CATRINA (2022), 25(1):27-39

© 2022 BY THE EGYPTIAN SOCIETY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCES

Hydrogeochemical Facies Investigation of Surface and Groundwater

Resources at West Luxor Area, Egypt, Using Spatial and Statistical Techniques

Mervat A. El-Sonbati1, Maie I. El-Gammal1, Ahmed M. El-Zeiny2, Mohamed A. Gebril3*

1
Environmental Science Department, Faculty of Sciences, Damietta University, Egypt
2
Environmental Studies Department, National Authority for Remote Sensing and Space Sciences (NARSS), Egypt
3
Geochemical studies Department, central laboratories, Egyptian Mineral Resources Authority (EMRA), Egypt

ABSTRACT
Water quality and quantity have diminished in the agricultural area of west Luxor due to excessive water use
and land management techniques. The current study intends to monitor the hydrogeochemical processes of
water resources in Egypt's west Luxor area. In August 2021, 79 surface, shallow, and groundwater samples
were collected in the study area. In this investigation, three statistical techniques were used: classical, cluster
hydrogeochemical statistical analysis (CA), and geo-statistical analysis. Water characteristics are mapped
using the Kriging method, which is a Geo-Statistical tool in ArcMap 10.4.1. The laboratory results of the
Piper trainer diagram integration (CA) and geo-statistical prediction maps showed that cations (Na+> Ca2+ >
Mg2+ > K+) and anions (Cl-> SO42- > HCO3- > CO32-) dominated. The majority of water types in all samples
were Na-Cl, Mixed Na-Cl-HCO3, Mixed Na-Cl-SO4, and Mixed Na-Ca-Mg-HCO3. Prediction maps
coincide with hydro-geochemical statistical analysis, which showed that salts and measured heavy metals
(Fe, Mn, Co, Ni, Cd, Pb, As) levels in groundwater and shallow water samples were greater than those of
Egyptian Standard Limits, while surface water had high pH, HCO-, and CO32- levels, indicating pollution
sources. As a result, this study found that combining geostatistical and classical hydrogeochemical statistical
analysis produced a good assessment of both natural water processes and water quality in the west Luxor
area.
Keywords: Geo-Statistical analysis; GIS; Hydrogeochemical investigations; Hydmorphometric parameters;
Luxor hydrogeology

INTRODUCTION the rate of accurate calculation. Geographical Infor-

The chemistry of water from different resources;
surfaces, and shallow or deep groundwater results from
the disintegration of solid minerals, precipitation of
solids resulting from water-rock and water-soil
interactions, sorption/ion exchange, and dissolution or
evolution of gases. It helps to understand the
hydrogeochemical process and its impacts on the
environment and examine human impacts against
natural conditions and the evolution of water quality
(El Alfy et al., 2018; Jamil, et al., 2020). The variation
in concentration of the different water-dissolved hydro-
geochemical constituents determines its usefulness for
domestic, industrial, and agricultural purposes ( Zhang
et al., 2018; Xu et al., 2019).
Cluster analysis (CA) is considered one of the
chemometric methods, it is a useful method for
combining water samples into homogenous groups
according to their water quality. Results can be
displayed as a tree diagram (dendrogram), which
provides a visual summary of the clustering process
through a helpful graphical tool for determining the
number of clusters that describes the underlying
process and finally lead to spatial variation. HCA
supplies a complete analysis of information in
organized formate and uses for the interpretation of
hydrogeochemical processes by formulating hypo-
theses (Wu et al., 2014; Deepesh et al., 2015).
The spatial distribution of water quality shows some
heterogeneity and the determination of quality
parameters at the whole location is not always feasible
under the time and cost of the data collection. Thus, the
prediction of values based on selectively measured one
is an alternative while minimizing errors and enhancing
mation System (GIS) is a leading tool that has great
potential for use in problem-solving in various areas,
including environmental fields (Mahato et al., 2016;
Çelik 2019). Geo-statistical tools fill up the gap
between geo-statistics and GIS. The interpolation
analysis of groundwater levels with geostatistical
modules became easier and more operable with the
development of GIS technology, which can chara-
cterize the spatial variability of parameters in more
detail (Triki et al., 2013; Bao et al., 2014; Agarwal et
al., 2016).
Spatial interpolation is a procedure of predicting the
value of attributes at un-sampled sites from measure-
ements made at point locations within the same area.
Several kinds of research have been accepted to
compare different interpolation methods in a variety of
situations, using GIS in different areas such as
groundwater; depth, contamination, quality, etc., (Chai
et al. 2011; Losser et al., 2014; Xiao et al., 2016). Geo-
statistical interpolation consists of ordinary Kriging
(OK), simple Kriging (SK), and universal Kriging
interpolation (UK). Deterministic interpolation
comprises global polynomial (GPI), local polynomial
(inverse distance weighted (IDW)), planar spline, and
local polynomial interpolation (LPI) (Zandi et al.,
2011; Ahmadian and Chavoshian, 2012). The posterior
method can be used to correct the local errors without
reducing the accuracy, the precision of the method is
close to the Kriging techniques (Gunarathna, et al.,
2016; Al-Omran et al., 2017; Aslan and Çelik, 2021).
A considerable amount of literature has been published
on water quality in Egypt, including many topics such
as water quality assessment and groundwater pollution
(Sabry, et al., 2019) but there were no reported

_________________________________
* Corresponding author e-mail: drmohamedaly4@gmail.com
 El-Sonbati1et al.
researches on the investigation and verification of
hydrogeochemical processes of water resources using
statistical techniques. Therefore, this study aims at
integrating the geostatistical and statistical hydro-
geochemical approaches to examine the regional
factors and processes which control the chemical
composition of water bodies; surface, shallow, and
deep groundwater in the region of west Luxor.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
The flow chart of the methodology assumed to
screen the hydrogeochemical processes of water
resources and water quality mapping using water
quality characteristics in the GIS environment is shown
in Figure (1).
Study area
The study area is located on the west bank of the
River Nile in Luxor Governorate, Egypt. It is extended
between Latitudes 25° 8′ to 25° 55′ N and Longitudes
32° 11′ to 32° 44′ E (Figure 2). The area is disting-
uished by an arid climate with average maximum and
minimum temperature ranges between 22.9 oC- 40.9 oC
and 5.7 oC - 23.9 oC in January and July, respectively.
The wind speed fluctuates spatially and temporarily
with monthly average values of 5.9 km/h in October
and 9.3 km/h in April. The relative humidity monthly
average values vary between 25.0 % in May and 55.0
% in December. The monthly average precipitation
ranges between 0.0 and 0.3 mm and falls randomly
throughout the year (Salman et al., 2019).
Topography of Luxor
Luxor government involves different topography as
shown in Figure (2), at the entire Nile valley where
there are agricultural activities and residential comm-
unities. New cultivated borders in the west with an
extension of mountainous heights and sandy hills
Figure (1): Flow chart showing the methodology adopted for groundwater quality mapping.
28
characterize the edges of the valley on the western
flanks. (Abou Hussein and Sawan 2010; Ahmed and
Fogg, 2014).
Geology of Luxor
The geological features and formations of the Luxor
area (Figure 3) were digitized from the Geological map
(CONOCO, 1987). Upper Cretaceous, Pliocene, Paleo-
cene-Eocene, and Pleistocene-Holocene characterized
the geology of the study area (Said, 1981; Kamel,
2004). The Pliocene unit is exemplified in the Luxor
area by two formations namely: Pliocene fault breccia
and the Madamud Formation. The Pleistocene unit
comprises the Protonile, the Prenile, and the Neonile
sediments of the Early, Middle, and Late Pleistocene
ages, respectively. The Protonile sediments are pres-
ented by the Arment Formation. The Prenile sedi-
ments are represented by the Qena Formation, and the
Abbassia Formation. The Holocene unit is signified by
the Neonile sediments (Arkin Formation). The recent
alluvial cover comprises unconsolidated sediments
characterized by the Nile flood plain unit made up of
two sequential layers (silty clay and clay layers) with a
total thickness of 18.5 m (Ahmed and Fogg, 2014).
Hydrogeology of the study area
The Nile River and irrigation canals, particularly the
two main canals, Asfun and Al-Kallabiyya, provide the
hydrology of surface water for the studied area (Figure
2). At the Luxor area, two major groundwater aquifers
were well characterised by Said (1981), Abd El-Bassier
(1997) and Ahmed and Fogg, (2014) and their hydro-
geological cross-section are shown in Figure (4): The
Quaternary aquifer is the most prominent water-
bearing structure in Luxor, occupying the centre stripe
of the Nile Valley and forming the historic cultivated
areas on both Nile sides. The lower Pleistocene aquifer
and the higher Holocene aquitard are the two hydrog-
eological units. The Pliocene-Pleistocene aquifer, that
 Hydrogeochemical Facies Investigation Resources at West Luxor Area of

comprises of gravel, sand, and clay, is regarded the

secondary aquifer in the study region. It is exposed at
the outer edges of the Nile aquifer system adjoining the
floodplain.
Data used
Water quality and Samples collection
The water quality for the research region was
reported during a field trip on May 20-25, 2021. The
goal of this trip was to document some field
observations and administer a questionnaire on water
quality in several rural villages within the study area.
Meanwhile, on August 18-30, 2021, a second field trip
was conducted to collect 79 water samples from
various resources, including surface, shallow, and
ground wells, as follows: 29 surface, 25 shallow, and
24 groundwater samples. All water samples were
collected in two liter high-density polyethylene bottles
that were acid-treated and thoroughly rinsed with de-
ionized water before use, dried, and stored with the
caps on to avoid contamination. Figure (3): Geological map of the study area, with water sample
To prevent as much change in the composition of locations, digitised from Map (CONOCO 1987).
water as possible, collected samples were maintained at
Physicochemical analysis of water samples
a temperature of roughly 4°C in ice-boxes until they
The analysis processes were carried out in a water
arrived at the laboratory. Surface water samples were
and air lab. in the central laboratory of the Egyptian
obtained at 0.5 m depths, shallow samples at 6 to 21 m
Mineral Resources Authority (EMRA) with the
depths, and groundwater samples at 45 to 82 m depths.
assistance of the staff of the laboratory (Baird and
The coordination of the 79 water samples tested was
Bridgewater, 2017). Physical parameters of the
identified using a handheld GPS instrument, the
collected water samples were measured.
GARMIN GPS 12 CX (Figure 3). During the field trip,
water temperature (T oC) was measured in situ at the Electrical Conductivity (EC)
sampling sites using a mercury thermometer ranging EC was measured by an electric conductivity
from 0 to 100 Celsius degrees (°C). To acidify water meter model YSI 33, the U.S. with an accuracy of
samples (pH 1.5-2.0) for metal detection, concentrated ±1%.
HNO3 was employed. Water samples were analyzed Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
just after arrival at the laboratory within twenty-four TDS were detected by evaporated known volume
hours of collection. of sample water till dryness at 180 oC.
Chemical parameters
Chemical water analysis were determined
including: pH that measured by a pH meter (WTW-
Multilane, Germany, with an accuracy of ±1%), and
major cations; Calcium (Ca2+), and Magnesium
(Mg2+) were detected by volumetric analysis
through titration against a standard EDTA solution
(0.02 M) using Murexide (MX) and Eriochrome
Black T (EBT) indicators at pH ≥ 12. Meanwhile,
Sodium and Potassium were determined by atomic
absorption spectrometry (Thermo fisher scientific,
ICE 3000 SERIS). Major anions; Bicarbonate
(HCO-) and Carbonate (CO32-) were determined
volumetrically by the standard solution of sulfuric
acid (0.02N) as a titrant with phenolphthalein and
cresol green indicators. Chloride ion was determined
by titrating 50 ml of water samples against 0.1N
AgNO3- using potassium chromate as an indicator
while sulfate (SO42-) was determined by partition
gravimetric method through BaSO4, the resulted
turbidity was measured against standard solutions
prepared under the same experimental conditions as
Figure (2): Location map with topography features of the
water samples and was determined by spectro-
study area extracted from Landsat-8 image. photometer model UV-160A UV-Visible.

29
 El-Sonbati1et al.
Moreover, nutrients such as NH4+ were analyzed
by ammonia selective electrode (ISE Digital DM-
21). NO3- and PO43- were determined spectrophoto-
metrically. The trace elements (Fe, Mn, Cu, Cd, Ni,
Co, Pb, As) were determined using Inductive
Coupling Plasma (I.C.P.) Agilent 720.
Figure (4): Hydrogeological cross-section at Luxor area (Ahmed
and Fogg, 2014; Salman et al., 2019).
Data processing, analysis and interpretation
Hydro-chemical data reliability check
The major cations (Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+, K+) and
anions (HCO-, CO32-, Cl-, SO42-) concentrations in
the different water bodies were displayed (Table 1).
The accuracy of the laboratory-obtained data was
examined using cations–anions balance. The
solution must be electrically neutral (the sum of
cations in meq/l should equal anions in meq/l) (Li et
al., 2018b; Yuan et al., 2021) as shown in the
following equation:
If the electrical balance calculates equal to or less
than 5%, the analysis is good; if it is out of range
(5%), the analysis is believed to be poor; this could
be owing to the water being excessively acidic or
certain constituents being missing during compu-
tation. However, up to 10% is permissible in dilute
and saline water. The statistical approach of
software excel Microsoft Office version 2019 and
IBM statistical SPSS version 20 was used to obtain
reliability.
Hydrogeochemical studies
The hydrogeochemical study includes water class-
ifycation and graphical representation including the
piper Diagram (Piper, 1944) by Aquachem version
4.0. (2010), computer software, and scatter or Gibbs
Diagram (Gibbs, 1970). Gibbs’s diagrams are used
to reveal natural processes (evaporation, precip-
itation, and water-rock interaction) in different dec-
ades (Li et al., 2016b). Piper plots are used to reveal
the groundwater hydrochemical faces (Liu et al.,
2021).
Geostatistical analysis
Different techniques of geostatistical analysis were
30
used through the Kriging method which is based on a
weight mobile average that determines the extent of
estimation error in each point in addition to estimated
amounts. It is a linear interpolation procedure
providing linear unbiased estimation for quantities,
which vary in space and it is an advanced geo-
statistical procedure that generates an estimated surface
from a scattered set of points with z-values as follow:
𝒁 (𝒔𝟎) = ƛ(Si)
Where; Z(si) is measured value at the ith
location; λi , is unknown weight for the measured
value at the ith location; S0, is prediction location,
and N, is number of measured values (Gundogdu
and Guney 2007; Uyan and Cay 2013).
Statistical analysis
Correlation coefficients are used to measure how
strong a relationship is between two variables by using
IBM® SPSS® Statistics 20.0 software (2019).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Reliability check for hydrochemical parameters of
water samples indicates approximately 93.7 % of the
measured water samples were within the range (≤ 5%),
thus results are ready for hydro-geochemical mod-
eling. water samples' characteristics were displayed in
Table (1).
General hydrogeochemical Analyses
The measured values of temperature for all water
samples ranged between18 to 28 °C with an average of
22.5 °C indicating that shallow active water cycle or
circulation is being limited to 100 or rarely 200 m
(Pirzada, et al., 2016). The variation of water T °C of
water samples is due to water resource variety. pH
values lie in the range of 6.45 to 8.69 with a mean
value of 7.46; 26% of water samples have a pH of
more than 8, and 39% have a range between 7-8, and
35% were less than 7. The alkalinity of surface water
samples indicates increasing photosynthetic assim-
ilation of dissolved inorganic carbon by plankton. On
the other hand, most near shallow and groundwater
samples indicate that most of the water bodies at the
study area, are located on irrigation land water, flow-
through limestone, and marl.
In addition, low pH values are due to clay and silt
deposit at the quaternary aquifer (Qureshimatva, et al.,
2015), a geological map of the area is shown in Figure
(3). The pH showed an indirect correlation with Ca 2+
ions (R2= - 0.67) which may be due to releasing of
HCO3- ions from the Pliocene and Quaternary
carbonate rocks. High values of TDS and EC for both
shallow and deep groundwater indicated that 59% of
the collected water samples belong to excessively
mineralized water class >1000 μS/cm according to Al-
Dahaan, et al. (2015) classification. Chebotraev’s,
(1955) classification for TDS values showed that
water samples recorded 34% good potable, 6% fresh,
9% fairly fresh, 41% slightly brackish, 1% brackish
and 9% slightly saline.
 Hydrogeochemical Facies Investigation Resources at West Luxor Area of

physicochemical parameters dissolution of carbonic acid (H2CO3), and carbonate

Correlation coefficient matrix (R2) rocks such as limestone and dolomite (Kojima et al.,
Physiochemical measurements revealed that there 1997), in addition to weathering of clay rocks. The
was correlation between TDS and water quality natural process such as weathering, dissolution of salt
parameters as displayed in Table (2). It is clear that, deposits as evaporation in the study area, weathering of
there is linearly strong correlation between TDS sulfate and gypsum-bearing sedimentary rocks, and
versus Na (R= 0.990), Ca2+ (R= 0.920), Mg2+ (R= irrigation drainage return flow are responsible for Cl-
0.930), SO42- (R= 0.980) and Cl- (R= 0.978), and SO42- contents in addition to anthropogenic activity.
moderate correlation between TDS versus K+ (R= The heavy use of agricultural fertilizers leads to
0.790) and HCO3- (R= 0.640). Finally, the increased chlorides in groundwater (Mostafa et al.,
correlation between TDS versus CO32- (R= 0.010) is 2017; Li et al., 2018b; Xu et al., 2019; Zhang et al.,
very weak. A strong correlation may be due to the 2020).
dissolution of clay, silt, halite, gypsum, calcium
carbonate, marl, and dolomite during the circulation
of water. The value of NO3- and SO42- gives a good
indication of extensively anthropogenic activity and
extensively usage of fertilizers during the agricu-
lture process (Ahmed and Fogg, 2014).
GIBB’S Diagram
Gibbs' diagrams illustrate the distribution and
correlation of total dissolved salt to dissolved ions in
water samples lying in the zone of rock-water
interaction dominance and evaporation rainfall
dominance, revealing a mixed regulating mechanism
(Figures 5A and B). The Chemicals weathering of
rock-forming minerals will add the ions to the
groundwater influencing the groundwater quality by
the dissolution of rock through which water is
circulating. Evaporation due to high temperature and
absence of rainfall indicated the high ratios of
dominant cations and anions, especially sodium ions,
due to CaCO3 precipitate caused by the combination of
Ca2+and HCO3− and extensively anthropogenic
activities. Irrigation return flow elevated shallow and
ground-water levels, hence increasing evaporation and
inducing salinization (Gibbs, 1970; Wu et al., 2015;
Yuan et al., 2019).
Chemistry of major cations-anions
The most domain cation is Na+, and the other cations Figure 5: Gibbs' Diagrams showing total dissolved salts in
correlation to dissolved ions. A, TDS verses to ratio of Na+
are in the following sequence (Na+>Ca2+ >Mg2+ >K+), /Na++Ca2+; B, TDS verses to ration of Cl-/ Cl+HCO3-
as shown in Figure (6A). The high concentrations of
Na+, Ca2+, and Mg2+ in water may be due to clay Hydrochemical facies
minerals such as Illite, Albite, Fluorite, Halite, The method of Piper’s trilinear diagram is
Limestone, Dolomites, Gypsum, Sylvite, weathering of considered a successful tool to classify different
soda Feldspar (Albite), Potash Feldspars (Orthoclase water sources by detecting hydrochemical facies
and Microcline), and anthropogenic activities. types and natural processes (evaporation, water-rock
Agriculture may supply Na+ and K+ ions to water interaction, and precipitation). From the cationic and
through dissolution by carbonic acid, which is created anionic triangular files of the Piper diagram (Figure
by CO2 existing in the soil zone due to weathering of 7), it was observed that the majority of the samples
parent materials or decomposing organic matter. CO2 fall into (Na+K) field in cations facies while 76%
then mixes with water to form carbonates (Krishnaraj, and 24 % of water samples fall into the Cl and no
et al., 2011). Another source such as rainwater is dominant fields in anion facies. By clustering 79
slightly acidic due to the reaction with carbon dioxide hydrochemical data based on anions, eight groups
in the atmosphere (Chen et al., 2019b; Xu et al., 2019). and fourteen subgroups of water type were detected
Chloride is the most dominant anion, and the rest of (Table 3).
the tested anions were in the following orders: (Cl-> The table contains G1 Sodium (Chloride-Sulfate),
SO42-> HCO3->CO32-) as shown in Figure (6B). G2 Sodium (Chloride-Bicarbonate), G3 Sodium
Bicarbonate (HCO3-) and Carbonate (CO32-) anions are (Bicarbonate-Chloride), G4 Sodium (bicarbonate-
formed by the reaction of carbon dioxide with water, sulfate), G5 Calcium (bicarbonate-sulfate), G6 Sod-

31
29
 El-Sonbati1et al.

Table (1): Physicochemical properties of different water samples collected from the Luxor area. For surface water
(SW), shallow water (SH.W), and ground water, the minimal, maximum, and average values were estimated
(GW).

Measured values
Quality Measured
Minimum Maximum Average
Parameter Parameters
SW SH.W GW SW SH.W GW SW SH.W GW
pH 6.59 6.45 6.53 8.54 8.53 8.59 7.78 7.15 7.35
Physical

T °C 26.00 18.00 18.00 28.00 23.00 21.00 26.50 20.80 18.90

TDS (mg/l) 183.4 374.94 1502.59 633.92 4445.93 5374.45 366.1 1600.89 2688.8
EC (μS/cm) 265.89 598.32 2370.56 1103.34 714521 8945.45 608.28 2526.64 4213.97
Na+(mg/l) 13.87 58.45 350.74 71.78 1065.2 1421.64 39.80 346.43 689.93
K+(mg/l) 4.24 3.46 6.52 9.34 10.54 22.43 6.31 6.06 11.68
Ca2+(mg/l) 17.93 12.16 90.65 85.71 398.72 310.46 39.32 124.25 152.43
Mg2+(mg/l) 6.73 4.27 32.59 27.53 99.43 133.82 15.38 50.57 65.51
Chemical

CO3−(mg/l) 3.51 8.56 9.54 24.23 49.23 16.63 12.5217 15.99 13.07
HCO3- (mg/l) 89.24 92.38 137.41 321.23 450.34 392.34 188.62 291.54 271.3
SO42- (mg/l) 15.94 30.35 296.63 56.46 291.54 1502.5 36.483 318.82 593.77
Cl− (mg/l) 11.62 36.25 427.52 47.56 1494.64 1721.56 19.84 429.152 863.35
NH4+(mg/l) 0.01 0.7 0.12 3.20 4.30 3.4 1.5703 2.85 1.71
NO3- (mg/l) 0.03 0.8 12.12 11.00 21.00 32 1.7431 10.95 23.52
PO43- (mg/l) 0.01 0.03 0.04 0.41 0.56 0.61 0.068 0.1744 0.3108
Reliability check 1.07 1.39 1.075 5.94 5.98 5.46 2.96 2.86 2.31

Table (2): Correlation coefficient matrix of physicochemical parameters for the Luxor area

Parameter
TDS EC pH Na+ K+ Ca2+ Mg+2 CO32- HCO3- SO42- Cl-
measured
TDS 1
EC 0.995 1
pH -0.55 -0.554 1
Na+ 0.99 0.988 -0.491 1
K+ 0.79 0.765 -0.349 0.787 1
Ca2+ 0.92 0.918 -0.672 0.874 0.728 1
Mg+2 0.93 0.924 -0.584 0.891 0.747 0.882 1
CO32- 0.01 0.021 -0.454 -0.015 -0.162 0.097 0.03 1
HCO3- 0.64 0.639 -0.909 0.574 0.355 0.763 0.672 0.472 1
SO42- 0.98 0.981 -0.439 0.989 0.802 0.851 0.877 -0.078 0.504 1
Cl- 0.978 0.986 -0.52 0.987 0.802 0.919 0.932 -0.021 0.612 0.967 1

Table (3): Water-type at Luxor area based on anions classification.

Classified
Anions Cations Water type Dominance Ions Sample No.
Groups
5, 13, 14, 15, 16, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 33, 34,
Cl- Na>Ca>Mg>K
G1 Na+ Ca2+ Na-Cl- SO4 35, 37, 38, 40, 41, 42, 44, 45, 48, 51, 56, 59,
SO42- Cl>SO4>HCO3>CO3
60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 66, 68, 69, 71, 73 and 74
Cl- Na+ Na>Ca>Mg>K
G2 Na - Cl- HCO3 25, 26, 29, 30, 31, 32, 53 and 57
HCO3- Ca2+ Cl>HCO3>SO4>CO3
Na+ Na>Ca>Mg>K
G3 HCO3-,Cl- Na - HCO3- Cl 6,8,11 and 21
Ca2+ HCO3>Cl>SO4>CO3
HCO3- Na+ Na>Ca>Mg>K 1, 4, 7, 10, 12, 28, 36, 46, 47, 49, 50, 52, 55,
G4 Na- HCO3-SO4
SO42- Ca2+ HCO3>SO4> Cl>CO3 67,76 and 77
HCO3- Ca2+ Ca> Na>Mg>K 2, 17, 18, 19, 27, 39, 54, 58, 65, 70, 72, 75,
G5 Ca-Na- HCO3- SO4
SO42- Na+ HCO3>SO4>Cl> CO3 78 and 79
SO42- Na>Ca>Mg>K
G6 , Na+ Na--SO4-HCO3 3
HCO3- SO4>HCO3>Cl> CO3
Cl-,SO42- Na>Ca>Mg>K
G7 Na+ Na-SO4 -Cl 43
HCO3 SO4>Cl>HCO3> CO3

32
 Hydrogeochemical Facies Investigation Resources at West Luxor Area of
ium (sulfate- bicarbonate) and finally G7 Sodium
(sulfate-chloride) water type. Water types
hydrochemistry (Table 3) controlled by dissolution
and leaching processes of evaporite deposits in clay
minerals, higher levels of HCO3- concentrations
compared to chloride and sulfate in most water
samples infers mineral dissolution in addition to
excessive fertilizer as a result of extensive irrigation
and anthropogenic activity at Luxor area.
Figure (6): Box plots of major ion concentrations in the studied
water samples at the Luxor area. A, Cation; B, anion.
Cluster analysis
The classification was achieved by (HCA) based on
similarity and euclidian geometric distance among
observations using Ward’s method as the linkage rule.
A total number of 19 water quality parameters are
clustering as follows: [TDS, EC, pH, T°C, Na+, Ca2+,
Mg2+, k+, CO32-, HCO3-, SO42-, Cl-, PO4-, NH4+, NO3-,
Fe, Mn, and Pb]. The results as a dendrogram (Figure
8) depend on visual exam-ination where there are two
clusters group for physicochemical parameters.
Cluster 1 included EC and TDS, while cluster 2 was
separated into two subgroups which were divided into
other subgroups. SG1 (3 Parameters are included; Na+,
SO42-, Cl-), SG2 was divided into [ a- SSG2-1 (12
parameters are included; WD,T °C, pH, k+, CO32-,
Ca2+, PO4-, NH4+, NO3-, Fe, Mn and Pb), b- SSG2-2 (2
parameters; HCO3-and Mg2+)]. SG2 may be explained
by combining mixed sources while the other
elucidation dissolution of these minerals was
conducted under slightly basic to basic conditions.
SG1, including Na, SO4, and Cl-, since Na especially
results from cations exchange while SO4 and Cl have
resulted from leaching of fertilizers from the soil
horizon to the aquifer and it reflected the influence of
domestic and agricultural pollution. Other HCA,
which rendered 79 sampling sites into two statistically
significant clusters at the sites, categorized into
individual clusters that behave similarly and/or have a
33
similar origin. The first cluster (G1) comprises 33
sampling sites and the second cluster (G2) contains 46
sites which are divided into two subgroups SG 2-1 (6
samples) and SG 2-2 (40 samples), SG 2-1 divided
into two other subgroups SSG 2-2-1 (22 samples) and
SSG 2-2-2 (18 samples) as displayed in Figure (9).
Group 1 is characterized by TDS that ranged from
183.4 to 633.92 mg/l, high bicarbonate, sulfate, and
low chloride concentration with Na-Ca-Mg-HCO3
water type. The relatively low concentration of TDS is
indicative of short residence time. All water samples
of this group are characterized by surface water type.
Sub-group 2-1 is characterized by TDS values from of
Figure (7): Water-type classification of water samples at the Luxor
area.
4445.93 to 5374.45 mg/l, high chloride, sulfate, and
bicarbonate concentrations with Na-Cl-SO4 water
type. The high concentration of TDS is indicative of
long residence time, and high concentrations of sulfate
and chloride are indicative of pollution. Most water
samples of this group are specific for groundwater
samples. Sub-Sub Sub-groups 2-2-1 is characterized
by TDS values from 1875.05 to 2857.88 mg/l, high
chloride, sulfate, and bicarbonate concentrations with
Na-Ca-Cl-SO4 water type. A high concentration of
TDS is indic-ative of long residence time, and very
high concentrations of sulfate and chloride are
indicative of pollution. Most of the water samples of
this group are characterized by groundwater samples.
Sub-Sub groups 2-2-2 are characterized by TDS
values from 3940 to 6112 mg/l, very high chloride,
sulfate, and low bicarbonate concentration with Na-
Ca-Cl-SO4-HCO3 water type. The high concentration
of TDS is indicative of long residence time with
contact with soluble minerals such as limestone, marl,
silts, evaporates deposits, and clay. Very high concen-
trations of sulfate and chloride are indicative of high
pollution from extensive use of fertilizer with
anthropogenic activity. Most of the water samples of
this group are characterized by shallow samples.
Geo-statistical analysis
The prediction maps for hydrochemical parameters
are created by changing parameters of the Kriging
method to estimate the spatial variation of
 El-Sonbati1et al.
Figure (8): Dendrogram for cluster analysis of water parameters.
Figure (9): Dendrogram for cluster analysis of classified water
samples.
hydrochemical parameters with achieving the principle
that the mean errors and root-mean-square errors are
close to 0 and 1, or lower values as possible. The
prediction kriging maps for distributing pH, water deep
(WD), major cations, and anions of water bodies at the
Luxor area are shown in (Figures 10, 11, 12, and 13).
The geostatistical prediction results indicated the
hydrochemical parameters are generally increasing in
concentration from east to west, where groundwater
and shallow water have high salts content (Ayman et
al., 2013; Masoud et al., 2010; Salman et al., 2019). A
deep prediction map indicates the level of groundwater
increased systemically from the east to west and the
deep increase as far from the quaternary aquifer. This
result matched with that obtained for the topography
and geology of the study area (Figures 2 and 3). The
distribution of pH values indicates no standard interp-
retation for a geological process that means a primary
indication of pollution sources. This may be due to
34
extensive use of fertilizer or mixed with human
pollution from sewage systems.
Prediction maps of TDS and EC indicated that
deepwater has high salt content over-irrigation area.
Prediction maps at Esna indicated a high concentration
of TDS and EC with salt content (Na +, Cl- and SO42-)
which is in agreement with the aquifer formation of
Esna which comprises highly permeable sand and
gravel with variable thickness and a semi-confining
layer consisting of clay and silt. Recharge components
include the deep percolation of irrigation surplus and
seepage losses from irrigation canals. Prediction maps
indicate a high concentration of Na+, Cl- and SO42- at
new reclamation land that showed an external source
of these chemical constituents which may be using
chemical fertilizers.
Water sample tests found a high percent of HCO3-
and CO32- concentrations spatially in Luxor and Esna.
This is owing to the presence of urban settlements,
various services in tourist locations, and floating
hotels on the western bank of Luxor and Esna. These
factors contribute to increased photosynthetic absor-
ption of dissolved inorganic carbon by plankton.
Heavy metals
Heavy metals exist throughout the earth’s crust as
naturally occurring elements. Anthropogenic activities
Figure (10): Prediction maps of WD and pH of water bodies at
Luxor area.
Figure (11): Prediction maps of (EC) and TDS of water bodies
in the Luxor area.
 Hydrogeochemical Facies Investigation Resources at West Luxor Area of
Figure (12): Prediction maps of major cations of water bodies in
the Luxor area.
Figure (13): Prediction maps of major anions of water bodies in the
Luxor area.
such as industrial production, mining and smelting
operations, domestic and agricultural use of metals,
and metal-containing compounds result in most
environmental contamination and human exposure
(Bradl, 2004). As clear from Table (5) it was found
that most of the examined water samples have high
levels of ( Fe, Mn, Cd, Ni, Co, and As ) in some
locations according to Egyptian Standard Limits Law
No. 458 (EMH, 2007), indicating contamination of
water with industrial, mining, domestic and agriculture
fertilizers, accredited to anthropogenic activities
(tourist activities in Luxor and Esna, factories, sugar
factory of Arment city), as well as natural processes
(such as changes in precipitation inputs, erosion,
weathering of Paleocene-Eocene, Pliocene, and
35
Pleistocene-Holocene rocks). These results were
similar to those reported (El Tahlawi et al., 2016; El-
Aassar et al., 2016; Asmoay, 2017; Salman et al.,
2017; Salman et al., 2019) who concluded that the
pollution of water forms at the study area with these
metals could be related to the widespread tender of P-
fertilizers, which contain extensive concentrations of
Cd and Pb. Mn and Co are present in the ferroma-
gnesian minerals in the sediments of the west Luxor.
Nutrients
As shown in Table (1), the recorded concentrations
of nutrients (NH4+, NO3-, PO43-) were within the
permissible level (EMH, 2007). The prediction kriging
maps for nutrients of water bodies at the study area
were displayed (Figure 14).
Figure (14): Prediction maps of nutrients for the collected water
samples in the Luxor area.
CONCLUSION
It can be concluded that according to the Piper
diagram, dominant hydrogeochemical facies of water
bodies showed that the Na-Cl type covers large parts
of the eastern and central sides of the Luxor area and
changed to the Na-Cl-HCO3 and Na-Cl-SO4 types in
the shallow water. Surface water has a mixed type of
Na-Ca-Mg-HCO3. The Gibbs plot indicated that the
hydrochemistry of water in the Luxor area was mainly
controlled by the weathering of minerals and
evaporation. The excessive sodium concentration may
be due to the mixed mechanism of weathering of
silicate rocks, and evaporation which leads to CaCO3
precipitate caused by the combination of Ca 2+and
HCO3− in addition to ion exchange between calcium
and sodium of clay minerals. High concentrations of
SO42- and Cl- may be due to huge quantities of
irrigation water contaminated with fertilizer which
lead to an increase in groundwater levels, hence
increasing evaporation and inducing salinization.
Based on the hierarchical cluster analysis, water
samples were classified into two major groups (G1
and G2) and three subgroups (SG1-2, SSG2-2-1, and
SSG2-2-2). Based on Piper classification, it was obser
ved that these subgroups of water samples of Luxor
fall in Na-Cl, Na-SO4, mixed type with Na-HCO3 and
 El-Sonbati1et al.

Table (5): Concentration of heavy metals of the studied water samples of Luxor.

Measured values
Measured
Minimum Maximum Average
Parameters ESL (2007)
S.W SH.W G.W S.W SH.W G.W S.W SH.W G.W
Fe (mg/l) 0.01 0.01 0.02 0.91 0.81 0.85 0.24 0.3 0.34 0.3
Mn (mg/l) 0.1 0.26 0.12 0.86 0.78 1.20 0.33 0.48 0.53 0.4
Pb (mg/l) 0.06 0.12 0.01 0.47 0.56 0.24 0.30 0.30 0.05 0.01
Cd (mg/l) 0.01 0.01 0.01 0.03 0.03 0.10 0.016 0.01 0.04 0.003
Cu (mg/l) 0.1 0.1 0.13 0.25 0.27 0.13 0.18 0.14 0.13 2.00
Co (mg/l) 0.02 0.05 0.07 0.32 0.32 0.16 0.15 0.16 0.11 0.04
Ni (mg/l) 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.33 0.26 0.16 0.17 0.12 0.05 0.02
As (mg/l) 0.9 1.10 0.02 4.21 3.20 0.51 2.25 1.75 0.15 0.01

Ca-Mg-HCO3 water type. Geo-statistical techniques
especially Kriging give a good illustration for the
distribution of hydrochemical parameters of surface,
shallow, and groundwater which agreed with the
classical statistical hydro-geochemical analysis.
Using the results of Kriging maps as the supportive
method in inventing ways for making sustainable
environmental management before setting up
strategies can simplify the better prediction of water
management. Spatial distribution maps showed that
the Esna area has a higher value of TDS for shallow
and deep water. The salinity was increasing from
east to west of the Luxor area. Luxor and Esna city
has a high value of bicarbonate due to extensive
anthropogenic activities.
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 ‫‪Hydrogeochemical Facies Investigation Resources at West Luxor Area of‬‬

‫التحقيق الهيدروجيوكيميائي لموارد المياه السطحية والجوفية في منطقة غرب األقصر‪ ،‬مصر بإ ستخدام التقنيات‬
‫المكانية واإلحصائية‬
‫‪3‬‬
‫مرفت السنباطى‪ ،1‬مى الجمال‪ ،1‬احمد الزينى‪ ،2‬محمد جبريل‬

‫‪ 1‬قسم العلوم البيئية‪ ،‬كلية العلوم‪ ،‬جامعة دمياط‪ ،‬دمياط‪ ،‬مصر‬

‫‪ 2‬قسم الدراسات البيئية ‪،‬الهيئة القومية لألستشعارمن بعد وعلوم الفضاء‪،‬القاهرة‪ ،‬مصر‬
‫‪ 3‬قسم الدراسات الجيوكيميائية ‪،‬المعامل المركزية‪ ،‬الهيئة المصرية العامة للثروة المعدنية‪ ،‬الجيزة‪ ،‬مصر‬

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‫أدى زي ادة اإلستخدام لمصادرالمياة ومماراسات إداراة األراضى فى منطقة غرب األقصر الى تدهور نوعية المياة وامكانياتها‪ .‬لذلك هدفت الدراسة‬
‫الحالية الى مراقبة العمليات الهيدروجيوكيميائية للمواراد المائية بمنطقة غرب األقصر‪ -‬مصر‪ .‬تم جمع ‪ 79‬عينة من مختلف مصادر المياة بمنطقة الدراسة‬
‫والمتمثلة فى المياة السطحية والضحلة والجوفية فى الفترة اغسطس ‪2021‬م ‪.‬تم استخدام ثالث طرق تحليلية احصائية فى هذة الدراسة تتمثل فى التحليل‬
‫الهيدروجيوكيميائى اإلحصائى الكالسيكى والتحليل اإلحصائى العنقودى والتحليل اإلحصائى المكانى‪ .‬تم رسم خرائط خصائص المياة بأستخدام طريقة‬
‫كريجنج كأداة جيواحصائية من ادوات برنامج ارك ماب ‪ .10.4.1‬وأظهرت النتائج المختبرية التكامل بين مخطط بايبر والتحليل الهيدروجيوكيميائى العنقودى‬
‫وخرائط التنبؤ الجيواحصائى‪ .‬كما اظهرت النتائج هيمنة شوارد الكاتيونات بالترتيب اآلتى )‪ ) Na+> Ca2+ > Mg2+ > K+‬وهيمنة شوارد األنيونات بالترتيب‬
‫اآلتى (‪ .)Cl->SO42->HCO3->CO32-‬تبين من النتائج ان سحنات المياة الشائعة من النوع (‪ )Na-Cl‬واألنواع المختلطة (‪Na-Cl-HCO3), (Na-Cl-‬‬
‫‪ .(Na-Ca-Mg-HCO3) SO4),‬أظهرت نتائج التكامل بين خرائط التنبؤ والتحليل اإلحصائى الهيدروجيوكيميائى الى ان عينات المياة الضحلة والجوفية‬
‫أعلى من الحدود القياسية المصرية المسموح بها لجودة المياة لعام ‪ 2007‬م لمحتوى األمالح والمعادن الثقيلة )‪ )Fe, Mn, Co, Ni, Cd, Pb, As‬فى حين ان‬
‫المياة السطحية سجلت قيم مرتفعة من الرقم الهيدروجينى ونسب ال (‪ )HCO3-, CO32-‬مما يشير الى وجود مصادر لتلوث المياة ‪ .‬وهكذا‪ ،‬خلصت هذه‬
‫الدراسة إلى أن التكامل بين التحليل اإلحصائي الكالسيكى و التحليل اإلحصائي الهيدروجيوكيميائي العنقودى والتحليل اإلحصائى المكانى قد أعطى تحقيقا‬
‫جيدا لكل من عمليات المياه الطبيعية وكذلك نوعية المياه في منطقة غرب األقصر‪.‬‬

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