Introduction: Good morning Blockmates. Good morning Ma'am. Before we start our discussion. We will first introduce ourselves. My name is.... And we are the Group 3 and we are going to report Seismic method. Crystalyne: Explain the definition of Seismic Method. Jody Mhar: Explain the Two Main Divisions of Seismic Method and Application of Seismic Method. Kris: Explain the Advantages and Disadvantages of Seismic method. Seismic Methods Seismic techniques (including seismic refraction, seismic reflection, and shear wave analyses) have been used by geophysicists for over 100 years to image the subsurface. These reliable techniques determine various properties of the subsurface that are used for different applications in engineering, construction and hydrogeology. Seismic methods involve the recording of seismic waves (both naturally occurring and generated) for detecting subsurface interfaces and measuring seismic velocity variations with depth. A typical seismic acquisition system consists of a series of seismograph, a series of geophones, and (depending on the technique) an energy source, which is generally a sledge hammer hitting against ‘a metal plate on the ground or a small explosive device. ‘Mundell & Associates has conducted seismic surveys in North and South America, as well as Europe, for purposes such as mapping bedrock fracture zones, locating bedrock valleys, and characterizing sites for earthquake design. Seismic reflection or Reflection seismology is a method of exploration geophysics that uses the principles of seismology to estimate the properties of the Earth's subsurface from reflected seismic waves. The method requires a controlled seismic source of energy, such as dynamite or Tovex blast, a specialized air gun or a seismic vibrator. Reflection seismology is similar to sonar and echolocation. Seismic reflection Application:Reflection seismology is used extensively in a number of fields and its applications can be categorised into three groups each defined by their depth of investigation: Near-surface applications - an application that aims to understand geology at depths of up to approximately 1 km, typically used for engineering and environmental surveys, as well as coal and mineral exploration. A more recently developed application for seismic reflection is for geothermal energy surveys, although the depth of investigation can be up to 2 km deep in this case. Hydrocarbon exploration - used by the hydrocarbon industry to provide a high resolution map of acoustic impedance contrasts at depths of up to 10 km within the subsurface. This can be combined with seismic attribute analysis and other exploration geophysics tools and used to help geologists build a geological model of the area of interest. Mineral exploration - The traditional approach to near-surface (<300 m) mineral exploration has been to employ geological mapping, geochemical analysis and the use of aerial and ground-based potential field methods, in particular for greenfield exploration [23] in the recent decades reflection seismic has become a valid method for exploration in hard-rock environments. Crustal studies — investigation into the structure and origin of the Earth's crust, through to the Moho discontinuity and beyond, at depths of up to 100 km ‘A method similar to reflection seismology which uses electromagnetic instead of elastic waves, and has a smaller depth of penetration, is known as Ground-penetrating radar or GPR. Reference: https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reflection seismolo: https://archive jov/esd/archive- geophysics/web/html/seismic reflection methods.html Seismic Refraction Method Seismic Refraction (SR) is a surface geophysics method that utilizes the refraction of seismic waves on geology layers and rock/soil units to characterize subsurface geologic conditions. The method involves a geophysical principle governed by Snell's Law, which is a formula used to describe the relationship between seismic wave angles of refractionwhen passing through a boundary between two different isotropic media, (eg. soil to bedrock). The Seismic Refraction method depends on the principal that seismic waves possess varying compression and shear wave velocities within differing types of soil and rock material. Acoustic energy waves are refracted when they cross over between soil and/or rocks of differing (and increasing) seismic velocities. Analysis of refracted wavelet arrival times, velocities, and geophone geometries can be used to estimate general soil types and approximate depths to strata boundaries, water tables and/or the upper bedrock surface to be determined. The SR method is also used to estimate rock rippability characteristics for pre-construction planning using Caterpillar seismic velocity soil/rock rippability charts. Seismic refraction surveys commonly involve laying out a spread of geophones ina straight line, with seismic impact source points positioned with and off the ends of the geophone spread. Seismic refraction measurements as described in this guide are applicable in mapping subsurface conditions for various uses including geologic, geotechnical, hydrologic, environmental (1), mineral exploration, petroleum exploration, and archaeological investigations. The seismic refraction method is used to map geologic conditions including depth of bedrock, or the water table, stratigraphy, lithology, structure, and fractures or all of these. The calculated seismic wave velocity is related to mechanical material properties, Therefore, characterization of the material (type of rock, degree of weathering, and rippability) is made on the basis of seismic velocity and other geologic information. Reference: https://www.astm.org/d5777-18.html https://surfacesearch,com/seismic-refraction-what-is- it/#t:~:text=Seismic%20Refraction%20(SR)%20is%20a,t0%20characterize%20subsurface %20geologic%20conditions, + Seismic Refraction: the signal returns to the surface by refraction at subsurface interfaces, and is recorded at distances much greater than depth of investigation.Source Reflection Refraction + Seismic Reflection: the seismic signal is reflected back to the surface at layer interfaces, and is recorded at distances less than depth of investigation. History of Seismology Exploration seismic methods developed from early work on earthquakes: + 1846: Irish physicist, Robert Mallett, makes first use of an artificial source in a seismic experiment. 1888: August Schmidt uses travel time vs. distance plots to determine subsurface seismic velocities. + 1899: G.K. Knott explained refraction and reflection of seismic waves at plane boundaries. + 1910: A. Mohorovicic identifies separate P and S waves on traveltime plots of distant earthquakes, and associates them with base of the crust, the Moho. + 1916: Seismic refraction developed to locate artillery guns by measurement of recoil.+ 1921: ‘Seismos’ company founded to use seismic refraction to map salt domes, often associated with hydrocarbon traps. + 1920: Practical seismic reflection methods developed. Within 10 years, the dominant method of hydrocarbon exploration. Applications Seismic Refraction « Rock competence for engineering applications - Depth to Bedrock + Groundwater exploration + Correction of lateral, near-surface, variations in seismic reflection surveys + Crustal structure and tectonics Seismic Reflection + Detection of subsurface cavities + Shallow stratigraphy - Site surveys for offshore installations « Hydrocarbon exploration - Crustal structure and tectonics Seismic Applications + Determining depth to and rippabilty of bedrock ‘Spatial variability of the bedrock with reference to the ground surface is vital for many applications in geotechnical engineering to decide the type of foundation of a structure. A study was done within the development area of Mutiara Damansara utilising the seismic refraction method using ABEM MK8 24 channel seismograph. The geological features of the subsurface were investigated and velocities, depth to the underlying layers were determined. The seismic velocities were correlated with rippability characteristics and borehole records. Seismic sectionsgenerally show a three layer case. The first layer with velocity 400-600 m/s predominantly Consists of soil mix with gravel. The second layer with velocity 1600-2000 m/s is suggested to be saturated and weathered area. Both layers forms an overburden and generally rippable. The third layer represents granite bedrock with average depth and velocity 10-30 m and >3000 m/s respectively and itis non-rippable. Steep slope on the bedrock are probably the results of shear zones. Reference: https:/www.ostis using-seismic-refraction v/biblio/21511422-identification-ri frock-depth- Mapping bedrock is important for many reasons, from determining the type of equipment needed for an excavation project to estimating the amount of material to be extracted from the earth. Bedrock depth profiling or mapping can facilitate balanced grading plan designs, allow rock excavation volume estimations, aid in proper pre-mobilization excavation or driling equipment selection, provide data on soil and rock mechanical properties, delineate buried valley bases for well siting, and detect karst-related bedrock depth variations. ‘Seismic refraction is typically the best method for shallow depths of less than approximately 100 Teet. At greater depths, or in marine or water-saturated environments, seismic reflection may be a better choice. Where boreholes are available, hole-to-hole or hole-to-surface seismic tomography data can also be collected to improve the resolution of either seismic refraction or reflection surveys. In some situations, it may be preferable to perform bedrock depth profiling or mapping using microgravity measurements or electrical imaging. Microgravity measurements are sensitive to the subsurface mass distribution and can discriminate between locations underlain by dense rock at shallow depths, and those where there is a significant thickness of less dense sediments. When electrical imaging is used for rock depth profiling, itis important to remember that this ‘method is sensitive to variations in electrical conductivity of subsurface materials. Neither ‘microgravity nor electrical imaging methods can provide the elastic parameters and rippabilty information available from seismic data. Reference: http://www. rettew.com/services/geophysics/bedrock-depth-mapping/ ‘+ Mapping fracture zones and karstic features. Fracture zones - A long, narrow rift on the ocean floor, separating areas of differing depth: where such a zone crosses a mid-ocean ridge, it displaces the ridge by faulting, Karstic features- Karst is a type of landscape where the dissolving of the bedrock has created sinkholes, sinking streams, caves, springs, and other characteristic features. Karst is associated with soluble rock types such as limestone, marble, and gypsum. In general, a typical karst landscape forms when much of the water falling on the surface interacts with and enters the subsurface through cracks, fractures, and holes that have been dissolved into the bedrock. After traveling underground, sometimes for long distances, this water is then discharged from springs, many of which are cave entrances. Reference: https:/www.dictionary.com/browse/fracture-zoneiwww.nps.govisubjects/caves/karst-tandscapes.htm + Detecting abandoned mines ‘An abandoned mine is a mine or quarry which is no longer producing or operational and, there is no responsible party to finance the cost to address the remediation and/or restoration of the mine feature/site. Terms and definitions vary though the common theme is that the cost to address the hazards is typically borne by the publicitaxpayer/government. * Soil classification and stability studies Soil Classification concerns the grouping of soils with a similar range of properties (chemical, physical and biological) into units that can be geo-referenced and mapped. Soils are a very complex natural resource, much more so than air and water. Soils contain all naturally occurring chemical elements and combine simultaneously solid, iquid and ‘gaseous states. Moreover, the number of physical, chemical and biological characteristics and their combinations are nearly endless. No wonder then that many different approaches have been proposed to come to a sensible grouping of different soils. Also soil classification systems were developed for different purposes : Reference: ht + Earthquake design + Vibration monitoring