Unstructured Vs Structured Mesh: -

Unstructured Grid Structured Grid

• Physical location of generated grid
points needs to be stored because of non-
uniform grid cell so it is memory extensive
process.
• Generally, it consists of tri and
tetrahedron mesh elements.
• User has less control over grid
generation, but it is automatic process so takes
less time to generate the grid.
• Good for complex geometry but less
accurate than structured grid.
• Because of well-defined uniform
structured, memory allocation of grid is not
required so this process is less memory
extensive.
• Generally, it consists of quad and hexa-
hederal mesh elements.
• Users have more control over grid
generation, but structured grid generation is
time consuming and tedious process.
• Good for simple geometry but more
accurate than unstructured grid generation.

A Common misperception is that a hex mesh is structured, and a tetra mesh is unstructured. It is
accurate to say that a tetra mesh is unstructured, however a hex mesh can also be unstructured. The
difference between a structured hex mesh and an unstructured hex mesh is simply in how the data is
stored.

Stracke trapezoidal Wing Vs delta canard Wing: -

ST Wing
• Better subsonic performance
• Lower Structural Integrity
• Higher span can carry more missile.
• Comparatively Low stall AOA, low Mcr
and MDD
DC Wing
• Better supersonic performance
• Higher Structural Integrity
• Missile carrying capacity is less
• High stall AOA, High Mcr and MDD

Numerical Diffusion: - It consists of dissipation and dispersion error.

• If leading term of truncation error is having second order derivative, then
coefficient of the second order derivative is called numerical or artificial viscosity and
even order derivative term will contribute the dissipation error in CFD code.
• Odd derivative term will contribute the dissipation error in CFD code.
Suppose we have a wave equation and if leading term of truncation is associated with even
order derivative, then it would be dissipative in nature and if leading term of truncation is
associated with odd order derivative, then it would be dispersive in nature having wiggles as
shown in figure.

Eddy Viscosity: - In the turbulent flow, during dissipation, the transfer of

turbulent K.E from larger eddies to smaller eddies gives the rise of microscopic effect,
is called eddy viscosity. Eddy viscosity can be understood by Reynold’s shear stress
term, which is defined as (The shear stress from the eddies / turbulence is given by the
Reynolds stress)

Mean Velocity Shear

The kronecker delta δij is equal to the identity matrix.

Here turbulent kinetic energy k is defined as

Wave equation (Hyperbolic): -

First order PDEs are hyperbolic, with the typical equation being the advection
equation, ∂u/∂t + a ∂u/∂x = 0

Laplace Equation: - Nature of Laplace equation (∇2 𝑢 = 0) - Parabolic

 2-D Heat equation (Elliptic):-

Nature of PDE: -
A quasi-linear second order non-homogeneous PDE

• If B2-4AC < 0 then we have complex characteristic curves (Elliptic PDE).

• If B2-4AC = 0 then we have equal characteristic curves (Parabolic PDE).
• If B2-4AC > 0 then we have hyperbolic PDE and distinct characteristic paths.

• Gradient Based Optimisation: - In optimization, a gradient method is an

algorithm to solve problems of the form. with the search directions defined by the
gradient of the function at the current point. Examples of gradient methods are the
gradient descent and the conjugate gradient, Nonlinear conjugate gradient
method.

Boundary Layer Thickness: - Distance between wall and the point where velocity is 99% of free stream
velocity is called BL Thickness.

• For laminar flow: - Boundary layer thickness

Average Skin-friction coefficient

 • For turbulent flow: - Boundary layer thickness

Average Skin-friction coefficient

Displacement Thickness: - It is the distance by which the external flow streamline is being displaced
to compensate the lost mass flow rate due to formation of boundary layer. Mathematically it is
defined as

Missing mass flow = ρeue δ∗

Momentum Thickness: - It is the height of a hypothetical stream tube which is carrying the missing
momentum of the flow at freestream conditions due to formation of the BL. Mathematically it is
defined as

Energy Thickness: - It is the height of a hypothetical stream tube which is carrying the missing energy
flux of freestream flow due to formation of the BL. Mathematically it is defined as
Upwash and Downwash: - The wingtip vortices create both upwash and downwash; The
downwash lies within the wingspan and affects the wing angle of attack while the upwash
region lies outside the wingspan and can be utilized by another aircraft (or bird) flying
behind and above the wing.

In the case, α is different at different spanwise locations—so-called geometric twist. If the tip is at a
lower α than the root, the wing is said to have washout; if the tip is at a higher α than the root, the
wing has washin. In addition, the wings on several modern airplanes have different airfoil sections
along the span, with different values of αL=0; this is called aerodynamic twist.)

Kutta Condition: - We can summarize the statement of the Kutta condition as follows:
1- For a given airfoil at a given angle of attack, the value of circulation Г around the airfoil is
such that the flow leaves the trailing edge smoothly.
2- If the trailing-edge angle is finite, then the trailing edge is a stagnation point.
3- If the trailing edge is cusped, then the velocities leaving the top and bottom surfaces at the
trailing edge are finite and equal in magnitude and direction.

The strength of such a vortex sheet is variable along the sheet and is denoted by γ(s). At the
TE, Strength is denoted by

Kelvin’s circulation theorem and the starting vortex: - The time rate of change of
circulation around a closed curve consisting of the same fluid elements is zero.
 The creation of the starting vortex and the resulting generation of circulation around the
airfoil.
The Kutta-Joukowski theorem and the generation of lift: - Let curve A be any curve in
the flow enclosing the airfoil.

If the airfoil is producing lift, the velocity field around the airfoil will be such that the line
integral of velocity around A will be finite, that is, the circulation is finite.

The Kutta-Joukowski theorem states that lift per unit span on a two-dimensional body is
directly proportional to the circulation around the body.

Delta Wing:-
1- Due to large root chord, it has less thickness relatively which decrease the wave drag.
 2- Large sweep angle keeps it within the shock wave boundary which reduces the wave
drag.
3- Higher sweep angle increases the Mcr and MDD which reduces the wave drag. Sweep
angle also increase the longitudinal stability which helps to perform the extreme
maneuver at high AOA.
4- Larger surface area helps to have higher internal volume for fuel storage and helps to
generate more drag during landing to reduce the landing speed and higher wing
surface area decrease the wing’s loading (W/S) which increases the manoeuvrity of
aircraft and addition of canard with delta wing makes even more maneuver.
5- Due to larger root chord, it has higher root strength and due to smaller span, it
experiences the less bending moments and much stiffer so reduces aileron reversal
problem and due small span, wing folding problem can be eliminated.

Influence of C.G position on A/C performance: -

Forward CG Effect Aft ward CG Effect

1- Longitudinal Stability increases because of 1- Longitudinal Stability decreases.
increased moment arm or due to increased 2- Lower stall speed and poor stall and spin
static margin. recovery.
2- Higher stall speed because of high wing 3- Higher cruise speed, less cruise drag and less
loading (W/S) but due to higher longitudinal fuel consumption
stability, stall and spin recovery is easier.
3- Cruise AOA increases because of more
downward force applied by HT to balance the
moment generated due to CG so more cruise
drag and slower cruise speed due to induced
drag and drag due to HT so more fuel
consumption.

Advantage of canard position: -

1. It provides the good longitudinal stability and helps to generate the nose down pitching
moment produced by high lift devices.
2. It helps to smoothen the area distribution curve which reduces the wave drag.
3. During landing, it provides the extra lift and drag to slow down the landing speed.

Disadvantage: -

1. Flow of canard affect the main wing flow.

2. Careful design of canard is required. It should be always stall before wing.
Forward swept wing Vs Backward swept Wing: -
Forward Swept Wing Backward Swept Wing
• Forward-swept wings just helped to put the • Backward swept wing increases the static
centre of lift forward which decreases static margin so increase the longitudinal stability.
margin and make it less stable so more • Generally, tendency of tip stall occurring is
manoeuvrable. more than root stall.
• Generally, root stall happens before tip stall • These wings are subjected to less aeroelastic
because the rearward end carries greater lift loads and twisting .
and provides stability.
• These wings are prone to more aeroelastic
loads and twisting so it is made structurally
rigid and stiffer as compared to former.

LCA Navy Vs TEDBF: -

• TEDBF has twin engine over LCA Navy whereas TEDBF has more powerful engine F-
414 over LCA Navy having F-404.

Airforce Vs Navy Fighter Aircraft: -

Airforce Fighter Aircraft
• Lower structural strength due than Navy • Higher Structural Strength due to requirement
Aircraft.
• Lighter than Navy aircraft so high service
celling and higher speed.
• AF aircraft does not need foldable wing due to
sufficient ground space.
• Generally, less range than Navy fighter a/c.
• Less landing speed and less landing impact on
ground.
Navy Fighter Aircraft
of STOL. Short take-offs require high CLmax and
high thrust whereas short landing uses arrester
hook to stop which is kind of controlled crash
landing at high speed.
• Havier than AF aircraft due to high structural
strength and large range fuel tank so less
service celling and lower max speed.
• Navy aircraft requires foldable wing due to
limited space at aircraft carriers.
• Generally, more range than AF fighter a/c
because of limited base in the sea.
• High landing speed and high landing impact
on deck so designed for hard landing with high
strength of landing gear.

M α ω Sustained ‘g’
ATR 0.48 30 25 7.7
STR 0.6 10 15 5.9
Sustained “g” 0.85 7.0 7.8
Max Speed

Doghouse Plot: -
Quardinate Turn: - A coordinated turn is one in which the forces acting on the airplane in a turn
are perfectly balanced. The plane is turning, and its occupants are not being pushed or pulled in any
direction in their seats.

To make the quardinate turn happen, the pilot must do three (possibly four) things simultaneously.

• From the straight and level unaccelerated flight, use the aileron to roll and at the same time,
apply the rudder in the same direction. The amount of rudder the pilot puts in will determine
if the turn is slipping (too little rudder), skidding (too much rudder), or coordinated (just right).
• Vertical lift reduces during roll so a/c goes nose down and loose the altitude so stop that apply
the aileron to keep the nose level and hold the altitude. Depending on the steeper or lighter
turn, we can add the thrust also
In summary, the aircraft needs to be kept such that it does not loose altitude and at the same time no
side slip, i.e. One component of lift should balance the weight and their component should provide
enough force to generate centripetal acceleration.

By resolving lift to satisfy above requirements, we need to fly such that

𝑚𝑉 2
L Cos Ø = mg and L SinØ =
𝑅