Chapter (1) Introduction

CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

People in many parts of the world lack the resources both financially and in oil to
enable them to flourish in a comparable way. The use of renewable energy sources like
solar, biomass, wind, or geothermal energy could help overcome some of the issues
associated with the use of fossil fuels. In recent years, it has been observed that solar energy
has attracted the attention of numerous research facilities worldwide. Egypt is not far from
that; all solar energy applications, including solar water desalination and solar heating, are
prioritized in the scientific research agendas of all Egyptian universities. because it is free,
renewable, and clean energy compared to conventional energy. Solar energy can help in
reducing the cost of electricity, Contribute to A Resilient Electrical Grid, Create Jobs, And
Spur Economic Growth. The most used solar technologies for homes and businesses are
solar photovoltaics for electricity, passive solar design for space heating and cooling, and
solar water heating. Businesses and industries use solar technologies to diversify their
energy sources, improve efficiency, and save money.

1.1 RENEWABLE ENERGY

Renewable energy powers a safer future. They differ from fossil fuels principally in
their diversity, abundance, and potential for use anywhere on the planet, but above all in
that they produce neither greenhouse gases which cause climate change nor polluting
emissions. 90 % of the world’s electricity can come from renewable energy by 2050. The
reduction of pollution and climate impacts alone could save the world up to $4.2 trillion per
year by 2030.

1.2 SOLAR ENERGY

Solar energy is heat and radiant light from the Sun that can be harnessed with
technologies such as solar power (which is used to generate electricity) and solar thermal
energy (which is used for applications such as water heating).

1.3 FUTURE OF SOLAR ENERGY

The studies find that solar energy could power about 14% of transportation end uses
by 2050. Solar PV couples well to electric vehicle (EV) charging: Both use direct-current

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Chapter (1) Introduction

electricity, which avoids efficiency losses in conversion to alternating current electricity a

much as 26% lost, in some cases.

1.4 SOLAR AIR HEATING (SOLAR COLLECTOR)

Solar air heating technologies are used as free, renewable, and clean energy, and can
help defray the rising cost of conventional energy. Solar air heating systems absorb thermal
energy from direct sunlight to heat air. This heated air can then be circulated through
buildings to provide heat.

1.4.1 The Benefits of Solar Heating

The benefits of solar heating, no CO2 emissions during operation. Cost savings: up to
60% less energy to heat water, up to 35% less energy for space heating. Reduced
consumption of fossil fuels. Solar thermal systems can be integrated into existing systems.

1.5 The Solar Air Heater (SAH)

The Solar Air Heater (SAH) is a very simple device in construction as shown in Fig.
(1.1), but it is used in many important applications. Its operation principle depends on air
flow through a duct covered with glass cover from the upper side and insulated from other
sides. The main component in SAH is the absorber plate which gains heat from the sun to
be converted into thermal energy to be further transferred to the air flow. The heat transfer
process in SAH is like that of annulus and ducts, which depends on the flow characteristics,
either forced or natural convention.

Fig.1.1: Schematic arrangement of the solar air heater [1].

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Chapter (1) Introduction

1.6 Solar Air Heater Types

1- Solar air collectors can be divided into two categories:

a) Unglazed Air Collectors or Transpired Solar Collector (used primarily to heat
ambient air in commercial, industrial, agriculture and process applications)
b) Glazed Solar Collectors (recirculating types that are usually used for space
heating).

2- Collector types

Solar collectors for air heat may be classified by their air distribution paths or by
their materials, such as glazed or unglazed. For example:

a) Through-pass collectors
b) Front-pass.
c) Back pass
d) Combination front and back pass collectors
e) Unglazed
f) Glazed
1.6.1 Solar Air Heater Advantages
1. The need to transfer heat from working fluids to another fluid is eliminated
as air is being used directly as the working substance. The system is
compact and less complicated.
2. Corrosion is a great problem in solar water heaters. And this problem is
not experienced in solar air heaters.
3. Leakage of air from the duct does not create any problems.
4. Freezing of working fluid does not exist.
5. The pressure inside the collector does not become very high.
6. Thus, air heaters can be designed using cheaper as well as lesser amounts
of material and it is simpler to use than solar water heaters.
1.6.2 Solar Air Heater Disadvantages
1. Air heaters have certain disadvantages also the first and foremost is the
poor heat transfer properties of air. Special care is required to improve the
heat transfer.
2. Another disadvantage is the need for handling large volume of air due to
its low density.
3. Air cannot be used as a storage fluid because of its low thermal capacity.
4. In the absence of proper design, the cost of solar air heaters can be very
high.

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Chapter (1) Introduction

1.6.3 Solar Air Heater Applications

The applicability of the solar air heater depends on various factors like high
efficiency, low fabrication cost, low installation and operational cost and some other
specific factors regarding specific uses. Extensive work on solar air heaters has been
done. Various geometries have been proposed and their theoretical investigation is
carried out. But it needs commercial exploitation.
1.6.4 Classifications of Solar Air Heaters

SAHs as shown in Fig. (1.2 ) are classified to:

1. The Collector Cover Glass(A bare Plate SAH, Single Cover SAH , Double Cover
SAH).
2. The Absorber Plat Materials( Metallic, Nonmetallic , Matrix).
3. The Shape of Absorber Surface(With Slat, With Porous Media, With Fins).
4. The Type of Absorber Flow Pattern(Over ,Under, on Both of Sides).
5. The flow shapes(Single-Pass Flow ,Parallel-Pass Flow , Double- Pass Flow
,Tribble -Pass Flow ).

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Chapter (1) Introduction

Fig. 1.2: Classifications of SAH [2].

1.7 Solar Air Heater Performance Improvement Methods

As shown in Fig. (1.3) Many efforts have been made to improve the thermal
performance of solar air heaters without any storage medium by :
1. Modification in design of collector to improve the solar isolation.
2. Modification of flow passage.
3. Other techniques such as jet impingement, nano fluid, and energy storge PCM.
4. Minimize the thermal losses.

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Chapter (1) Introduction

Fig.1.3: SAH Performance Improvement Methods [1].

1.7.1 Thermal Energy Storage Materials

Using a storage system is another way to boost the efficiency of a solar air heater. A
sensible or latent heat storage system could be used. This technique makes advantage of the
heat lost from the solar air heater's bottom. Latent heat thermal energy storage systems have
many advantages over sensible heat storage systems, including a large energy storage
capacity per unit volume and constant charging and discharging temperatures [3]. Phase
Change Materials (PCMs) are materials that can store and release energy while melting and
solidifying at a specific temperature. For these materials, the heat of fusion should be high
to store a big quantity of energy and release it when needed. It saves fuel and makes systems
more cost effective by reducing energy waste and capital cost.

1.7.2 Types of Thermal Energy Storage Materials

Thermal energy storage can be stored as a change in the internal energy of a material
as sensible heat, latent heat, thermochemical, or acombination of these[4]. The
classification of thermal energy storage technology is shown in Fig. (1.4).

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Chapter (1) Introduction

Fig. 1.4: Classification of thermal energy storage technology based on the criterion of the
state of the energy storage material[4].

1.7.2.1 Sensible Heat Storage (SHS)

In sensible heat storage (SHS),thermal energy is stored by raising the temperature of
a solid or liquid. SHS system utilizes the heat capacity and the change in temperature of
the material during the process of charging and discharging. The amount of heat stored
depends on the specific heat of the medium, the temperature change and the amount of
storage material. The amount of heat stored, according to the following equation, is
determined by the specific heat of the medium, the temperature change, and the amount of
storage material [5].
(1-1)

Where Q is the amount of heat stored or released (J), ṁ is the amount of storage
material (kg), Cp is the average specific heat of materials (J/kg.K), Tf is the final
temperature (K), and Ti is the initial temperature (K) .

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Chapter (1) Introduction

1.7.2.2 Latent Heat Storage (LHS)

Latent heat storage (LHS) is based on the heat absorption or release when a storage
material undergoes a phase change from solid to liquid or liquid to gas or vice versa. The
storage capacity of the LHS system with a PCM medium [5] is given by.
(1-2)

Where Cps is the specific heat of materials in solid state (J/kg.K), Tm is the melting
temperature (K), ∆h is the heat of fusion per unit mass (J/kg), Cpl is the specific heat of
materials in a liquid phase (J/kg.K).

1.7.3 The Different Phase Change Transitions

Phase changes include Transitions from solid to solid, solid to liquid, solid to gas,
liquid to gas, and vice versa. As the solid changes from one crystalline form to another
during solid-to-solid transitions, heat is stored. These transitions have less latent heat and
lower volume changes than solid-to-liquid transitions [6]. Although solid-to-gas and liquid-
to-gas transitions have higher latent heat of phase change, the system is complicated because
of the enormous volume changes that occur during the transition [7]. Compared to liquid-
to-gas transformations, solid-to-liquid conversions have less latent heat. Yet, these changes
only slightly alter the volume (by less than 10%). For application in thermal energy storage
systems, transitions from solid to liquid have proven to be economically appealing. The
volume changes of the PCMs during melting would necessitate a special volume design of
the containers to hold the whole PCM. It should be able to absorb these volume changes and
be user-friendly with the PCM used. As a result, any latent heat energy storage system must
include at least the following three components:

(i) a suitable PCM with its melting point in the desired temperature range,

(ii) a suitable heat exchange surface.

(iii) a suitable container compatible with the PCM.

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Chapter (1) Introduction

1.7.4 How do PCMs work?

A PCM works by absorbing heat as it changes state from solid to liquid (heat of fusion
– melting) and giving off the stored heat as the material changes back from liquid to solid.
The temperature to which a material in contact with PCM is exposed is moderated by the
absorption and release of heat from the PCM as shown in Fig. (1.5).

Fig. 1.5: Cycle of Phase Chance Material (PCMs)

1.7.5 Properties of Latent Heat Storage Materials

Latent heat storage materials are phase change materials (PCMs). When a material
changes from solid to liquid or liquid to solid, thermal energy transfer occurs. A phase shift
is what this is called. These solid–liquid PCMs initially behave like conventional storage
materials; their temperatures rise as they absorb heat. PCM absorbs and releases heat at a
constant temperature, unlike sensible storage materials. They store 5–14 times more heat
per unit volume than natural storage materials like water, masonry, or rock. Many PCMs
are known to melt at any required heat of fusion. Choosing a PCM for a given application,
the operating temperature of the heating or cooling should be matched to the transition
temperature of the PCM. To reduce the physical size of the heat store, the latent heat should
be as high as possible, especially on a volumetric basis. Good thermal conductivity would
facilitate the energy storage's charging and discharging. High density is preferred to enable
a smaller size of storage container and phase stability during freezing melting would aid in
setting heat storage. To lessen the containment issue, use minor volume changes during
phase transformation and small vapor pressure at working temperatures. The development
of PCMs has struggled with supercooling, especially for salt hydrates. Heat extraction from
the storage will be hampered by supercooling of more than a few degrees and supercooling
of 5–10 ˚C can completely stop it. PCM can deteriorate due to chemical breakdown, loss

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Chapter (1) Introduction

of hydration water, or incompatibility with building materials. For safety reasons, PCMs
ought to be non-toxic, non-flammable, and non-explosive. The phase transition materials'
low cost and wide availability are also crucial. The PCM to be used in the design of
thermal-storage systems should have desirable thermophysical, kinetics, and chemical
properties, as shown in Table (1.1) [5]:
Table (1.1): Properties of PCMs [5].
Thermal properties 1. Suitable phase-transition temperature

2. High latent heat of transition

3. Good heat transfer.

Physical properties 1. Favorable phase equilibrium.

2. High density.

3. Small volume change

4. Low vapor pressure

Kinetic properties 1. No supercooling

2. Sufficient crystallization rate.

Chemical Properties 1. Long-term chemical stability.

2. Compatibility with materials of construction.

3. No toxicity

4. No fire hazard.

Economics 1. Abundant.

2. Available.

3. Cost effective

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Chapter (1) Introduction

1.7.6 Classification of PCMs

PCMs are classified into three main types , (organic, inorganic, and eutectic) . A
classification of PCMs is given in Fig. (1.7). In general, inorganic compounds have almost
double the volumetric latent heat storage capacity (250–400 kg/dm3 ) than organic
compounds (128–200 kg/dm3 ).Organic compounds have a low melting point (10–60 °C),
making them suitable for low temperature applications such as solar energy systems
especially solar air heaters.

Fig.1.6: Classification of phase change material (PCM)[5].

1.8 STATEMENT OF THE PROBLEM

Renewable energy sources generate most of their energy at certain times of the day. Its
electricity generation does not match the peak demand hours. The intermittent sunshine and
wind cannot provide an on-demand power source 24 hours a week. Solar energy and wind
are unpredictable. The main purpose of using solar energy in generating electricity is to
reduce dependence on using fossil fuels. The main problem with the solar air heater is the
low production of electricity compared with the other ways. This main disadvantage,
besides its low efficiency, prevents the solar air heater from being a commercial way to
produce electricity. The low productivity and efficiency of solar air come from heat and
energy losses. More and more attempts based on the complete understanding of the different
techniques of generating electricity as well as the effect of design and operating parameters
on the solar air heater's performance are made to enhance the productivity and efficiency of
the solar air heater and to reduce all types of losses concerned with the solar air heater.

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Chapter (1) Introduction

These enhancement methods and techniques are associated with high cost. The main
objective is to make the solar still the best economical solution to achieve that aim. One of
these methods is increasing the heat transfer area for improving the turbulence in the air
duct and using PCMs to maximize the use of solar radiation, especially during night. It’s
also important to understand and discuss the different parameters which affect the
productivity of solar air heaters.

1.8.1 Choice of Folded Plate ,PCM and Electric Heater for the Current Work
The folded plate used in this work is three-dimensional long sheets of chevron plates.
So, the folded plate has a more turbulent effect on the airflow and gives a uniform
temperature distribution. Its thermal performance for it reaches 35% more than a flat plate
in regularity temperature distribution and provides 50 % of the time required to reach
thermal equilibrium [8]. A PCM with a lower melting temperature such as paraffin wax is
preferable as it can help to keep a lower operating temperature [9‒10]. Paraffin wax is the
preferred choice because of its wide availability, low cost, easy recycling, a slight change
in volume during phase change, good phase equilibrium, low vapor pressure, and melting
temperature in the required range. PCMs generally and paraffin wax especially have
important disadvantages such as low thermal conductivity causing the heat transfer rate to
decrease during the charging/discharging cycles. Tries were conducted to overcome that
problem, which is described briefly in the literature review chapter. The purpose of using
an electric heater placed inside paraffin wax is to prolong the period osf heating the air by
prolonging the period of paraffin wax discharge from after sunset to the next morning.

1.9 Objective and Scope of Study

In this work, for the first time, as the authors know, the folded plate solar air heater is
evaluated with different configurations of the absorber plate and using an electric heater
inside paraffin wax. The objectives of the present study are the following:
1. Designing and fabricating two solar air heaters (conventional and modified) with
the same dimensions to ensure the same comparison.
2. Comparing the results of the two heaters without using any modification to ensure
the performance of each still due to the manufacturing process.
3. Summarized the study in three cases:

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Chapter (1) Introduction

a. The first case is studying the effect of using a folded plate without PCM on
the thermal performance of solar air heaters.
b. The second case is studying the effect of using a folded plate with PCM on the
thermal performance of solar air heaters.
c. The third case is studying the effect of using a folded plate with PCM and an
electric heater on the thermal performance of solar air heaters.
4. Measuring the various parameters such as the solar radiation, glass temperature,
inlet and outlet air temperature, the absorber plate temperature, average value of
the PCM temperature, ambient temperature, average temperature of air inside the
heater, temperature difference of the air across the heater.
5. Each case is compared individually to a flat plate SAH having the same entrance
configuration named (conventional SAH).
6. In each case of this study, the absorber plate changes five times, as follows
(100%folded, 75%folded, 50%folded, 25%folded & 0%folded) with three mass
flow rates (0.055,0.034,0.014) kg/s.
1.10 THESIS ORGANIZATION
The thesis consists of five chapters, and it will be described briefly in the following
subsections using (116) references and (4) appendices.
Chapter 1: Introduction
Chapter one presents an introduction to the study objective and the scope of it.
Chapter 2: Literature Review
Chapter two presents a literature review which is concerned with the subject of the
study. The literature surveys will cover the following items: design configurations,
experimental studies, and methods' performance for improvement of SAHs. Finally, the
aim of studying.
Chapter 3: Experimental Test Rig
Chapter three presents a complete description of the experimental test rig, the
methods used for measuring parameters, the operating conditions of the runs and the
uncertainties and relative errors in measurements.
Chapter 4: Experimental Results and Discussion
Chapter four includes the results obtained from the experimental runs. The three cases
of the study are the effect of folded plates on thermal performance of solar air heaters
(without PCM or heater, with PCM only and with PCM and the electric heater). The

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absorber plate changes five times, as follows (100 % folded , 75 % folded , 50 % folded ,
25% folded & 0% folded). All the above run under three mass flow rates
(0.055,0.034,0.014 kg/s). All cases are compared to a flat plate SAH having the same
entrance configuration named (conventional SAH).
Chapter 5: Conclusions and Recommendations
Chapter five shows the conclusions of the thesis by summarizing the achievement of
the current work and states the possible future works.

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