UNIT-2

Types of communication-oral communication

Meaning of oral communication

Oral communication implies communication through mouth. It includes

individuals conversing with each other, be it direct conversation or telephonic
conversation. Speeches, presentations, discussions are all forms of oral
communication. Oral communication is generally recommended when the
communication matter is of temporary kind or where a direct interaction is
required. Face to face communication (meetings, lectures, conferences,
interviews, etc.) is significant so as to build a rapport and trust.

Nature of oral communication

1. Oral communication does not require much planning. It requires

appropriate para-linguistic features like tone, pitch, register, facial expressions,
gestures and body language. Effective oral communication depends on
purpose of the message.

2. Oral communication should be used because it is simple, faster, informal,

more direct and more personal. It saves more time and creates efficiency.

3. In oral communication, there are no formalities of using pen, paper,

stamps, etc. and waiting endlessly for the response. Thus, even most personal
and confidential matters can be placed before the receiver in a simple and
direct way.
Below are the characteristics of oral communication.
1) Pre Planning
2) Certainty
3) Conciseness
4) Attractive Presentation.
5) Consideration of the Receiver or Audience
6) Neutrality
7) Realistic
8) Error Free
9) Patience
10) Emotion Free

Pre Planning

The first characteristic of oral communication is pre-planning. Before

communicating, one must plan the process of communicating the message
to reach the audience.

Certainty

One must be clear about the message he delivers to the audience.

Communication messages should always be backed up by research, facts,
and statistics.

Having certainty will not only give confidence to the speaker but also gives
clarity to the audience.

Conciseness

Collection of the message to deliver is one part of the activity. The

importance lies in how it is delivered. Structuring the logical sequence of the
presentation to deliver the message will improvise the effectiveness of the
message.

Attractive Presentation

An image can speak much better than a thousand words.

As a presenter, an attractive presentation can support you to deliver a much

complete and better message than the one without it. It helps you give the
cue points to arrange and structure the points to present before your
audience.
By visual presentation, your message can be effectively and accurately
reached and understood by the audience.

Consideration Of The Receiver Or Audience

Knowing your audience is one of the critical aspects of planning your

presentation. The elements like age group, background, demography, habits,
and culture of your audience can help you communicate as one among them.

Speaking your audience tone will drive your audience to take action you
intend them to.

Neutrality

Maintaining neutrality is a critical aspect of speech delivery. What is the

point when someone does not understand what you say? You must be aware
that your audience could come from different backgrounds.

They may include elder, younger, native, foreigner, educated, and

uneducated. They all may not understand at the same phase at which you
speak. They may not be familiar with the vocabulary you use. They may not
be familiar with the way you pronounce the words.

One must practice neutrality in his accent, phase, and vocabulary to reach
his audience effectively.

Realistic

One must feel what he says. One must mean what he says. Being realistic
with your speech will help you gain the trust of your audience.

If you do not feel honesty with your message, you cannot get anyplace within
your audience.

So be genuine in your message. Realize your message before you convey it

to your audience. You cannot keep your audience hooked to an unrealistic
message.

Error Free

I am sure we all agree that appearance plays a vital role in making an opinion
about any person. The same goes for your speech as well. You might be
wondering how your communication could create a visual impression?
Well, it is not communication that gives such an impression. Your visual
appeal, the presentation, and any visual aspects of your speech could give
that impression.

So please be as error-free as possible with all your visual elements used for
your speech or presentation.

Patience

Not only for learning Karate, but patience is also essential for oral
communication. One must be patient while researching the topics, facts, and
audience. Understanding your audience during speech also requires some
patience.

While listening to your audience’s queries, one must be patient enough to

observe their points. Before responding to your audience, you must process
your points patiently and then deliver them accordingly.

Emotion Free

One must learn to be prepared to face all types of audiences. Not all
audiences may agree with you. Not all audiences may like you.

Accepting these facts makes you emotion-free. In whatever scenario, learn

to respect your audience and their opinion. It will set you free from any
disturbance.
Principle of effective oral communication

Well-Planned
Before presenting something, there should be proper planning regarding the
audience, topics to be delivered, timing and other factors: So, a person must
be well-prepared to deliver his speech.

Clear pronunciation
To make oral messages meaningful to receivers, words should be clearly and
correctly pronounced. There should not be any lack of clarity, otherwise, the
communication would be a confusing one.

Brevity
Effective oral communication desires that a message should be brief. If the
sender took a long time for talking, his message may not get the attention of
the receiver.

Precision
Precision is needed to make oral communication effective. There should not
be any confusing words rather message to be delivered should be specific so
that there is no misunderstanding.

Natural voice
Any sort of unnatural voice may distort the message. Natural voice can do a lot
to make oral communication effective.

Logical sequence
Ideas should be organized in a sequential way to make the message
communicative and attractive. Unorganized ideas do not provide clear sense
while a logical sequence of ideas gives clear sense.
Suitable words
Words have different meanings to different people in different situations in oral
communication, a speaker should use the common, simple and familiar words
so that receiver can react to the message without any problem.

Courteous
Courtesy costs nothing but can earn many things. So, a speaker should be
courteous while addressing listeners. It helps create a good impression in the
mind of listeners regarding the speaker.

Attractive presentation
It is another principle to make oral communication effective. A speaker should
deliver his speech in a very nice and sweet language so that receiver is
attracted to take part in the communication.

Avoiding Emotions
Speaker must control his emotions to make oral communication effective. Too
much emotion will take the speaker away from the main subject.

Emphasis
The speaker must be knowledgeable regarding the portion of the speech
where he should give emphasis. Giving emphasis on respective points will
help draw the attention of the audience.

Controlling Gesticulation
Speaker at many occasions, consciously or unconsciously, gesticulates for
expressing his ideas or thoughts. This is a habit and should be avoided.
Otherwise, application of such habit may lead to % disinterest of the audience.
Scope of oral communication

Scope means the possibility of any particular subject in a particular field. It can
be understood by dividing in two parts:

Internal (within the organization)

External (outside the organization)

 Scope within the organization

The types of oral communication commonly used within an organization

include staff meetings, personal discussions, presentations, telephone
discourse, and informal conversation.

 Scope outside the organization

Oral communication with those outside of the organization might take the
form of face-to- face meetings, telephone calls, speeches, teleconferences, or
videoconferences.

The study of oral communication considers the process as essential to

facilitate understanding between the speaker and the audience. Thus,
Therefore, oral communication is understood as that dynamic and systematic
process of sharing meaning and understanding the meaning through verbal
and non-verbal exchange between individuals in interaction within a given
context.

Techniques of Effective Speech-

1. Fit the Message to the Audience

Guidelines for effective public speaking often include tips that apply to any
situation. But sometimes, it pays to tailor your delivery based on your audience.
Matching subject matter and delivery style helps you make the best possible
impression. When you know you’re speaking successfully, you’re able to
present with more confidence.
Before you speak, plan ahead by considering your target audience. If you’re
presenting a research paper to academics, you can plan on a detail-heavy
speech. But if you’re introducing a new idea to a casually-interested audience,
it’s better to take a broader focus.

Every great presentation begins with thoughtful audience analysis to cater

your content.
Knowledge level is also an important element. Imagine you’re speaking about
astronomy to a group of young children. Your message can and should be
much different than if you’re addressing a room full of seasoned scientists.

In essence, use your public speaking skills to connect with the audience in
front of you. All it takes is a bit of advanced planning. You’ll be on your way to
giving an inspiring speech that all can enjoy.

2. Be Interactive!

Tips for effective public speaking help you give the best speech possible.
Remember what you’re trying to do. You’re informing, inspiring, and engaging
your audience. And talking at them isn’t enough. The best public speakers
build interactive elements into their speeches. You can too.

Interactivity is one of the key public speaking skills. It can take many forms. It
can be as simple as a quick, personal greeting at the start of your speech. Or
you can even play interactive games like a trivia quiz.

This offers many benefits. It keeps audiences alert and engaged. It helps you
gauge how well they're following your message. And it takes the heat off of you
by adding engagement from others. Sometimes, after all, a break from talking
is welcome. It helps you stay focused and on pace.

If you're presenting your speech with PowerPoint, check out our interactive
quiz tutorial:

3. Care About Your Topic

Passion goes a long way when it comes to being an effective speaker. The
audience can tell if you're apathetic. If you don't care, they won't care either.
Even worse, you can come across as a fake.

But if you sincerely care about your topic the audience will pick up on that too.
They'll view you as being more authentic and believable. They'll listen more
closely to discover why your subject is so important to you. And they're more
likely to forgive any minor mistakes you might make.
4. Remember Your Speaking Goal

We've all probably listened to at least one speaker who seemed to go on and
on forever about nothing in particular. One reason why this happens is
because the speech isn't focused enough. The speaker is trying to cover too
much and ends up boring their listeners.

Train your sights on your speaking goal while writing it so that every point
supports a central goal.
Early in the process of developing your speech, identify the reason why you're
speaking. Make it a point to stick to this goal during your presentation. Don't
get sidetracked or off-topic.

5. Support Your Main Points

Every point you make in your speech needs to be supported with either an
example, an illustration, or facts. When you're supporting a point, it's best to be
as specific as you can be.

For example, in a speech about the importance of clean water this statement is
too vague:

"Many people don't have clean water."

Stating this statistic from the U.S. Center for Disease Control is a more
effective way to support your point:

"Worldwide, 780 million people do not have access to

an improved water source."

6. Tell a Story

People love a good story. So, if you want to be a more effective speaker, tell a
story.

Storytelling is a great way to make your material more engaging and to relate
to your audience. Make sure your story is relatable and relevant.

If you're speaking is about your business, here are some examples of stories
you may be able to tell:
  A customer story. The story of how your product or services met a
need for a specific customer or solved a problem. Satisfied customers
are often happy to share this.
 Your company story. The story of how your company came to be.
This can be especially effective if it's customer-oriented.
 A product development story. The story of how you came to offer a
new product (or service).

Of course, there are many other types of stories you could tell depending on
the type of speaking you're doing.

7. Use a Professional Template

While we're talking about presentation tools, let's also talk about presentation
design. Your presentation design affects how your audience perceives you.

Even if you deliver your speech perfectly, your audience might still judge you if
your slides are sloppy. The presentation visuals are just as important as your
speaking performance.

8. Use Presentation Tools Wisely

Slide presentations often get a reputation for being dull. That's because many
speakers are unaware of what their presentation tools can do and don't make
the best use of all the features. To better engage your audience, learn how to
use the more advanced features of your tool.

As an example, here are just a few ways you can use PowerPoint and Google
Slides (with links to related tutorials):

 Add animations (PowerPoint, Google Slides)

 Add video (PowerPoint, Google Slides)
 Add audio (PowerPoint, Google Slides)
 Construct a timeline (PowerPoint, Google Slides)

And these features are just the tip of the iceberg. To really elevate your public
speaking techniques, it helps to know what your software can do. Our tutorial
series on Google Slides and PowerPoint are a good place to start.

9. Practice Your Speech

One of the most important public speaking techniques is often one of the most
overlooked--practice. If you expect that you'll be an effective speaker without
practicing your speech, you'd be wrong. One of the quickest ways to avoid
public speaking failure is to try and give a speech you don't really know and
haven't practiced.

One of the timeless tips for public speaking is to budget time for rehearsal.
The old saying, "practice makes perfect," really is true when it comes to
developing effective speaking skills. The more you practice your speech, the
more familiar it'll be to you and the more comfortable you'll be giving it. Plus,
practicing your speech is the only way to discover how long the speech will
take and where you need to pause.

10. Work With a Coach (optional)

If you're really serious about developing effective speaking skills, a speaking

coach or teacher can take you to the next level. A coach or teacher can teach
you the principles of public speaking and point out mistakes in your public
speaking techniques. They give you awareness of tendencies you would
otherwise miss.

Worried about cost? You may be able to find reasonably priced public
speaking help through one of the following organizations:

 Toastmasters International
 Your local community college
 Public Speaking Meetup

There may even be more resources close to you.

11. Relax!

It's normal to be nervous about public speaking. One study from The National
Center for Biotechnology Information estimates that as many as 77% of us
have a fear of public speaking. It's so common there's an actual technical
term for fear of public speaking--glossophobia.

I'm not telling you this to make you more anxious, but rather to let you know
that having some anxiety before giving a speech is perfectly normal. Still, you
should try to relax if you can. You'll be more comfortable, and the audience will
relate to you better too.

If there's something that normally calms you down in stressful situations, try
using it right before you're due to speak. Popular calming techniques include:

 meditation
 exercise
  positive affirmations
 aromatherapy
 music

12. Don't Worry About Mistakes

One of the reasons so many of us fear public speaking is because we're

worried that we'll make a mistake and embarrass ourselves in front of
everyone. If this is your fear, let it go. Most audiences will understand if you
make a mistake. And if it's a small mistake, the audience may not even notice
it.

Of course, practice can dramatically reduce the likelihood of you making a

mistake. The more you practice the better you'll know your speech--and
mistakes will be less likely.

So, what should you do if you do happen to make a mistake? If it's a minor
mistake, don't stop or apologize for your mistake as that only calls attention to
it. Just continue on. If you make a big mistake, try using humor to diffuse the
situation and then continue your speech. Your listeners will be impressed with
how gracefully you handled things.

13. Study the Habits of Others

One of the best ways to learn effective public speaking skills is to study the
habits of others. There's no reason to learn the art (and science) of public
speaking all by yourself.

Consider your favorite orators, lecturers, and presenters. Think about why
they're your favorites. Usually, it's their delivery, their stage presence, and their
sense of style. If you can't watch them in person, it's a great idea to watch
videos of them at work.

It's important to note that tips for effective public speaking vary from person to
person. Don't try copying someone else's style. But learn from their habits and
incorporate the best into your own method of public speaking. By doing so, you
can inspire others in the same ways that have inspired you.

14. Pace Yourself

When it comes to public speaking, a common newbie error is to speak too

quickly. This is usually caused by a combination of nerves and not realizing
how fast you're actually speaking. But talking too fast makes it harder for your
listeners to understand what you're saying.
Effective public speakers know to pace themselves. They'll speak at a natural
pace and work short, natural pauses into their speech.

It also helps if you remember to breathe during your speech. A surprising

number of people hold their breath without realizing it when they're nervous
(I'm one of them). But holding your breath will only increase your anxiety. So,
remember to breathe deeply during the breaks in your speech. If your speech
is a long one, taking a sip of water during a break can also help.

15. Add Visual Aids

Visual aids can serve as a powerful illustration of your speech. Humans use
their sight more than any other sense. So, if you can make your point by
showing it to your listeners rather than describing it, they're more likely to
remember it.

Layouts like those in this infographic PowerPoint presentation help you

build stunning visual aids quickly.
Be careful though. To be effective, your visual aid must be of high-quality and
easily visible to all members of your audience. Avoid incorporating sloppy
graphics into a slide presentation. Likewise, don't hold up a visual aid that's
physically too small for those listening to see.

16. Avoid Awkward Fillers

"Um," "uh," "like."

We all slip these filler words into our conversations without even realizing it.
But overuse of these words during a professional speech can make you sound
less than confident. If you can, break the habit of using these words to become
a better public speaker.

Practice can help you cut these words from your speech patterns, but you may
be so used to using them that it's hard to notice when you're doing it. This is
where a speech coach, teacher, or friend would come in handy. They could
listen for these words and help you break the habit of using them.

17. Dress Comfortably, But Professionally

What's the right outfit to wear if you want to be an effective public speaker?

Well, there's no one answer. How you dress depends on who your listeners
will be. But the general principle is that you want to dress professionally to
make a good impression. Make sure to observe good grooming and hygiene
rules too.

Many experts feel you should dress according to how your audience dresses.
If the audience is dressed formally, you don't want to show up in shorts and a
tee shirt. Likewise, if the audience is wearing shorts and a tee shirt, don't dress
formally.

Media of oral communication

Face to face conversation

Conversation means the informal discussion among the people. When one
person discusses his views, opinion to another person and exchanges their
views in the presence of both then it is called face to face conversation. It also
includes the face-to-face discussion on a particular issue. In this method, both
the information receiver and sender can exchange their views freely and fairly.

So, face-to-face conversation is an informal discussion through spoken

language and words on a particular issue among the people to exchange their
views freely and fairly weighs each other.

Advantages of face-to-face conversation:

1. Responses immediately: When people communicate each other

in person, they can get a response immediately without
misunderstanding. During the conversation, people can not only hear a
response from others, also see how they are feeling; people can guest
what will take place next, how the conversation is about, which is very
important to have a successful talk.
2. Express of feelings: Using face-to-face communication helps
people express their feelings, ideas much better. Instead of using words
only when people choose letters, emails or phone for communication,
people can use eye contact, verbal language in order to show their
opinions. Scientists show that more than seventy percent people use
body or verbal language in communicating; thus, it’s very important for
people use actions to express views.
3. Suitable for respect: Face-to-face communication enjoys yet
another distracts advantage, the message being communicated also
gets the assistance of facial expressions and gestures.
 4. Suitable for discussion: Face-to-face communication is
particularly suitable for discussion, for there is immediate feedback from
the listener. Face-to-face communication provides the speaker with a
much better opportunity for adjustment. A twist of the lips, a frown on the
forehead, a contraction of the facial muscles point out that the message
is not welcomed, then changes of tone or sympathetically looking is to
be needed. These adjustments are possible only in face-to-face
communication.
5. Conversation to learn: We learn a great deal via conversation,
including conversations with ourselves. We learn highly valuable life
lessons.
6. Conversation to coordinate: Coordinating our action in ways that
are mutually beneficial. Anytime we negotiate one favor for another, we
use conversation to reach an agreement to transact.
7. Collaborate: Coordination of action assumes relatively clear goals,
but many times social interaction involves the negotiation of goals.
Conversation is a requisite for agreeing on goals, as well as for
agreeing upon and coordinating our actions.

Disadvantages of face-to-face conversation

The limitations of face-to-face communication are given below:

1. Difficult to practice in a large-sized organization: Face-to-face

communication is extremely difficult to practice in large-sized
organizations, particularly if their various units or departments are
situated at different places.
2. Not effective in large gatherings: It is very difficult to get a
message across to large gatherings. Even though the speaker is
addressing them face-to-face, the vital personal touch is missing. In the
absence of a satisfactory feedback, his speech lapse into a monologue.
3. Ineffective if the listener is not attentive: A limitation which the
face-to-face communication shares with oral communication is that its
effectiveness is closely linked with the listener’s attentiveness. Since
human beings can listen to grasp the message faster than the speed at
which they are delivered, they will easily get delivered thus making
communication ineffective.

Teleconferences

A teleconference is a telephone meeting among two or more participants

involving technology more sophisticated than a simple two-way phone
connection. At its simplest, a teleconference can be an audio conference with
one or both ends of the conference sharing a speaker phone.

Types of Teleconferences

Audio Teleconference: Voice-only; sometimes called conference calling.

Interactively links people in remote locations via telephone lines. Audio bridges
tie all lines together. Meetings can be conducted via audio conference.
Preplanning is necessary which includes naming a chair, setting an agenda,
and providing printed materials to participants ahead of time so that they can
be reviewed.

Distance learning can be conducted by audio conference. In fact, it is one of

the most underutilized, yet cost effective methods available to education.
Instructors should receive training on how to best utilize audio conferences to
augment other forms of distance learning.

Computer Teleconference: Uses telephone lines to connect two or more

computers and modems. Anything that can be done on a computer can be
sent over the lines. It can be synchronous or asynchronous. An example of an
asynchronous mode is electronic mail. Using electronic mail (E-Mail), memos,
reports, updates, newsletters can be sent to anyone on the local area network
(LAN) or wide area network (WAN). Items generated on computer which are
normally printed and then sent by facsimile can be sent by E-Mail.

Computer conferencing is an emerging area for distance education. Some

institutions offer credit programs completely by computer. Students receive
texts and workbooks via mail. Through common files assigned to a class which
each student can assess, teachers upload syllabi, lectures, grades and
remarks. Students download these files, compose their assignment and
remarks off-line, then upload them to the common files.

Students and instructors are usually required to log on for a prescribed number
of days during the week. Interaction is a large component of the students'
grades.

Through computers, faculty, students and administrators have easy access to

one another as well as access to database resources provided through
libraries. The academic resources of libraries and special resources can be
accessed such as OCLC, ERIC, and Internet.
Administrators can access student files, retrieve institutional information from
central repositories such as district or system offices, government agencies, or
communicate with one another. Other resources can be created such as
updates on state or federal legislation.

Video Teleconference: Combines audio and video to provide voice

communications and video images. Can be one-way video/two-way audio, or
two-way video/two-way audio. It can display anything that can be captured by
a TV camera. The advantage is the capability to display moving images. In
two-way audio/video systems, a common application is to show people which
creates a social presence that resembles face-to-face meetings and classes
and enables participants to see the facial expressions and physical demeanor
of participants at remote sites. Graphics are used to enhance understanding.
There are three basic systems: freeze frame, compressed, and full-motion
video.

Video conferencing is an effective way to use one teacher who teaches to a

number of sites. It is very cost effective for classes which may have a small
number of students enrolled at each site. In many cases, video conferencing
enables the institution or a group of institutions to provide courses which would
be canceled due to low enrollment or which could not be supported otherwise
because of the cost of providing an instructor in an unusual subject area. Rural
areas benefit particularly from classes provided through video conferencing
when they work with a larger metropolitan institution that has full-time faculty.

Through teleconferencing, institutions are able to serve all students equitably.

Advantages of Teleconferencing

1. Saves Time – The most important advantage of teleconferencing is

time-saving. With teleconferencing, it is possible to hold meetings on a very
short notice. In addition, there is no time spent traveling to the venue of a
meeting as all meetings are held through machines or Internet. Reduced
mileage translates to thousands of hours of travel saved every year.
Teleconferencing also encourages punctuality as meetings are scheduled and
done at fixed time frames.

2. Save on Travel Expenses – In addition to time, travel costs can be quite

significant when added up over a long period. Most companies that have a
global reach incur massive costs associated with the travel ever year.
Teleconferencing, however, removes the need to travel often and thus saves
huge company resources. Attend meeting thousands of miles away is now
faster and less cumbersome.

3. Efficient Record Keeping – One of the main teleconferencing advantages

is efficient meeting recording keeping. Computing devices are able to record,
keep logs and track every detail of a particular online meeting without needing
a lot of monitoring. This makes teleconferencing facilities among the best tools
for capturing and storing important meeting data. Teleconferencing also makes
it very easy to retrieve this data in the future and make references whenever
necessary.

4. Cut Conference Costs – There are indeed many logistical costs associated
with holding a conference. Hiring equipment, acquiring a venue, buying food
and refreshment are just some of the normal costs associated with any
meeting. Teleconferencing removes all these costs as no such arrangements
need to be made. The flexibility of teleconferencing also ensures that meetings
are held as often as possible with no extra costs being incurred.

5. Encourage Productivity – The fifth teleconferencing advantage is that

teleconferencing ensures that workers at various hierarchies in the company
structure are in constant communication. This translates to effective
information-sharing and prompt actions. Such recurrent engagement is a
motivational factor that results turns out increased productivity.
Teleconferencing also makes multi-branch management easier as the
proximity of every department of a company is optimized.

6. Reliability – Teleconferencing is one of the most reliable ways of holding

meetings. This reliability has increased exponentially over the years due to
advancement in technology. Teleconferencing channels are today much more
stable and communication challenges are almost non-existent. It is also a very
secure mode of communication where the safety of data as well as privacy is
guaranteed.

Disadvantages of Teleconferencing

1. Prone to Technical Challenges – The main difference between machines

and humans is that machines are prone to wear and tear. Technical
challenges can thus hit teleconferencing systems at any time. This can lead to
time wastage and other inconveniences. Most technological systems also
come with a learning curve. Lack of know-how can hinder a person from
effective utilization of teleconferencing facilities.

2. Less Effective Nonverbal Communication – When compared to an actual

meeting, teleconferencing is a less effective mode of business communication.
This is because important nonverbal aspects of business communication like
body language and human contact are disregarded. Nonverbal cues are very
crucial to holistic communication. The lack of such cues makes it impossible to
pick important signals that could lead to a more productive interaction.

3. Space Limitations – The fact that teleconferencing occurs on a screen

means that a lot of information is disregarded due to limited space. It is, for
instance, nearly impossible to deliver all graphical data effectively even
when holding a live online meeting. Even with a big screen, simultaneous
actions are not possible in the same way they are at an actual meeting.
Consequently, some information is lost or not effectively covered.

4. Discourages Team Dynamics – Another teleconferencing disadvantage is

that teleconferencing lacks the dynamism of a real conference where
participants are able to have a shared engagement and raise or respond to
issues instantaneously. This means that it is often difficult to effectively
interject or share ideas as they arise. The lack of dynamism ultimately leads to
few people taking control of meetings at the expense of other people.

5. Eliminate Informal Interactions – The common pre-meeting and

post-meeting conversations are often very important in setting the stage for the
day’s agenda and even future meeting agendas. Such informal engagements
are also where some key ideas arise concerning important matters like policy
and planning. With the lack of such small talk, teleconferencing can be seen as
a rigid and non-progressive mode of conferencing.

6. Affect Professionalism – The fact that machines are the main intermediary
between the different parties involved in the meeting,which can affect
professionalism. This is because participants are often forced to multitask.
This multitasking can shift the focus of participants to other issues that are
unrelated and not beneficial to the meeting.

Press conference
A press conference is an event organized to officially distribute information and
answer questions from the media. Press conferences are also announced in
response to specific public relations issues.

Corporate press conferences are generally led by the company’s executive

management or a press liaison or communications officer. Given limited
resources, particularly during a time of quarterly or annual earnings, it may be
difficult to attract major media attention unless a company has a truly unique or
newsworthy announcement to share.

Press conferences are held by corporations and other businesses, politicians,

and other government officials.

Why Hold a Press Conference?

There are many reasons why companies choose to hold press conferences.
They may be called to do any of the following:

 Respond to earnings, other news, and/or controversies.

 Announce the departure or addition of a new executive.
 Unveil a new production facility.
 Announce the release of a new product.

Of course, these are just some of the instances when a company may call a
conference. In some cases, companies may time their press conferences
before any news breaks.

Steps for planning a press conference

Start planning several weeks before the press conference is to take place.

1. Define the message

Your message should be summarized in 3-5 key points. If a date, a time, an

address or phone number, or other specific information is part of the message,
state it more than once, and display it prominently in your press kit. Double- or
triple-check any such information.

2. Schedule the date and time.

Ensure the date and time for the press conference does not conflict with other
press events or media deadlines. Check with the local media and the wire
services about such deadlines/events. Also, find out what the ‘slower’ news
days in a week might be, then try to have your press conference on a “slower”
day. For example, in the USA, Tuesdays, Wednesdays and Thursdays are the
best days for press conferences, as they are generally considered “slower”
news days (barring any sudden or last minute news events). In many countries,
the best time to schedule your press conference is between 10:00 a.m. and
11:00 a.m., to ensure maximum coverage by the media. In some countries,
breakfast briefings earlier in the morning could also be useful to offer to attract
media attendance.

3. Pick the site.

Choose a location for the press conference that is easy to reach and not too far
for reporters to travel. Ideally, the site should offer visual interest and
relationship to the topic – e.g. a government building, a courthouse, or a local
clinic. Choose a place with little background noise (e.g. from traffic, telephones,
aircraft), and which has adequate electrical outlets and extension cords for
lighting and other purposes.

4. Select and train participants.

Speakers must be knowledgeable and articulate. They should be able to

handle press questioning and scrutiny as well. People with high credibility,
such as local politicians, the director of a well-known organization, a physician
or a judge may make effective spokespeople. Firsthand testimony from people
affected by the issue can be extremely powerful and convincing. If survivors of
VAW are to give any testimonies at a press conference, ensure they are
psychologically ready for it, and that ethical rules are strictly followed. Plan for
any difficulties that may arise for them during the event.

Tips for participants:

- Be clear and concise– avoid using jargon, rhetoric, digressions or

inflammatory language.

- Assume the audience is intelligent – avoid sounding patronizing.

- Do not fiddle with or clutch anything – it’s distracting and makes you appear
nervous.
- Appearance counts – participants should be dressed neatly and appropriately
for the occasion.

- Always tell the truth. If you do not know the answer to a question, say so. Do
not exaggerate or give figures that aren’t backed up by evidence, and do not
state opinions as facts.

5. Contact the media.

Create a comprehensive mailing list of reporters and editors at television

stations, news directors at radio stations, and at major newspapers, editors at
weekly newspapers and news wire services. Make sure you include reporters
who may have covered the issue in recent months. Mail your press advisory
about one week ahead of time to the media, and then again on the day before
the meeting.

6. Follow up with the media.

Follow up your press advisory with phone contact to the major media outlets
on the third day after you sent it, and a second time the morning of the press
conference.

7. Develop a press kit and prepare a sufficient number of copies

8. Prepare the room

Check the location of electrical outlets for microphones and lights.Set up the
room with a table long enough to seat all your spokespeople, with name cards
Provide enough seating in the room for reporters, and room for their
equipment.Display visuals as a backdrop to your speaker's table, e.g. charts
and posters.

- Have a sign-in pad for attendance

- Have coffee, tea, water, and any other refreshments set up

Meetings
A formal meeting is a pre-planned gathering of two or more people who have
assembled for the purpose of achieving a common goal through verbal
interaction. Formal meetings are characterized by their predetermined topics,
a set of objectives and formal notices. These meetings are held at a specific
time, at a defined place and according to an agreed agenda. Formal meetings
are typically lead by a chairperson with the discussions and agreements
recorded in a written form known as minutes. A formal meetings is also known
as a board meeting, a committee meeting, a caucus meeting, a conclave, a
congress, a council meeting, a stockholders meeting as summit meeting or a
symposium.

What is the purpose of a formal meeting?

The purpose of a formal meeting is to discuss the list of predetermined topics

and address the set of objectives, and make decisions relating to them. Formal
meetings are a requirement of some companies to promote transparency and
accountability. These meeting allow proper discussions to be taken about
issues within the company.

What are the different types of formal meetings?

Annual General Meeting – These are usually a requirement of a company.

Employees and Shareholders will meet to discuss progress in the past year,
and what to do in the next one.

Planning Meetings – Groups will gather together to plan what to do and how to
do it.

Review Meetings – Participants will gather to discuss what has been done,
how successful it was and whether it could have been done differently.
Group Discussion

A discussion group is a group of individuals with similar interest who gather

either formally or informally to bring up ideas, solve problems or give
comments.

Advantages

1. More information:

A group is better equipped as far as information is concerned.An individual

cannot have all the information that is available to a group as it consists of
several individuals.

2. Diversity of views:

A group always has the advantage of varied views. This is because a group
always has more than one member, and since every member is unique, there
is bound to be a variety in their views also. This is also the reason why there
are varied approaches to solving a problem. As group decisions tend to cover
a greater area, they provide a better insight for decision- making.

3. Greater acceptability:

The views expressed by a group have more acceptance than those from an
individual. This is because the decisions are not imposed, but are part of a
larger consensus (general agreement). A group decision is automatically
assumed to be more democratic, and the decision of an individual can be
perceived as being autocratic (dictatorial).

4. Expert opinions:
There may be some group decisions that require expert opinion. The group
can either include experts or can call them from outside to form a separate
group to take a decision on a particular issue.

5. Degree of involvement:

The members of a group feel involved with a given problem. This minimizes
their resistance.It strengthens an organization and facilitates decision-making.

6. Encourages people’s participation:

A group usually provides a platform for people to present their ideas. Group
dynamics is more likely to draw out participation from people who may
otherwise be hesitant to talk or interact. It encourages people to take an
initiative as they feel part of the decision-making process.Usually there is no
individual onus (burden) in the event of failure, which makes it easier for
people to come up with suggestions and solutions to problems.

Disadvantages:

1. Time-consuming:

A group involves several individuals. Getting them organised, planning and

coordinating their meetings, defining and explaining to them the purpose of a
meeting and the goals, and finally reaching a solution or arriving at a decision
can be quite cumbersome. Making decisions in a group can, thus, be
time-consuming. The time loss involved in group dynamics cannot be ignored.

2. Lack of onus:

It is difficult to fix responsibility in a group. In an organisation, it is often

essential to fix responsibility before a problem can be solved. It is difficult to do
so if anything goes wrong with a decision made by a group.

3. Individual domination:
Quite often, discussions in a group are dominated by a few members.
Although a group discussion means a collective discussion, some people
usually manage to usurp (draw to them) a position of informal leadership owing
to their personality or style of participation.This position can also be because of
the position held within the organization or simply because of self-confidence
generated by previous experiences. Sometimes only a few individuals
dominate and the others fade away in a group, thereby defeating the very
purpose of group discussion.

4. Compromise decisions:

The need to arrive at a group decision sometimes results in a compromise.

The solution offered is not essentially the best. It is, instead, a compromise
acceptable as a mid-point to all concerned. There are different demands and
social pressures, and members may agree to a proposal without really
evaluating it. Such support may not be wholehearted.

5. Expensive:

Group decision-making is quite expensive in terms of time, money, energy and

man-hours. There is also a theory which says that the larger a group gets, the
less is the individual contribution from each member.

6. Groupism:

The very word has negative connotations. Some members of a group may
start harboring a feeling that they are different from the others. This actually
leads to informal groups within the larger formal group, which may generate
negative sentiments towards other groups or people outside the group.

Grapevine communication
Informal communication is also known as grapevine communication because
there is no definite route of communication for sharing information. The most
system of an organization is grapevine communication system.

Features of grapevine can be discussed in the following manner:-

communication
1.Flexibility:
There is no formal control on grapevine. For this reason, It is more flexible
system than any other ways of communication.
2. Lack of control:
Actually, there is no managerial control over the grapevine communication
system. It is grown by itself.
3. Rapid communication:
Grapevine communication system is more faster than other formal or informal
channels of communication.
4. No record:
We can't keep any documentary record or evidence of grapevine
communication system that can be shown or produced as future reference.

5. Used for self-interest:

As grapevine communication system is produced by gossip and rumor, It is
basically used for self-interest of the employees of an organization.
6. Popular among employees:
This communication system is much popular among the employees than other
formal or informal channels.
7. Distortion:
Distorting of real massage is one of the major features of grapevine
communication system. In this communication process,information passes
rapidly man to man. That's why the information losses its originality.
8 Spontaneous:
Grapevine is basically spontaneous. It passes rapidly and spontaneously from
top to bottom of the organization. Here is no need to make any effort to make it
successful.

Advantage of grapevine
The advantages of grapevine communication are given below:
1. Interpret: The information is given by the top level management under the
formal system. It is easy for the employees to take the explanation by informal
system. So this system plays a vital role to complete the work properly.
2. Present grievance: Under the informal system the employees disclose their
needs, sentiment and their emotions to others authority without feeling any
hesitation.
3. Alternate system: The management sometimes does not able to reach all
information by formal system. Informal system covers the gap or familiarity of
formal system.
4. Improved relationship: Any problem between the workers and the
management can be solved by informal system. So it makes good
relationships among the employees and the management.
5. Increase efficiency: Under the informal system, the employees discuss
their problem openly and they can solve it. For this, the work is done properly
and it develops the efficiency of the employee.
6. Providing recommendation: In this system the employees inform their
superior about their demands, problem and the way to develop the
implementation system of the work.As a result it creates an opportunity to send
the recommendation to their management.
7. Flexibility:Informal communication is more flexible than formal
communication because it is free from all type of formalities.
8. Rapid communication: Informal communication transmits very fast.
Especially miss-information or rumor spread rapidly to others in the
organization.
9. Improve interpersonal relationship: Cooperation and coordination in
informal communication leads to improve interpersonal relationship which is
very much essential to carry out the business activity smoothly.
10. Others: Improve labor management relationship. Free flow of information.
Remove mental distance. Evaluation of employees. Obtain immediate
feedback. Reliving frustration. Increasing efficiency. Solution of problems and
helping decision-making. Enhance mutual trust etc.

Disadvantages of grapevine
The disadvantages of grapevine communication are as follows:

1. Distort meaning: Something the meaning and the subject matter of the
information is distorted in this system.
2. Spread rumor: In this system, the miss-information or rumor spread rapidly.
The original information may be transformed to wrong information.
3. Misunderstanding: Under this system, generally, the employees do not
obey the formal authorization system. So it creates the opportunity to develop
misunderstanding.
4. Maintaining secrecy is impossible: In informal communication system
maximum communication is made by open discussion. So it is impossible to
maintain the secrecy of the information.
5. Difficulty in controlling: Under informal communication system no
established rules or policy is obeyed. So it is very much difficult to control the
information.
6. Non-cooperation: Informal communication system sometimes develops the
adversary culture among the employees. So they are not to be cooperative
with each other and their efficiency may be reduced.
7. Others: Providing partial information. Not reliable. No documentary
evidence.Damaging discipline. Contradicting to formal information etc.

Rumours:

Rumour is an “instinctual behaviour” arising at the workplace usually involving

unverified information of uncertain origin transmitted by word of mouth. It
arises in grapevine communication and usually spreads unauthentic
information though, however, sometimes, the information may be true and
accurate.
Rumour is information, often a mixture of truth and untruth, told by one person
to another. It is a gossip or common talk especially about the personal or
private affairs of others.

Causes of Rumours:

Rumours originate because of the following reasons:

1. Poor communication system:

A poor communication system where people do not openly share formal

information often leads to spreading of rumours. People get information from
unauthenticated sources and spread it like wild fire.

2. Pressurise the management:

When employees want to pressurise management to accept their demands,
they may spread false information in the organisation in the hope to enter into
dialogue with the management.
3. Malintentions of employees:
Employees who are not committed to the organisation spread wrong
information to cause harm to it.

Effects of Rumours:
Rumours are harmful for the organisation and employees. Spreading of
rumours can lead to the following:

(1) It can build a sense of community with shared interests and information.

(2) It can entertain and divert participants in gossip-sessions.

(3) It can develop various types of stories not related to facts.

(4) It can build structures of social accountability.

(5) It can promote mutual social grooming. People gossip at the workplace,
waste their time and deviate from organizational goals.

(6) It results in loss of productivity and time.

(7) There is loss of trust and morale.

(8) It increases anxiety among employees as rumors circulate without any
clear information as to what is fact and what is not.

(9) It grows divisiveness among employees as people “take sides”. People

form groups and promote the group goals.

(10) It hurts the feelings and reputations of people high in the hierarchy.

(11) It obstructs career advancement opportunities of the gossipers as they are

perceived as unprofessional.

(12) It increases labour turnover as good employees leave the company due to
unhealthy work atmosphere.

Oral Report

An oral report presents the findings of a research-based experiment. It may also

have a format to present the information clearly to an audience. Basically, the
elements of an oral presentation may consist of an introduction, body, and
conclusion. At the same time, posters, slide shows, videos, movies, and other
demonstrations can also be used in presenting. When presenting an oral report, the
speaker should also pay attention to the presentation skills. Maintaining eye
contact, use of correct body language and use of facial expression may appeal to
the audience. They also help to present an effective oral report. When presenting
the oral reports, the speaker should memorize the information and details. Oral
reports can be used for formal gatherings as well as for informal gatherings.

CCCTV ( Closed Circuit TV)

What is CCTV?

CCTV (closed-circuit television) is a TV system in which signals are not

publicly distributed but are monitored, primarily for surveillance and security
purposes.
How does CCTV work?

CCTV relies on strategic placement of cameras, and observation of the

camera's input on monitors somewhere. Because the cameras communicate
with monitors and/or video recorders across private coaxial cable runs
or wireless communication links, they gain the designation "closed-circuit" to
indicate that access to their content is limited by design only to those able to
see it.

CCTV use cases

Older CCTV systems used small, low-resolution black and white monitors with
no interactive capabilities. Modern CCTV displays can be color, high-resolution
displays and can include the ability to zoom in on an image or track something
(or someone) among their features. Talk CCTV allows an overseer to speak to
people within range of the camera's associated speakers.

CCTV is commonly used for a variety of purposes, including:

 Maintaining perimeter security in medium- to high-secure areas and

installations.
 Observing behavior of incarcerated inmates and potentially dangerous
patients in medical facilities.
 Traffic monitoring.
 Overseeing locations that would be hazardous to a human, for example,
highly radioactive or toxic industrial environments.
 Building and grounds security.
 Obtaining a visual record of activities in situations where it is necessary
to maintain proper security or access controls (for example, in a diamond
cutting or sorting operation; in banks, casinos, or airports).

Dictaphone
A Dictaphone is a high-performing voice recorder designed for use by busy
professionals. With a Dictaphone, you are able to stop and restart a recording
without creating a new file. You can also review, insert additional, and erase
unnecessary recordings.

Features of a Dictaphone:
  Files are encrypted to increase the security of sensitive information.
 A large battery life, so they can record 10-30 hours of audio before
running out of charge.
 They work best for one voice but settings can be adjusted to create
high-quality recordings of meetings.
 Unidirectional microphone to reduce background noise.
 Dictaphones also create small file sizes which are small enough to
send via email (specialized software is required for playback). Settings
can be adjusted to create files that can be listened to on most playback
software

Public Address System (PA system)

It is an electronic sound amplification and distribution system with microphone,
amplifier and loudspeakers, used to allow a person to address a large public,
for example for announcements of movements at large and noisy air and rail
terminals.
The simplest PA system consist of a microphone, an amplifier, and one or
more loudspeakers A sound source such as compact disc player or radio may
be connected to a PA system so that music can be played through the system.

The process begins with a sound source (such as a human voice), which
creates waves of sound (acoustical energy). These waves are detected by a
microphone, which converts them to electrical energy. This signal is amplified
in an amplifier up to a required level. The loudspeaker converts the electrical
signal back into sound waves, which are heard by human ears.

Demonstration –
Demonstration involves showing by reason or proof, explaining or making
clear by use of examples or experiments. Put more simply, demonstration
means 'to clearly show'. In teaching through demonstration, students are set
up to potentially conceptualize class material more effectively as shown in a
study which specifically focuses on chemistry demonstrations presented by
teachers. Demonstrations often occur when students have a hard time
connecting theories to actual practice or when students are unable to
understand application of theories.
Teachers not only demonstrate specific learning concepts within the classroom,
they can also participate in demonstration classrooms to help improve their
own teaching strategies, which may or may not be demonstrative in nature.
Although the literature is limited, studies show that the effects of demonstration
classroom teachers includes a change of perspective in relating to students,
more reflection in the teachers’ own classroom strategies, and more personal
responsibility for student learning.
Demonstration, or clearly showing (a gamut that ranges from mere pointing to
more sophisticated strategies such as chemical reactions), can possibly be
used in portraying ideas such as defining words. At first, simple observation
and communication through pointing to an object, area, or place, like the sun,
moon, or a large mountain top, occurs. Then basic definitions of words emerge.
These definitions allow humans to communicate, interact, plan, and
co-ordinate in ways that help us to build cities,large buildings, technology, gain
knowledge and to successfully communicate with computers. Further, basic
concepts centered on time, space, and mathematics are first required to
demonstrate and teach probable theories that accurately describe universal
phenomenon such as nature, planets, species, and the world around us.
The history of phenomenon demonstrating concepts, which lead to specific
definitions, goes back to the careful observations of ancient Greek
philosophers and natural philosophy. Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle attempted
to carefully define words that included natural phenomena and objects. The
modern scientific method often uses demonstrations that carefully describe
certain processes and parts of nature in great detail. In science, often one
demonstrates how an experiment is done and shows this to others.
Listening
Listening is a process of Receiving, Interpreting and reacting to a message
received from the Speaker

Types of Listening
 Superficial listening  Appreciative Listening  Focused listening 
Evaluative listening
 Attentive listening  Content listening  Critical listening  Empathetic
listening

Superficial Listening
In this type of listening the listener has little awareness of the content what is
being said. The output in this type of listening is zero because the listener
tends to ignore the message, and is not able to concentrate on the theme,
main points and supporting details of the message.

Appreciative listening

The main purpose of appreciative listening is to get enjoyment and pleasure.

The output may be taking part in the entertainment process.

Focused Listening
It involves listening for specific information. This is the most common type of
listening that we practice in non – formal oral communicative situations.

Evaluative Listening
It involves evaluation of the oral message or commentary and developing a
line of thought. The listener interprets and analysis what he or she listens to in
order to understand both the explicit as well as implicit meaning of the oral
message . Thus the main purpose of evaluative listening is to evaluate the
content of the oral message to select appropriate information.

Attentive Listening
It demands the complete attention of the listener. It is basically active and
intelligent listening in situations such as group discussions, meetings, job
interviews and so on. The listener pays attention to all parts of the message,
that is , the central idea, main points, supporting details, examples and
illustrations.

Content Listening-
It is to understand and retain the speaker’s message. You may ask questions,
but basically information flows from the speaker to you. It doesn’t matter that
you agree or disagree, approve or disapprove-only that you understand.
Critical Listening
It is to understand and evaluate the meaning of the speaker’s message on
several levels. When the purpose is to accept or reject the message or to
evaluate it critically. For example: listening to a sales person before making a
purchase involves critical listening. Similarly, when you read a book with the
objective of writing book review.

Empathetic Listening
When we listen to a distressed friend who wants to share his feelings, we
provide emotional and moral support in the form of Empathetic Listening.
When psychiatrists listen to their patients, their listening is classified as
empathetic listening.

Barriers to Listening
A barrier is anything that gets in the way of clear communication. Below is a list
of barriers.
Physical barriers -Physical Barriers consist of any sound that prevents a
person from being heard. Physical noise interferes with a speaker’s ability to
send messages and with an audience’s ability to receive them. Examples:
whispers, cheers, passing cars or intercom interruptions.
People related barriers:
Physiological barriers• Physiological barriers arise when the listener suffers
from ill health, fatigue, sleeplessness, hearing problems and the like, • It may
also arise due to the accent and pronunciation shortcomings of the speaker.
Psychological barriers- Psychological barriers cover the value system and
the behavioral aspects. Some examples where listening fails to be effective on
account of people related factors are as follows: • The speaker speaks in a
shrill voice that does not reach the receiver. • The speaker speaks very rapidly
or with an accent that is not clear.
• The receiver of the message does not consider the speaker to be well
informed. • The receiver lets the mind wander rather than stay focused on the
message. • The listener perceives the speaker to be lacking in depth or not
having adequate authority.
Overload of message - It is difficult for the brain to digest the overloaded
message. When the message is lengthy or illogical in sequencing, it becomes
more painful to retain the concentration. As a result listening becomes
ineffective.
Ego - Thinking that my own ideas are more important than those of other
persons or “I am always right” and “the other is wrong” is the major stumbling
block in the way of listening. Listening requires open mind and heart free from
negative emotions. If the mind is closed for the other person’s message, there
will be no listening.”

The art of Effective Listening

1. Show Respect
Respect that every human beings are different. Other peoples opinions and
stories may be different from ours. Showing respect is essential for effective
listening.
2. Be sensitive
Sometimes people just needs someone who can listen to their problems and
stories so preaching and acting like a problem expert in this situation can
cause deeper problems. There will be moments you need to be a little more
sensitive on what other people think and feel, especially if you want to resolve
the problem or save the relationship.

3. Pause
Learn to leave at least a couple of seconds pause after the speaker talks
before giving your reply. On the other hand, before starting a conversion, set a
rule or agreement that both sides will let the other person listen first before
speaking or replying. This may feel awkward or weird at first but it’s an
effective way to create a good conversing environment. It will uneasy at first,
but it will be much easier when it becomes a habit.
4. Listen to Understand
Most of us are listening because we want to have a good reply. This kind of
attitude often give us a problem when it comes to communication. Keep in
mind that the most effective conversation are the ones where we’ve used our
ears more than our mouth.

Principles of good listening-

12 Principles of good listening Active listening Following are the
principles of good listening

1-Maintain eye contact. This is the first and foremost principle of good
listening. It helps the listener to concentrate on the speaker’s words. It saves
him from distracting his attention from the speaker.
2-Focus on content, not delivery. A Good listener never focus on the delivery,
he always become all ears for the contents. He does not allow his attention to
go astray from the words of the speaker.
3-Avoid emotional involvement. When you are too emotionally involved in
listening, you tend to hear what you want to hear--not what is actually being
said. Try to remain objective and open-minded.
4-Avoid diversion and distraction. A good and active listener focus on the
contents he is listening not the nearby voices or sounds.
5-Consider the listening an inspiring intellectual job. Listening to an
educational lecture is not a passive work. It is always edifying and useful for
listener that is why he should take listening as an inspiring job.
6- Ask questions in your mind. Active listening keeps you alert. Always ask
yourself some questions about the contents of the speaker. Keep evaluating
his ideas during listening.
7- Keep your mind focused on the Speech.Use the rate of speech and your
rate of thought to anticipate what the speaker will say next.In this way you will
be able to keep your mind from straying.
8-do not interrupt the speaker. Let the speaker complete his speech or
lecture and then ask question if any .Let yourself finish listening before you
begin to speak.
9- Try to infer the main idea .The main ideas are the most important points
the speaker wants to convey. Always try to infer the theme of the contents of
the speaker.
10- Express that you are listening and understanding. Try to look at the
speaker and express your attention by nodding now and then. Appropriate
feedback at different points with smile, frown or laugh shows that you are
actively involved in listening.
11-Remain Objective .Avoid emotional involvement because it will deviate
your attention from the real contents of the speech.
12- Do not make assumptions about the speaker.Never let your mind to
assume something about the speaker before he finishes his speech or lecture.
It will make you emotional or biased before the conclusion and you will not
listen objectively