole system, it enables it to use
as domestic utilization. Sheet and tubes design gives the best overall efficiency.
(Ibrahim, Othman et al. 2009)
Schematic and different types of the absorbent collector

Fig. 12: Direct flow, Absorber material: rectangular hollow tubes of Stainless steel Absorber collector module:
19 channel each of size 12.7 mm x 12.7 mm x 1mm x 1000 mm (L) and 640 mm (W) Method of joining: welding
Inlet/Outlet no: 4
 Fig. 13: Oscillatory flow, Absorber material: round hollow tubes of Stainless steel.

Fig. 14: Serpentine flow, and Fig. 15: Web flow Absorber collector module: 1 channel each of size Ø12.7mm x 1
mm x 1000 mm (L) and 640 mm (W) Method of joining: welding Inlet/Outlet no: 2

Fig. 16: Spiral flow, Absorber material: rectangular hollow tubes of Stainless steel Absorber collector module: 1
channel each of size 12.7 mm x 12.7 mm x 1 mm x 700 mm (L) and 640 mm (W) Method of joining: welding
Inlet/Outlet no: 4
Fig. 17: Parallel Serpentine flow, and Fig. 18: Modified Serpentine Parallel flow, Absorber material: rectangular
hollow tubes of Stainless steel Absorber collector module: 6 channel each of size 12.7 mm x 12.7 mm x 1 mm x
700 mm (L) and 640 mm (W) Method of joining: welding Inlet/Outlet no: 2

In a study the efficiency of solar collector has increased by using PCM

collectors which the Sodium carbonate decahydrate has been used as the PCM.
By comparing data in soft computing codes like ANN, ANFIS and SVM they
approached that storing daylight energy in collectors with PCM leads to
efficiency gain of the solar collector. (Varol, Koca et al. 2010)

In a study integrated system of production and storage refrigeration system

developed using a solar cycle dynamically throughout the year and a phase-
change material (PCM). (Ghorbani and Mehrpooya 2020)

In the case of solar collectors however there have been mature

improvements but to organize yield energy organizing energy production is an
important aspect. In this way the controller systems are commonly from two
different types: one a model which is built upon physically based model and the
second is the newer developing one, the CIT model (Computational intelligence
technique) which has high levels of precision for short time intervals, which
these technologies can predict and compare many different participant factors
like weather and extra production. Extra yield of solar thermal systems (Kumar
and Shukla 2015) plays a prominent role in this technology especially for
domestic uses, for instance predictions from controller systems may lead to
reduce fuel consumption of unnecessary devices such as boilers, gains the
overall performance of the system and saves money. One of the main points
about controllers of solar collectors to organize needs in this area, is to forecast
energy production through proper installations in order to gain efficiency of heat
production, distribution and utilization. (Unterberger, Lichtenegger et al. 2021)
 Fig. 19: A hybrid power system schematic

It is worth to mention that these controllers should follow three main

points: 1) simplicity by using commercial and user-friendly devices without need
of third-party software, 2) automatic parameterization in different input
weather situations, and 3) being able to match to different technologies in its
area.
1.8. Methods for enhancing energy yield on flat plate collectors:
1.8.1. Adaptive forecasting method: (Unterberger, Lichtenegger et al. 2021)
The switching on/off of flat-plate solar collectors according to the solar
radiation is not simple although these systems are considerably developed
today. Through predicting the best time of efficiency a power management
system could be implemented for lateral equipment working with the plant. In
addition critical overheating issues could be addressed since cool time cooling
strategies.

The forecasting equipment should cover three important aspects:

1. Simple implementation to easily install on available equipment,
2. Automatic adaption to adapt the variation over the time, and
3. Wide acceptability among different solar collectors regarding their
specification.

Two means for predicting the behavior of to achieve high level of accuracy
is available: 1st Based on physically based models, and 2nd based on
computational intelligence techniques (CIT). In 2nd method Artificial Neural
network (ANN) and Adaptive Neuro Fuzzy Interface System (ANFIS) is used to
model and predict the efficiency of flat plate solar collectors. Also machine
learning means are used in this sector.
 The paper tries to introduce a modified efficiency equation for flat plate
solar collectors and the time of the day and seasonal changes aspects.

Forecasting methods:
1. Intuitive forecast, the seasonal naïve method.
Solar heat production prediction as below: (it is approximately the same
for today and yesterday)

It works acceptable if the climate conditions remains the same. The

demerit appears when the climate changes considerably.
2. Static energy balance Forecast, the datasheet method.
In this method:

Where Q`in is the heat input from the sun, Q`re is the heat loss due to
reflection, Q`lcc is the heat loss from conduction and convection, and Q`lr
is the radiation heat loss.

Fig. 20: Schematic structure of a flat plate collector and the energy flows Q’ that occur: the heat input
from the sun Q’in, the optical losses through reflection, Q’re, the ambient heat losses through heat
conduction and convention Q’lcc the heat losses trogh radiation Q’lr, and the heat produced by the
flat plate collector Q’coll

This method includes the physical behavior of the system, and confirmed
through experimental validation.
3. The new adaptive method is combined two aforementioned methods.
- Considers the external factors
- Continuously reparametrized
- Correction according to latest prediction error in applied

The validity of the combined method is experimented through real data

measurements. Two correction factors for the equations are determined.
1.8.2. Using Nano-Fluids to increase the efficiency: (Mohamed, Mahmoud
et al. 2020)
The system includes water tank, circulation pump, and flat plate solar
collector to store the sensible energy. Storage tank temperature changed
from 55 DC in winter up to 80 DC in summer. Average stored energy
deviates from 10.26 MJ/day in winter up to 16.11 MJ/day in autumn.
The yearly overall average is about 13.69 MJ/day.
Zinc-oxide nanoparticles with average diameter of 23 nm was added
to the input water to prepare the Nano-Fluid to increase the stored energy
from 3.36% up to 7.78% for volume fractions from 0.05% up to 0.1% and
compared with the soft water. Solar collectors convert solar irradiation into
thermal energy which could be used for heating water as a sensible heat or
charging phase change materials as latent heat storage.

Fig. 21: A system designed for evaluating an experimental FPC solar collector

The efficiency of thermal storage systems or solar energy applications

are significantly affected by the thermos-physical properties of working
fluid. Nanoparticles have been used to improve the thermos-physical
properties of liquids such as water and oils. Nano-fluids is the suspension
of Nano-sized particles (1–100 nm) in conventional base fluid. The
nanoparticles with higher thermal conductivity dispersed in base fluid can
increase the effective thermal conductivity of fluids and enhance the heat
transfer capability.
Nanoparticles include Aluminum Oxide (Al2O3), Carbon Nanotubes
(CNT), Copper Oxide Nanoparticles, and Zinc Oxide (ZnO). (Mohamed,
Mahmoud et al. 2020)

These nanoparticles are added to water or oil to increase the effective

thermal conductivity of the base fluid which is cooling photovoltaic (PV)
plates. Using nanoparticles reduced the PV temperature from 76 DC to 58
DC, thus the PV efficiency increased up to 7.8%. The article described the
 solar system, nanoparticle preparation, and the measurements and the
accuracy of the method in details.

At last the temperatures and the thermal storage system performance

was graphed and compared between two fluids (tap water and tap water
with nanoparticles).
The results show that the thermal storage efficiency of the system is
increased using nanoparticles in the fluid. (Mohamed, Mahmoud et al.
2020)
2. Thermal energy storage systems (Tian and Zhao 2013)
Preferred specifications:
High thermal storage density, small volume and low construction costs
Excellent heat transfer rate, absorb and release heat at the required speed
Good long term durability
Design Criteria:
There are three important consideration: technical specifications, cost
effectiveness, and environmental effect.
Excellent technical properties: the key factor in feasibility of the
system 1st the high thermal storage capacity to reduce the system volume
and increase the system efficiency, 2nd good heat transfer rate between the
heat storage material and the heat transfer fluid to maintain the proper
energy release or absorb with needed speed, 3rd desirable stability
mechanically and chemically.
Table 1: Design criteria of solar thermal energy storage systems (Tian and Zhao 2013)
 Cost effectiveness: indicates the time of returning money invested
and is significantly important. Three aspects should be considered:
material, exchanger, and land cost. This concept is usually connected with
material technical properties considering that high thermal storage
capacity and significant heat transfer performance could reduce the system
volume magnificently. Other factors are mentioned in the table.
Materials: (Tian and Zhao 2013)
- Sensible heat storage
Characteristics:
The most developed storage mean
Low-cost materials are available commonly and this is a plus
point
Lowest storage capacity which increases the system volume
Thermal energy in the warming and cooling processes is stored among
solids or liquids. The table indicates the properties of some low-
cost solids and liquids:
Table 2. Solid state sensible heat storage materials (Tian and Zhao 2013)
 - Latent heat storage
Higher storage capacity
Lower heat transfer rate and low thermal conductivity, relative
heat transfer enhancement technologies should be
considered.
Usually accompanies other storage methods
It happens isothermal and is suitable for restricted working
temperature changes
- Chemical heat storage
Highest storage capacity in endothermal or exothermal reactions
Complicated reactors
Poor long term durability
Poor chemical stability
Two types: organic and inorganic
Reversible chemical reactions absorb or release a considerable
amount of energy
Three basic criteria in designing a chemical storage system:
excellent chemical reversibility, large chemical enthalpy change, and
simple reaction conditions.
Difficulties: the need of complicated reactors, weak long term
reversibility (weak durability), and chemical stability.

Table 3: Molten salts and high temperature oils (Tian and Zhao 2013)

General types:
Sensible Heat Storage
Latent heat storage
Chemical storage
Cascaded storage
Heat transfer enhancement technologies: (Tian and Zhao 2013)
Including high-thermal conductivity enhancers:
Phase changing materials (PCMs) are suffering from low thermal
conductivity which magnificently results in increasing the charging
and discharging time, and the system response considerably slow, and
it plays a pivotal role for designers, because serious safety issues might
emerge.
The insertion of high-thermal conductivity materials has been
checked including metal fins, beads and powders, they improve heat
transfer. Carbon fibers shows a better effect. Composite with paraffin
base and carbon fibers are tested. The main disadvantage is structural
discontinuity.
Metal foams are introduced recently. They showed better
performance than the expanded graphite due to their continuous
matrix. The overall heat transfer performance in the combination of
metal foam and PCM is superior to that of the pure PCM.
Cascade Storage systems: (Tian and Zhao 2013)
Experiments showed that when the temperature limits widens,
the efficiency of simple latent heat storage decreased. To address this
issue scientists offered a cascade arrangement of multiple PCMs with
different melting points. This arrangement improves the efficiency of
the heat storage medium.

2.1. Storage Tank

In buildings hot-water tanks is one of the most common way for
Seasonal Thermal Energy Storage due to thermo-physical properties of
water, like high specific heat rate and its high charge-discharge rate in
addition to its affordable cost and zero negative effect on the environment.
A considerable criticize on STES system is that they add to heating systems
one time per a year which encounter its economic feasibility to a criticism.
On the other hand, required space for such systems are crucial which all of
mentioned reasons make designers to think of maximizing energy
efficiency of the Solar Heating Systems in order to reduce storages volumes
and the final costs of a project which both of energy efficiency and storage
 system volume needs more investigations on performing studies upon this
subject. (Kalogirou 2004)

Fig. 22: A schematic view of a solar system combined with mixed storage tank

STES (Seasonal Thermal Energy Storage) Offsets the extra gains in

summer with higher demands in winter, which generally has performed in
several types like: Hot water Tank, Pit storage in District Heating, Waste
heat recovery, Solar Thermal and Biomass power plants, Large scale
underground hot water tanks for DH applications, Borehole thermal energy
storage, Large-scale aquifer thermal energy storage. (Villasmil, Troxler et
al. 2021)
2.2. Pit Storage an Example of STES

Fig. 23: a pit-storage performing schematic (Ghoreishi-Madiseh, Sasmito et al. 2017)

 In a study storage capability of a rock-pit has been considered, a rock-
pit is a conic shape piece of huge stone, like 697 meter in diameter of the
referenced study, which has hollow area that fills by small pieces of rock of
average 1.2 meter in diameter. These materials are used as a sensible heat
storage when air flows from the 6 trenches among them, the mentioned
type of energy storage, owing to its capability for storing cold or hot energy,
is a Seasonal Thermal Energy Storage. There are also a number of other
type of pit storage which their storage mediums can be from other
materials even water, due to its inexpensive price and the harmless
behavior to environment, in such a types insulation can be a negative point
because its price which thorough proper optimization this issue may offset.
(Ghoreishi-Madiseh, Sasmito et al. 2017) (Schmidt, Pauschinger et al. 2018)

Fig. 24: Principle sketch and diagram of a pit hole storage with cross section (Schmidt, Pauschinger et al. 2018)

Aquifer thermal energy storage is a geologic feature of subsurface

area of sometimes areas near population, which allow large amount of
water, sand or porous natural materials that are bale to store large amount
of hot or cold energy to be used as key player of hot demand in winters or
cooling demand in warm weather.(Schmidt, Pauschinger et al. 2018)
 Fig. 25: principles of ATES in heating (winter) and cooling (summer) mode

2.3. Borehole Energy Storage an example of STES

Within 1960s Seasonal Thermal Energy Storage became to extend in the
US and the Borehole seasonal STES is one of them which is a most common
energy storage. As the effects of the Aquifer heat energy storage on the
geology of the environment around it the borehole TES has become in a
higher interest among users. A schematic working operation of a Borehole
Seasonal Thermal Energy Storage down below illustrates its combination with
solar collector. The working function of a bore hole is that the surplus heat
production is stored by the heat in a medium fluid of the collector and it runs
thorough the drilled holes which their depths can be from 30 to 200 meters
and according to the aspects of the heating system the needed heat can be
obtained when heating it is required. (Yumrutaş and Ünsal 2000) (Gao, Zhao
et al. 2015)

Fig. 26-a: Borehole storage system schematic

 Fig. 26-b: Borehole storage system schematic

2.4. Evacuated solar Collector and its combination with storage tank
In Evacuated Tube collectors a volatile working fluid, which normally can
be ethanol or methanol, after gaining enough energy as a result of ETC’s working
principle runs upward through copper pipe within the collector and then the
evaporated liquid exchanges heat with another fluid such as water or water-
glycol mixture fluid (Mohamed, Mahmoud et al. 2020) (Simonetti, Restagno et
al. 2020) in manifold part or in a heat exchanger, then after that energy can store
in a storage tank to use when needed. (Ataee and Ameri 2015)
Parts of a typical ETC (Evacuated Tube collector), the most common models
of ETC comes with heat-pipe and U shaped tubes to work as the absorber
(Norton 2013):

Fig. 27: Evacuated tube collector in general

 Fig. 28: Schematic diagram of a solar assisted direct-expansion (DX-SHAP) water heating system

2.5. TES Materials

Solar thermal Energy Storages can be from various types, like the sensible
heat storage, the latent heat storage and the chemical Heat Storage. One of the
most important things about STES is the used material, which varies according
to the operation and type of the system, among them sensible heat storage, the
most enhanced one, has positives like existence of a vast range of cheap
performing materials and negatives which these materials low heat capacity
large quantity of them may needed to store enough energy and system’s volume
will increase. In contrast latent materials have higher heat capacity but generally
low heat transfer rate which is a downside of these materials, at the end related
chemical materials (Mukherjee, Majumdar et al. 2020) which in comparison with
other two types have the highest heat capacity has a number of negative sides
like weak durability and the chemical stability of them in charge de-charge
cycles. Tables below gives technical information about various mediums in three
different type the STESs. (Baeyens, Zhang et al. 2013) (Gil, Medrano et al. 2010)
Table 4: material used for thermal energy storage
 2.6. Main Designing aspects of a Solar Thermal Storage
Area Key factors
Technical Aspects 1. High thermal energy storage capacity (the most
important) (Medrano, Gil et al. 2010)
2. Efficient heat transfer rate between HTF and storage
material
3. Good mechanical and chemical stability of storage
material
4. Compatibility between HTF, heat exchanger and/ or
storage material
5. Complete reversibility of a large number of charging
and discharging cycles
6. Low thermal losses and ease of control
Cost-effectiveness 1.Thermal energy storage materials cost
Aspects 2. Heat exchanger cost
3. spacing cost and or enclosure for the thermal
energy storage
Environmental 1. Operation plan
Aspects 2. load threshold
3. Nominal temperature and specific enthalpy drop in
load
4. Integration to a power plant

In the case of the technical aspects of a Solar Thermal storage it is the

related technology of the ESS which among different types those of TES owing
to their acceptable rate of heat capacity, several benefits may obtain which they
can be sensible heat storage, latent heat storage and chemical heat storage and
they are from higher interest as utilizing them gives control of the systems
volume and size in the one hand and gaining stored energy on the other hand,
such a systems not only have higher rate of charge and de-charge but also are
able to receive the collected energy of panels and from storage to users at an
acceptable rate and speed other important factor of technical aspects have been
listed on the table. Another prominent aspect of a STES is their cost effectiveness
which has listed and contains of three main elements which are cost of the STES
system which relates to materials and heat exchanger and the cost of area of
the plant. Additionally, environmental aspects of a STES system which
associated with operation plan, load threshold, integration to a power plant.
 2.7. Combination of PCM and Tank Energy Storage System

PCM heat storage is a type of storage with two important part, the tank
part and the shell-and-tube PCM part, when collected heat exchanges its energy
with PCM material it charges and become utilizable to offset demands, (Huang,
Xiao et al. 2020) considered a type of PCM storage which operates in a system
in addition to a storage tank, the PCM storage located before the collector which
not only it charges in such an operation but also decreases the inlet temperature
of the collector, this type of system has benefits such making the hot water
system to be able to require more hot water in its working peak and such a
combination solves a disadvantage of sole PCM systems which is low discharging
rate. (Huang, Xiao et al. 2020)

Fig. 29: Schematic view of a PCM based solar collector system design

2.8. PBSS energy storage

Another type of sensible heat store for the TESs is packed bed storage
system (PBSS) which generally combines with low temperature uses, an ordinary
type of PBSS main elements are the medium material which can be any kind of
proper sensible heat material, a tank to store materials and in some cases
screens plate to keep the arranging of the material fixed, as shown in the fig()
collected heat from air heater flows within the materials to exchange heat and
charge the PBSS, during this cycle outlet temperature increases and through
other equipment produced hot air can use in needs like domestic requirements.
(Singh, Deshpandey et al. 2015) (Crisostomo, Taylor et al. 2014)
Air is a common heat transfer fluid in this method.
 Fig. 30: Schematic view of typical sensible heat based PBSS

Fig. 31: Basic characteristics of an efficient PBSS

The heat transfer in typical PBSS involves conduction among packing elements,
conduction between wall and packing elements, convection among packing
materials and HTF (the dominating mode of heat transfer), convection among
HTF and wall surface and heat transfer due to mixing of HTF.

2.9. Packed bed storage system: (Gautam and Saini 2020)

The material, the mass of storage medium, temperature deviation, and
specific heat capacity are important factors.
 There are two types of PBSS according to the flow direction: axial and radial
flow.
The radial type is more expensive but it is size and space beneficial.
The size of particles is affecting the heat storage capacity. The size of
particles have correlation with pressure drop.
The particles material is important from the particular application, thermal
conductivity and high specific heat capacity point of view.
Melting point, chemical stability, low flammability, low super cooling, non-
toxicity, low cost and availability is also important.

Table 5: types of materials used under various conditions to store sensible heat in PBSS

The size of elements affect the heat storage capacity and the charging period.
Fig. 32: The performance of the PBSS is affected by the shape
of the packing element, so the sphericity is defined as the
ratio of the surface area of a sphere to the surface area of the
packing element with equal volume, and it is non-
dimensional.

The performance evaluation of Packed Bed

Storage Systems:

It is evaluated by the basis of:

- Energy conservation
- Exergy analysis

Fig. 33: Schematic of an experimental setup used by researchers. (Gautam and Saini 2020)

Fig. 34: Packed bed heat storage system coupled with solar air heater
 As a way to increase the efficiency of a solar collector in a study by Sophin
et al. (Sopian, Alghoul et al. 2009) they have observed that by putting a porous
media, which can perform as a sensible TES in the second layer (d2) of the
collector the stored heat affects air flow and eventually there will be rise in
exiting temperature, which leads to increase in efficiency of the collector.
(Sopian, Alghoul et al. 2009) (Gautam and Saini 2020)

Fig. 35: Flat Plate Collector mixed with packed bed thermal storage

2.10. Progress in Flow Battery Research and Development (Skyllas-

Kazacos, Chakrabarti et al. 2011)

Flow batteries are a kind of chemical energy storages which are replacing
conventional batteries, which are contained of two electrolytes in a liquid state
in contrast to solid compounds in standard batteries that has narrow energy
storage capacity. Different types of electrolytes are utilized in a flow battery;
bromine as a central element with zinc (ZnBr), sodium (NaBr), vanadium (VBr)
and many more as the anode while a recent addition is of sodium polysulfide.
Flow batteries have relatively higher capacities of energy storage and
subsequent release (15MWh–120 MWh; storage efficiency about 75%). The
other positive aspects of such a technology are proper recharging rate, high life
duration (up to decade), and complete discharging possibility, non-toxic
components in their structure, and operational functions at low temperatures
which is aim of this study. (Skyllas-Kazacos, Chakrabarti et al. 2011)
 Fig. 36: Flow battery energy storage schematic

2.11. Evaluating the performance of flat plate solar collector in open

thermomechanical energy storage (TCES) (Mukherjee, Majumdar et
al. 2020)

The charging period is considered daylight of summer in discharging is

the night time of winter.

TCES is noticed due to its high energy storage capacity compared to

the latent heat storage and sensible one.
The loss of this energy storage method is far less than other systems.
The movement of energy storage is possible with neglecting amount
of loss.
There are two categories: closed systems and open systems.

Closed systems are expensive, complex in design and operation due

to the vacuum in reactors.

In open systems reaction takes place in atmospheric pressure, no

need to a vessel, so they are less expensive and less complicated.

Salt hydrates are crystalline solids, which along with water vapor, take
part in reversible exothermic-endothermic reactions; and hence, are
suitable for use in the open TCES systems, where the water vapor can be
readily supplied by flowing moist air through the reactor bed.

The strontium bromide-water vapor emerged as an attractive reactive

pair for the TCES systems.

2.6 2( )+Δ ⇌ 2. 2( ) +5 2 ( )
 Δ is the enthalpy of the reaction

The energy and exergy efficiencies of the systems are evaluated.

The energy efficiency of the system (closed/open) was defined as the

ratio of the thermal energy recovered during the discharging phase to the
thermal energy stored in the system during the charging phase and was
found to be higher for the open system (69%) compared to the closed
system (50%).

The exergy efficiency of the system (closed/open), which was defined

as the ratio of exergy recovered from the system to the same stored in the
system, was found to be higher for the open system (23%) than that of the
closed system (9%).

Other materials used: MgCl2, CaCl2

Various numerical models of the open TCES systems have been

developed.

The use of a humidifier at the inlet of the TCES reactive bed was found
to be effective in maintaining the temperature within the human comfort
limits.

Conclusion
Low temperature collectors in combination with proper ESSs, which
some of them introduced in this article could be inseparable parts of
domestic uses to handle environmental damaging effects of fossil fuel
consumption which human related activities has caused societies in their
different aspects of life, while such issues existed, governments and
involved organizations should plan to introduce these technologies to
people and encourage them by making related cost of this technologies as
lower as possible, because domestic utilizations are generally the end user
and one of the most prominent operations which have an integral part to
control related issues such as controlling carbon dioxide emission and other
outcomes to the environment.
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