Revision Booklet

Chemistry

Aleesha Hussain OCR

 Contents
Module 2 – Foundations in chemistry...................................................................................................2
Atoms, ions, and compounds............................................................................................................2
Amount of substance.........................................................................................................................3
Acids and redox.................................................................................................................................3
Electrons and bonding.......................................................................................................................3
Shapes of molecules and intermolecular forces................................................................................3
Module 3 – Periodic table and energy...................................................................................................3
The periodic table and periodicity.....................................................................................................3
Group 2 and the halogens.................................................................................................................3
Enthalpy changes...............................................................................................................................3
Reaction rates and equilibrium (qualitative).....................................................................................3
Module 4 – Core organic chemistry.......................................................................................................3
Basic concepts of organic chemistry..................................................................................................3
Alkanes..............................................................................................................................................3
Alkenes..............................................................................................................................................3
Alcohols.............................................................................................................................................3
Haloalkanes.......................................................................................................................................3
Organic synthesis...............................................................................................................................3
Spectroscopy.....................................................................................................................................3

Module 2 Foundations in chemistry

Chapter 2 Atoms, ions, and Text Booklets Spec Tests Exam Questions
compounds book
2.1 Atomic structure and isotopes 19
2.2 Relative mass
2.3 Formulae and equations

Chapter 3 Amount of substance 38/3

9
3.1 Amount of substance and the mole
3.2 Determination of formulae
3.3 Moles and volumes
3.4 Reacting quantities
Chapter 4 Acids and redox 52/5
3
4.1 Acids, bases, and neutralisation
4.2 Acid–base titrations
4.3 Redox
Chapter 5 Electrons and bonding 68/6
9
5.1 Electron structure
5.2 Ionic bonding and structure

Page | 1
5.3 Covalent bonding
Chapter 6 Shapes of molecules and 84/8
intermolecular forces 5
6.1 Shapes of molecules and ions
6.2 Electronegativity and polarity

Subject Exam Date

Biology Thursday 19th May (PM)
Chemistry Friday 27th May (AM)
Biology Tuesday 7th June (PM)
English Language Wednesday 8th June (PM)
Chemistry Friday 10th June (PM)

Page | 2
 Module 2 – Foundations in
chemistry
Atomic Structure and Isotopes
Describe the charges and size of particles in an atom.
An atom consists of a nucleus composed of protons and neutrons. The nucleus is surrounded by
electrons arranged in shells. The total positive charge of the proton cancels out the total negative
charge of the electrons making atoms neutral. The neutrons act as a kind of glue to prevent the
positive protons from repelling each other
Both protons and neutrons have a mass of one, electrons have a mass of 1/1836.
Give the definition of an isotope.
Isotopes are atoms of the same element, with the same number of protons, but differing numbers of
neutrons and atomic masses. This can be represented by a change in the mass number or simply
element-number. E.g. carbon-12.
Describe and explain the differences and similarities between isotopes of the same element.
Isotopes have the same configuration of electrons so the chemical properties are unaffected
however they do have slightly different physical properties as these tend to be dependent on the
mass and this fluctuates between isotopes.
Explain why the accepted model of atomic structure changes over time.
New evidence is found and this is used to accept or reject particular models. Furthermore, different
atomic models can be used to explain different phenomena. E.g. the Bohr model explains periodic
properties.
Describe how to work out the chemical formula of a compound.
In an ionic compound the charges must add up and this means you many need multiples of some
couples. E.g. magnesium hydroxide is Mg (OH) 2. When writing the formula to an ionic compound the
easiest method is to work out the charge of the individual ions and then swap them and make them
subscript. E.g. Fe3- and O2+ makes Fe2O3.
How do you name a binary compound?

Binary compounds contain only two elements, use the name of the first element, but change the
ending of the second element to –ide.

Page | 3
Amount of Substance
Define relative isotopic mass.
The mass of an isotope relative to 1/12 of the mass of an atom of carbon-12.
Define relative atomic mass.
The relative atomic mass is the weighted mean mass of an atom of an element relative to 1/12 of
the mass of an atom of carbon-12.
Describe how to determine the relative atomic mass of an element from the relative abundances
of its isotopes. (Always check significant figures!!!)
(Atomic Mass X Percentage) + (Atomic Mass X Percentage) + (Atomic Mass X Percentage)
100
1) Multiply each isotopic mass by its relative abundance
2) Add them all together
3) Divide by 100
Explain the difference between relative formula mass and relative molecular masses and their
calculation from relative atomic masses.
The relative molecular mass is used for simple molecules and relative formula mass for giant
structures. It is found by adding up the mass of each individual element.
Define the amount of substance. Define the Avogadro constant.
The amount of substance (n) is the number of particles in a substance. This is measured in moles.
One mole is the amount of substance is called the Avogadro constant, the amount of substance that
contains 6.02 X 1023 particles.
Define a mole
1 mole is the amount of substance which contains as many particles as there are atoms in exactly
12g of carbon-12. One mole of an atom is equal to the atomic mass of that element.
How do you find the molar mass?

How do you find the amount of atoms in a compound?

Moles X Avogadro’s constant
Define empirical formula.
The empirical formula is the simplest whole number ratio of atoms of each element present in a
compound.
Define molecular formula.
The molecular formula is the number and type of atoms of each element in a molecule.
How to calculate the empirical formula?
Step 1: Divide the mass by the molecular mass. (Find the moles)
Step 2: Find the simplest whole number ratio by dividing each side by the smallest number.
Step 3: Write out the empirical formula.

Page | 4
How would you work out the molecular formula from the empirical formula?
Step 1: Write the relative mass of the empirical formula.
Step 2: Divide the molecular mass by the relative mass.
Step 3: Write out the molecular formula.
Describe stoichiometry.
The relationship between the amounts of reactants and products is called the STOICHIOMETRY of a
reaction. We use the stoichiometry of a reaction to calculate the amount of product will be formed,
or how much of a reactant will be needed. For example, using the equation above; if we started with
20 moles of NaHCO3, we would obtain 10 moles of CO2 as equation shows them in 2:1 ratio.
Step 1: Work out the moles of the products and reactants mentioned in the question.
Step 2: Display this as a ratio
Define the terms anhydrous, hydrated and water of crystallisation.
Anhydrous: A structure without water.
Hydrated: Water molecules are part of the structure.
Water of Crystallisation: The water molecules part of the (crystalline structure)
Give the basic gas equation.
Moles = volume of gas (dm3)
24
Give the ideal gas equation.
1 atm = 101325 Pa Temp = Celsius + 273

* P = pressure in Pa. One atmosphere, which is normal atmospheric pressure, is 101325 Pa.

* V = volume in m3. Remember; 1 m3 = 1000 dm3.

* n = number of moles of gas

* R = Universal Gas constant = 8.31 J K-1 mol-1

* T = the absolute temperature in Kelvin. Remember; 0 o C = 273 K.

Give the equation for concentration.

Moles of solute (mol) = concentration (moldm-3) x volume of solution (dm3)

Explain the difference between a concentrated and dilute solution.
Solutions containing a higher number of moles of solute in a given volume of solution are described
as concentrated.
Solutions containing a fewer number of moles of solute in a given volume of solution are described
as dilute.
Give the three molar equations.

Mass Solutions Gas

Mol = Mass Mol = conc (mol dm-3) X Vol (dm3)| 5
Mol = Volume Page
Molar Mass 24
Give the formula for percentage yields.

Give four reasons why the theoretical yield may not be achieved.
 The reaction may have not gone to completion
 Purification of the product led to the loss of some products
 Other side reactions may have taken place along the main reaction.
 It is a reversible reaction
What is the limiting reagent?
The reactant that is not in excess and thus limits the reaction. To find the limiting reagent compare
the moles of the reactants by balancing the equation. The reactant with more moles is the limiting
reagents as more of this product is needed.
Give the formula for atom economy.

Why is a high atom economy important?

Reactions with high atom economies produce a large proportion of the desired products and few
unwanted products. This is important for sustainability as they make the best use of natural
resources; improving atom economy makes industrial processes more efficient, preserves raw
materials, and reduces waste. However, percentage yields is also important for efficiency.

Page | 6
Acids and redox
Explain the difference between acids, bases and alkalis.

Acids dissolve in water and release H+ ions in aqueous solution. They are proton donators. A base
neutralises an acid to form a salt. Alkalis are water-soluble bases that dissolve in water to
release OH– ions in aqueous solution. These are proton acceptors.

What makes an acid weak or strong?

A strong acid releases all its hydrogen atoms as H + ions and completely dissociates / ionises. Weak
acids only release a small proportion of its hydrogen atoms as H + ions and partially dissociates.

Give the ionic formulae for sulphate, carbonate, nitrate, hydroxide, ammonia, zinc and silver.

Give the formula for hydrochloric acid, sulphuric acid, nitric acid, and ethanoic acid.

HCl H2SO4 HNO3 CH3COOH

Give the formula for sodium hydroxide, potassium hydroxide, and ammonia.

NaOH KOH NH3

Give the neutralisation formula.

H+ and OH– to form H2O.

Acid + Base = Salt + Water (+ Carbon Dioxide if the base was a carbonate)
A base can include metal carbonates, metal oxides, metal hydroxides and ammonia.

Define the term salt.

When the H+ in an acid is replaced by a metal ion.

Give the products of a reaction with an acid and a carbonate.

General equation: Acid + carbonate _salt_ + __H 20__ + ___CO2__
Give the products of a reaction with an acid and a metal oxide.
General equation: Acid + metal oxide (base) _salt_ + __H 20__
Give the products of a reaction with an acid and ammonia.
General equation: Acid + metal oxide (base) _ammonium_ + __H 20__

Give three reasons titrations are used.

 Find the concentration of a solution
 Identify unknown chemicals
 Find the purity of a substance

Page | 7
Acid-Base Titrations
Describe the techniques and procedures used when preparing a standard solution of required
concentration and carrying out acid–base titrations.

A standard solution is a solution with a known concentration. Weigh the solid substance and divide
this number by its molecular mass to find the moles. Divide this by the volume of solution to find the
concentration.

Why must titres agree within 0.10cm3?

In order to reject inaccurate titres and keep the accuracy of the titration technique

How would you analyse the titration results?

Step 1: Work out the amount, in mol, of the solute in the solution for which you know both the
concentration and volume.

Step 2: Use the ratio in the equation to work out the moles of the solute in the other solution.

Step 3: Work out the unknown information about the solute on the other solution.

Page | 8
Redox reactions
Give the three main rules for oxidation states.
 All unreacted elements have an oxidation state of 0
 The oxidation states of any neutral compounds add up to 0
 The oxidation states of any ion add up to the charge on that ion
Give the 6 rules for assigning and calculating oxidation number for atoms in elements.
 Group 1 metals always +1
 Group 2 metals always +2
 Oxygen usually -2 except in peroxides and F 2O (see below)
 Hydrogen is usually +1 except in metal hydrides where it is -1
 Fluorine always -1
 Chlorine usually -1 except in compounds with O or F
Explain the use of a Roman numeral to indicate the magnitude of the oxidation number when an
element may have compounds/ions with different oxidation numbers.
Transition elements can form ions with different oxidation states and so a roman numeral (in
brackets) is used to indicate the oxidation number. This is always positive.
Explain what (V) represent in Chloric Acid (V).
It has an oxidation number of five.
Define oxidation and reduction in terms of electron transfer and changes in oxidation number.
Reduction is the loss of electrons and leads to an increase in charge. Oxidation is the gain of
electrons and leads to the decrease in charge.
Explain the difference in the atomic radii across the period from Na to Cl.
Nuclear charge increases. Electrons added to the same shell so shielding remains the same.
However, there is a greater nuclear attraction.

Page | 9
Electrons and bonding
Describe the number of electrons that can fill the first four shells.
1st shell = 2 2nd shell = 8 3rd shell = 18 4th shell = 32
Define atomic regions / orbitals.
A region around the nucleus that can hold up to two electrons, with opposite spins.
Describe the shape of s and p orbitals, the number of orbitals each shell holds and which each
block in the periodic table is.
S orbitals are spherical, p orbitals are figure of eight shaped.
* An s sub-shell consists of a single s orbital. * A d sub-shell consists of five d orbitals.
* A p sub-shell consists of three p orbitals. * An f sub-shell consists of seven d orbitals
Group 1 and 2 are s block. Group 3-12 are the D block. Group 3-18 are the S block
Write the sub-shell notation for Kr. (atomic number = 36)
1s22s22p63s23p63d104s24p6 (Kr)
Note: 4s2 is filled before 3d10 however is written afterwards to reflect shell order.
Note: Alternatively, the electronic configuration could be written as a noble gas and then the
additional electrons added after. E.g. (Ar) 4s 1 is the sub-shell notation for potassium.
Why do electrons fill orbitals with the same energy occupation singly before pairing?
Due to charge repulsion electrons only pair when forced to, preferring to fill orbitals singly first.
Define the first ionisation energy.
The first ionisation energy of an element is the energy required to remove one electron from each
atom in one mole of gaseous atoms to form one mole of gaseous 1+ ions.
Define the successive ionisation energies.
Successive ionisation energy is a measure of the energy required to remove each electron in turn. An
element has as many ionisation energies as it has electrons.
Give the three factors that ionisation energies depend on.
Increasing the atomic radius increases the distance between the nucleus and the outermost
electrons. This reduces the attractive force, therefore I.E decreases. Increasing the number of
protons in the nucleus increases the attractive force, therefore I.E. increases. Electrons in filled inner
shells repel electrons in the outer shell and reduce the effect of the positive nuclear charge. An
increasing number of inner shell electrons therefore increased Shielding. The overall attractive force
experienced by the outer electrons decreases and therefore I.E. decreases.

Describe the arrow in box thing.

Orbitals are often represented as boxes (or lines) and electrons as arrows. In a pair, the arrows must
point in opposite directions (up / down) to represent the opposite spins of the electrons. Where
possible, electrons occupy orbitals singly (due to charge repulsion). Only when more electrons are
present than the orbitals can hold singly, the electrons pair up (spin-pairing).

Page | 10
Shapes of molecules and intermolecular forces
Define ionic bonding
An ionic bond is the electrostatic force of attraction between positive and negative ions
Explain the solid structures of giant ionic lattices
This is a result of oppositely charged ions strongly attracted in all directions
Explain the effect of structure and bonding on the physical properties of ionic compounds,
including melting and boiling points, solubility and electrical conductivity in solid, liquid and
aqueous states.
The network of strong ionic bonds requires a high amount of energy to break, resulting in high
melting and boiling points.

They are usually soluble in polar solvents such as water as the water molecules can break up the
lattice and surround the ions to form a solution. Polar water molecules are attracted towards ions on
the surface of the ionic lattice. Water molecules bond to the ions, weakening ionic bonds, until they
break. These ions then become surrounded by water molecules and break free from the lattice.

In a solid state, giant ionic compounds do not conduct electricity as the ions are fixed in place and
don’t move. However, they do conduct electricity when in molten state or in aqueous solution as the
ions are now free to move and the sea of free electrons can carry a current.

Define covalent bonding

The strong electrostatic attraction between a shared pair of electrons and the nuclei of the bonded
atoms.

Explain the solid structures of simple molecular lattices, as covalently bonded molecules
attracted by intermolecular forces.
Weak intermolecular forces of attraction allow the molecules to separate from each other quite
easily so they have low melting points and low boiling points.
Molecules do not carry an overall charge and so they do not conduct electricity. Some molecular
substances may, however, react with water to form solutions containing ions which do allow the
flow of an electric current.
Molecules with an overall dipole may be soluble to varying degrees in the polar water solvent.
Where hydrogen bonding with water molecules is possible this might favour solubility.
Non-polar molecules have very little solubility in water, but are soluble in non-polar solvents as
the strength of the intermolecular bonding is similar.
Explain the effect of structure and bonding on the physical properties of covalent compounds
with simple molecular lattice structures including melting and boiling points, solubility and
electrical conductivity.
Molecular substances tend to be gases, liquids or low melting point solids, because the
intermolecular forces of attraction are comparatively weak. The size of the melting or boiling point
will depend on the strength of the intermolecular forces. The presence of hydrogen bonding will lift
the melting and boiling points. The larger the molecule the more van der Waals attractions are
possible - and those will also need more energy to break.

Most molecular substances are insoluble in water, but are often soluble in organic solvents - which
are themselves molecular.

Page | 11
Molecular substances won't conduct electricity: there are no charged ions or delocalised electrons to
carry a current.

Describe and explain the bonding and structure in graphite.

Graphite is a giant covalent lattice that forms in layers. It is a good conductor because it has
delocalised electrons and has a high melting point because strong covalent bonds have to be broken.
It is soft because the weak Van der Waal bonds can break allowing the layers to slide.

Draw of ‘dot-and-cross’ diagrams of molecules and ions to describe: single covalent bonding,
multiple covalent bonding, lone pairs, dative covalent (coordinate) bonding.

Single covalent bonds are shown by drawing a single dot and cross in the overlapping part of the
circle, multiple covalent bonds by drawing multiple many dot and cross in the overlapping part of
the circle. Lone pairs of electrons not involved in bonding are shown by drawing two dots. Dative
covalent (coordinate) bonding, a shared pair of electrons which has been provided by one of the
bonding atoms only, is indicated by an arrow pointing away from the donor atom.

Define dative covalent bonding

A dative covalent bond is a shared pair of electrons which has been provided by one of the bonding
atoms only.
What are London forces?
Induced dipole– dipole interactions caused by an uneven distribution of electrons causes a
temporary dipole on one molecule inducing an opposite dipole onto the next molecule.
Define hydrogen bonding.
The intermolecular bonding between an electron deficient H+ on one molecule and a lone pair of
electrons on a hydrogen or nitrogen molecule. They are shown by a dotted line on a diagram.
Draw a hydrogen bond

Explain the anomalous properties of H2O resulting from hydrogen bonding.

The density of ice compared with water. This is because when water freezes into ice, a network of
hydrogen bonds form. The H2O molecules in ice are held apart in an open lattice structure. There is
lot of space in the structure which gives ice a lower density than water. When ice melts the
hydrogen bonds break which allows the liquid H 2O molecules to move closer together. Its relatively
high melting and boiling points. Hydrogen bonds are extra forces, on top of London forces. When ice
is melted or water boiled, these strong H-bonds need to be broken. More energy is needed to do
this than for other molecules which do not possess H-bonding.

Explain the use of the term average bond enthalpy.

The average bond enthalpy is a measurement of covalent bond strength: the larger the value of the
average bond enthalpy, the stronger the covalent bond.

Explain electronegativity.
The ability of an atom to attract the bonding electrons in a covalent bond. The trend for
electronegativity is to increase as you move from left to right and bottom to top across the periodic
table; this means that the most electronegative atom is Fluorine. Furthermore, if the

Page | 12
electronegativity difference between two atoms is very large, then the bond type tends to be more
ionic, however if the difference in electronegativity is small then it is a nonpolar covalent bond.
Is this bond polar?
A polar bond is a permanent dipole within molecules containing covalently-bonded atoms with
different electronegativities.
Is this molecule polar?
No because the molecule is symmetrical therefore the dipoles cancel out.
Yes because the molecule contains polar bonds and is not symmetrical due to the _____ so the
dipoles do not cancel each other out.

Page | 13
The shapes of simple molecules and ions
Predict the shape and bond angle of ____.

_____ because it has n of electron pairs and n lone pairs. Electron pairs repel to become as far apart
as possible. Lone pairs of electrons repel more strongly than bonding pairs.

Draw the shapes of … linear, non-linear, trigonal planar, pyramidal, tetrahedral and octahedral
and give their bond angles.

Draw the dot-and-cross diagram for NH4+.

Page | 14
 Module 3 – Periodic table and
energy
The periodic table and periodicity
Describe the arrangement of the periodic table.

The periodic table arranges elements in order of increasing atomic (proton) number. The table is
further arranged in periods showing repeating trends in physical and chemical properties and in
groups having similar chemical properties. The periodic table has been extended through discovery
and confirmation of new elements.

You should also be aware of the history of the development of the periodic table and how it
illustrates some important Working scientifically principles. For example, Mendeleev used the
patterns in the properties of the known elements to predict the properties of undiscovered
elements; when these elements were discovered, the predictions could be tested against the
observed properties.

Describe how elements are classified into s-, p- and d-blocks.

Give the definition of the first ionization energy.

The removal of 1 mol of electrons from 1 mol of gaseous atoms.

Explain the trend in first ionisation energies across Periods 2 and 3, and down a group, in terms of
attraction, nuclear charge and atomic radius.

Explanation to include the small decreases as a result of s- and p-sub-shell energies (e.g. between Be
and B) and p-orbital repulsion (e.g. between N and O).

Page | 15
Describe the prediction from successive ionisation energies of the number of electrons in each
shell of an atom and the group of an element.

Define Metallic bonding.

Metallic bonding is the strong electrostatic attraction between cations

and delocalised electrons, forming a giant metallic lattice structure.

Describe the structure of solid giant covalent lattices.

Solid giant covalent lattices of carbon (diamond, graphite and graphene) and silicon are networks of
atoms bonded by strong covalent bonds. Use of ideas about bonding to explain the strength and
conductive properties of graphene, and its potential applications and benefits.

Give the physical properties of giant metallic and giant covalent lattices, including melting and
boiling points, solubility and electrical conductivity in terms of structure and bonding.

Explanations should be in terms of the types of particle present in a lattice, the relative strength of
forces and bonds, and the mobility of the particles involved, as appropriate.

Page | 16
Describe the differences between a giant covalent lattice and the simple molecular lattice formed by
simple covalently-bonded molecules in the solid state.

Explain the variation in melting points across Periods 2 and 3 in terms of structure and bonding.

Trend in structure from giant metallic to giant covalent to simple molecular lattice.

Page | 17
Group 2
Write the general equation for Group 2 elements reactions with oxygen.
Group 2 elements react with oxygen to form oxides whose general
formula can be written as MO. Each reaction can be written as the
equation below.
2M(s) + O2(g) 2MO(s)

Explain why sodium conducts as a solid, but not liquid.

Sodium is a good conductor because it has delocalised electrons. Sodium oxide does not conduct as
a solid, but as a liquid because ions cannot move in a solid, but ions can move when liquid.

Explain the difference in melting point for the elements Mg and Na.
Magnesium ions have a greater charge and more delocalised electrons. Magnesium has greater
attraction between ions and electrons and stronger metallic bonds which require more energy to
break.

Describe and explain the trend, down the group, in the reactivity of the Group 2 elements with
water.
Reactivity increases down the group. Atomic radii increase as there are more shells and there is
more shielding. The nuclear attraction decreases as the increased shielding and distance outweigh
the increased nuclear charge. It is easier to remove outer electrons and the ionisation energy
decreases.

Describe what you would see in the reaction.

The magnesium dissolves and there are bubbles.

CaCO3(s)  CaO(s) + CO2(g)

Ca(OH)2

Page | 18
The Halogens
Explain why this reaction is a disproportionate reaction.
It has been both oxidised and reduced. It has been oxidised (from 0) to +1 AND it has been reduced
(from 0) to –1
Chlorine reacts with water to form bleach in another disproportionate reaction. Write an equation
for the reaction.
Cl2 + H2O HCl + HClO
Chlorine reacts with sodium hydroxide to form bleach in another disproportionate reaction. Write
an equation for the reaction.
Cl2 + 2NaOH NaClO + NaCl + H 2O
State one benefit of adding chlorine to water.
Kills bacteria to make water safe to drink.

State one possible hazard of adding chlorine to water.

It is toxic and could form chlorinated hydrocarbons.

Page | 19