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12 – Motion in a Circle
1 One Radian is defined as the angle subtended at the centre of a circle by an arc of length equal to
the radius of the circle.
𝒔
𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 𝜽 𝒓𝒂𝒅
𝒓
o 𝑠 𝑟𝜃
For one complete cycle/oscillation:
𝟐𝝅𝒓
o 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑙𝑒 2𝜋 𝜽 𝟐𝝅 𝒓𝒂𝒅
𝟐𝒓
2 Angular Speed/Velocity is the rate of change in angular displacement with respect to time
∆𝜽 𝟏
𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝝎 𝒓𝒂𝒅 𝒔
∆𝒕
For one complete cycle/oscillation:
𝟐𝝅 𝟏
o 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝝎 𝟐𝝅𝒇 𝒓𝒂𝒅 𝒔
𝑻
With respect to speed of the object:
𝒗 𝟏
o 𝐴𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝝎 𝒓𝒂𝒅 𝒔
𝒓
3 Centripetal Acceleration is the acceleration of an object towards the centre of a circle when an
object is in motion (rotating) around a circle at a constant speed
𝐶𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑝𝑒𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
𝒗𝟐
𝒂𝒄 𝒓𝝎𝟐 𝒗𝝎 𝒎𝒔 𝟐
𝒓
4 Centripetal Force is the resultant force towards the centre of the circle required to keep a body in
uniform circular motion. It is always directed towards the centre of the body's rotation.
1 Angular Frequency is the rate of change of angular displacement with respect to time
𝟐𝝅
𝝎 𝟐𝝅𝒇 𝑟𝑎𝑑 𝑠
𝑻
𝟏
𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 ⇒𝒇 𝐻𝑧 𝑜𝑟 𝑠
𝑻
𝟏 𝟐𝝅
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 ⇒𝑻 𝑠
𝒇 𝝎
2 Simple Harmonic Motion is a type of oscillation in which the acceleration of a body is proportional
to its displacement, but acts in the opposite direction
𝒂∝ 𝒙
𝒙𝟎 ≡ 𝑨𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒊𝒕𝒖𝒅𝒆
𝑎𝑐𝑐𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑒𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
o 𝒂 𝝎𝟐 𝒙 𝑚𝑠 𝑎 ⇒ 𝑥
Change of speed with respect to oscillator’s displacement:
o 𝒗 𝝎 𝒙𝟎𝟐 𝒙𝟐 𝑚𝑠
If oscillation starts at x = 0, t = 0 (equilibrium):
o 𝒙 𝒙𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝝎𝒕 𝑚 𝒗 𝝎𝒙𝟎 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒘𝒕 𝑚𝑠 𝒂 𝝎𝟐 𝒙𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒘𝒕 𝑚𝑠
𝑥 ⇒ sin 𝜔𝑡 1 𝑣 ⇒ cos 𝑤𝑡 1 𝑎 ⇒𝑥
If oscillation starts at x = x0, t = 0:
o 𝒙 𝒙𝟎 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝒘𝒕 𝑚 𝒗 𝝎𝒙𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒘𝒕 𝑚𝑠 𝒂 𝝎𝟐 𝒙𝟎 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒘𝒕 𝑚𝑠
𝑥 𝑥 𝑣 𝜔𝑥 𝑎 𝜔 𝑥
3 Energy of Simple Harmonic Oscillations
𝟏
𝑲𝑬 𝒎𝒗𝟐 𝐽 𝑜𝑟 𝑘𝑔𝑚 𝑠
𝟐
o 𝐾𝐸 ⟹𝑥 0 𝐾𝐸 ⇒𝑥 𝑥
∆𝑮𝑷𝑬 𝒎𝒈∆𝒉 𝐽 𝑜𝑟 𝑘𝑔𝑚 𝑠
Total energy of a system:
𝟏 𝟏
o 𝑬𝟎 𝒎𝒗𝟎𝟐 𝒎𝝎𝟐 𝒙𝟎𝟐 𝐽 𝑜𝑟 𝑘𝑔𝑚 𝑠
𝟐 𝟐
Abdulraheem Alharbawi
Chapter 13 – Gravitational Fields
1 Gravitational Field
A gravitational field is a region of space where a mass experiences a force due to the gravitational
attraction of another mass
2 Gravitational Field Strength
The force experienced by a body per unit mass within a gravitational field
𝑭𝒈 𝑮𝑴
𝒈 𝑁 𝑘𝑔 𝑜𝑟 𝑚𝑠
𝒎 𝒓𝟐
3 Gravitational Force Between Point Masses
The gravitational force between two‐point masses is proportional to the product of the masses and
inversely proportional to the square their separation
𝒎𝟏 𝒎𝟐 𝟏𝟏
𝑭𝒈 𝑮 𝑁 ,𝑮 𝟔. 𝟔𝟕 𝟏𝟎
𝒓𝟐
4 Orbital Speed
Orbital velocity is the velocity at which a body revolves around the other body.
𝑭𝒈 𝑭𝒄
𝑮𝑴𝒎 𝒎𝒗𝟐
𝒓𝟐 𝒓
𝑮𝑴
𝒗𝟐
𝒓
5 Kepler’s Third Law
𝟐𝝅𝒓
𝒗
𝑻
𝟒𝝅𝟐 𝒓𝟐 𝑮𝑴
𝒗𝟐
𝑻𝟐 𝒓
𝟒𝝅𝟐 𝒓𝟑 𝟐
𝑻𝟐 𝑻 ∝ 𝒓𝟑
𝑮𝑴
6 Gravitational Potential
Gravitational potential is the work done per unit mass in bringing a unit mass from infinity to a
defined point
𝑮𝑴
𝝓 𝐽 𝑘𝑔
𝒓
7 Gravitational Potential Energy Between Two Point Masses
Gravitational Potential Energy is the work done in bringing a mass from infinity to a defined point
𝑮𝑴𝒎
𝑮𝑷𝑬 𝐽
𝒓
𝟏 𝟏
∆𝑮𝑷𝑬 𝑮𝑴𝒎
𝒓𝟏 𝒓𝟐
Abdulraheem Alharbawi
Chapter 18 – Electric Fields
1 Electric Field
An electric field is a region of space in which an electric charge “feels” a force
2 Electric Field Strength
Electric field Strength is defined as the force per unit positive charge acting on a stationary point
charge at that point
𝐸𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝐹𝑖𝑒𝑙𝑑 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ
For a radial field around a charge: • For a uniform field between two plates:
𝑭 𝑸 ∆𝑽
o 𝑬 𝑁𝐶 ○ 𝑬 𝑉𝑚
𝑸 𝟒𝝅𝝐𝟎 𝒓𝟐 ∆𝒅
3 Electric Force Between Point Charges
The electrostatic force between two‐point charges is proportional to the product of the charges and
inversely proportional to the square of their separation
𝑸𝟏 𝑸𝟐
𝑭𝑬 𝑁 , 𝜖 8.85 10 𝐹𝑚
𝟒𝝅𝝐𝟎 𝒓𝟐
4 Electric Potential at A Point
The work done per unit positive charge in bringing a small test charge from infinity to a defined point
electric potential is:
o Positive when near an isolated positive charge
o Negative when near an isolated negative charge
o Zero at infinity
When a test charge moves closer to a negative charge, its electric potential decreases
When a test charge moves closer to a positive charge, its electric potential increases
𝑸
𝑽 𝑉
𝟒𝝅𝝐𝟎 𝒓
5 Electric Potential Gradient
The rate of change of electric potential with respect to displacement in the direction of the field
∆𝑽
𝑬 𝑉𝑚
∆𝒓
𝑸
𝑽 𝑬𝒓
𝟒𝝅𝝐𝟎 𝒓
So electric field strength is negative of the potential gradient
6 Electric Potential Energy
The work done in bringing a charge from infinity to that point
𝑸𝟏 𝑸𝟐
𝑬𝒑 𝐽
𝟒𝝅𝝐𝟎 𝒓
𝑾 𝑽𝑸 𝐽
The Change in electric potential energy: ● The change in electric poten al:
𝑸𝟏 𝑸𝟐 𝟏 𝟏 𝑸 𝟏 𝟏
o ∆𝑬𝒑 ○ ∆𝑽
𝟒𝝅𝝐𝟎 𝒓𝟏 𝒓𝟐 𝟒𝝅𝝐𝟎 𝒓𝟏 𝒓𝟐
Abdulraheem Alharbawi
Chapter 19 – Capacitance
1 Capacitance
The charge stored per unit potential difference
𝑸
𝑪 𝐹
𝑽
2 Capacitance of a charged sphere
𝑸 𝑸
𝑽 ⇒ 𝑪 𝟒𝝅𝝐𝟎 𝒓
𝟒𝝅𝝐𝟎 𝒓 𝑽
𝑸
3 Derivation of 𝑪
𝑽
Capacitance in series: ● Capacitance in parallel:
o 𝑽 𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟐 𝑽𝟑 ⋯ ○ 𝑸 𝑸𝟏 𝑸𝟐 𝑸𝟑 ⋯
𝑸 𝑸 𝑸 𝑸
o ⋯ ○ 𝑪𝑽 𝑪𝟏 𝑽 𝑪𝟐 𝑽 𝑪𝟑 𝑽 ⋯
𝑪𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝟑
𝟏 𝟏 𝟏 𝟏
o ⋯ ○ 𝑪𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝟑 ⋯
𝑪𝒕𝒐𝒕𝒂𝒍 𝑪𝟏 𝑪𝟐 𝑪𝟑
4 Energy stored in a capacitor
𝟏 𝟏 𝑸𝟐
𝑾 𝑸𝑽 𝑪𝑽𝟐 𝐽
𝟐 𝟐 𝟐𝑪
5 Discharging a Capacitor
Abdulraheem Alharbawi
Chapter 14 – Temperature
1 Celsius to kelvin
𝜽°𝑪 𝟐𝟕𝟑. 𝟏𝟓 𝑲
2 Specific Heat Capacity
The amount of thermal energy required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of a substance by 1 °C
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑙 𝑒𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑔𝑦 𝑚𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑠𝑝𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐 ℎ𝑒𝑎𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑡𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
o ∆𝑸 𝒎𝒄∆𝜽 𝐽
o 𝑆𝐼 𝑈𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑐 ⟹ J kg K 𝑜𝑟 J kg °C
3 Specific Latent Heat of Fusion (melting)
The thermal energy required to convert 1 kg of solid to liquid with no change in temperature
𝑸 𝒎𝑳𝒇 𝐽
4 Specific Latent Heat of Vaporisation (boiling)
The thermal energy required to convert 1 kg of liquid to gas with no change in temperature
𝑸 𝒎𝑳𝒗 𝐽
Abdulraheem Alharbawi
Chapter 15 – Ideal Gases
1 The Mole
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 ⟹ number of molecules in exactly 12 g of carbon
Atomic mass 𝑢 1.66 10 𝑘𝑔 ≡ 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑜𝑛 & 𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑁𝑒𝑢𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑛
Carbon‐12 mass 12𝑢 12 1.66 10 1.99 10 𝑘𝑔
.
1 𝑚𝑜𝑙 6.02 10 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠
.
2 Avogadro’s Constant 𝑵𝑨
The number of atoms of carbon‐12 in 12 g of carbon‐12; equal to 6.02 10 𝑚𝑜𝑙
𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒈 𝒏𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒄𝒖𝒍𝒆𝒔
𝒏𝒖𝒎 𝒐𝒇 𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒆𝒔 𝟏
𝒎𝒐𝒍𝒂𝒓 𝒎𝒂𝒔𝒔 𝒈 𝒎𝒐𝒍 𝑨𝒗𝒐𝒈𝒂𝒅𝒓𝒐 𝒔 𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒕
3 Ideal Gases
An ideal gas is one which obeys the relation:
o 𝑝𝑉 ∝ 𝑇
Pressure is force per unit area
𝑭
o 𝒑 𝑃𝑎
𝑨
o pressure in an ideal gas is the frequency of collisions of the gas molecules per unit area of a
container
Boyle’s Law
o If temperature T is constant ⟹ 𝑝 ∝
o 𝑷𝟏 𝑽𝟏 𝑷𝟐 𝑽𝟐
Charles’s Law
o If pressure P is constant ⟹ 𝑉 ∝ 𝑇
𝑽𝟏 𝑽𝟐
o
𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐
Pressure Law
o If volume V is constant ⟹ 𝑃 ∝ 𝑇
𝑷𝟏 𝑷𝟐
o
𝑻𝟏 𝑻𝟐
4 Ideal Gas Equation
An ideal gas is a gas which obeys the equation of state pV = nRT at all pressures, volumes and
temperatures
𝒑𝑽 𝒏𝑹𝑻, 𝑅 8.31
o 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑀𝑜𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑔𝑎𝑠 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
𝒑𝑽 𝑵𝒌𝑻, 𝑘 1.38 10 𝐽𝐾
o 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐵𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑧𝑚𝑎𝑛𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 𝑇𝑒𝑚𝑝𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑒
Boltzmann constant
𝑹 . 𝟐𝟑
o 𝒌 𝟏. 𝟑𝟖 𝟏𝟎 𝐽𝐾
𝑵𝑨 .
Abdulraheem Alharbawi
5 Kinetic Theory of Gases
𝒄 = mean speed of the gas particles 𝑚𝑠
𝒄𝟐 = mean‐square‐speed 𝑚 𝑠
√ 𝒄𝟐 𝒄𝒓.𝒎.𝒔 = root‐mean‐square‐speed 𝑚𝑠
Derivation of kinetic theory of gases equation
o 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 ∆𝒑 𝑚𝑐 𝑚𝑐 𝑚𝑐 𝑚𝑐 𝟐𝒎𝒄
𝒅𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆 𝟐𝒍
o 𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑏𝑒𝑡𝑤𝑒𝑒𝑛 𝑐𝑜𝑙𝑙𝑖𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 ∆𝒕
𝒔𝒑𝒆𝒆𝒅 𝒄
∆𝒑 𝟐𝒎𝒄 𝒎𝒄𝟐
o 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑭 𝟐𝒍
∆𝒕 𝒍
𝒄
𝒎𝒄𝟐
𝑭 𝒎𝒄𝟐
o 𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝒑 𝒍
of one molecule
𝑨 𝒍𝟐 𝒍𝟑
𝑵𝒎𝒄𝟐
𝑭 𝑵𝒎𝒄𝟐 𝑵𝒎 𝒄𝟐
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 𝒑 𝒍
where N is the number of molecules
𝑨 𝒍𝟐 𝒍𝟑 𝒍𝟑
o 𝑐 𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
𝑐 𝑐 𝑐
So 𝑐 ⟹ 𝑐
𝟏
⟹ 𝒑𝑽 𝑵𝒎 𝒄𝟐
𝟑
𝑵𝒎
𝝆
𝑽
𝟏
𝒑 𝝆 𝒄𝟐
𝟑
6 Kinetic Energy of a Molecule
𝑝𝑉 𝑁𝑘𝑇 & 𝑝𝑉 𝑁𝑚 𝑐
1
𝑁𝑚 𝑐 𝑁𝑘𝑇
3
1
𝑚 𝑐 3𝑘𝑇 ⟹ 𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒𝑠
2
𝟏 𝟑
⇒ 𝑬𝑲 𝒎 𝒄𝟐 𝒌𝑻
𝟐 𝟐
𝐸 ∝ 𝑇
Abdulraheem Alharbawi
Chapter 16 – Thermodynamics
1 Internal Energy (U)
The internal energy of a substance is the sum of the random distribution of kinetic and potential
energies within a system of molecules
𝟑
Change in internal energy ∆𝑼 𝒌∆𝑻
𝟐
o ∆𝑈 ∝ ∆𝑇
2 Work Done by a Gas
𝑾 𝒑∆𝑽
Derivation
o 𝑭 𝒑 𝑨
𝑾 𝑭 𝒔
𝑾 𝒑 𝑨 𝒔
𝑾 𝒑∆𝑽
3 The First Law of Thermodynamics
The First Law of Thermodynamics states that the internal energy of a system depends only on the
thermodynamic state of the system
The increase in internal energy = Energy supplied by heating + Work done on the system
∆𝑼 𝒒 𝑾
o When a gas expands, work done W is negative
o When a gas is compressed, work done W is positive
Abdulraheem Alharbawi