Decarbonisati n

August 2022

Technology
Powering the Transition to Sustainable Fuels & Energy

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ACCELERATING
DECARBONISATION
TOGETHER
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Contents August 2022

5 Best practices in decarbonisation for LNG export facilities

Peter Zhang Gulf LNG Solutions
Saeid Mokhatab LNG Consultant

11 HyNet: a case study on industrial symbiosis

Chris Manson-Whitton Progressive Energy

15 Teesside: the heartland of the UK’s energy transition

Matt Williamson bp

19 Maximise renewable resources with thermal energy storage

Raymond C Decorvet MAN Energy Solutions

23 Decarbonising through advances in heat exchange technology

Gerald Marinitsch, David Moon and Lowy Gunnewiek Solex Thermal Science

31 Techno-economic metrics of carbon utilisation – Part 1

Joris Mertens, Mark Krawec and Ritik Attwal KBC (a Yokogawa company)

39 Biomass, BECCS and electrolysis for climate-neutral liquid fuels

Stephen B. Harrison sbh4 Consulting

47 Energy transition technology scenarios

Nick Flinn and Chris Egby Shell Catalysts & Technologies

55 Co-processing of bio-based feedstocks in the FCC unit

Bob Riley, Stefan Brandt and Kenneth Bryden W. R. Grace & Co.

61 Power-to-X integration, the methanol case

Raimon Marin AFRY

67 LOHC: H2 delivery pathway for emerging hydrogen market

Sebastien Lecarpentier, Arnaud Cotte and Stephanie Decoodt Axens

72 Choosing the ideal CO2 drying solution for CCS applications

Kirstie Thompson, Margaret (Peg) Greene and Manish Mehta BASF

76 Electric process heating – a call for standard specifications

Craig Tiras Vulcanic EML

80 Holistic renewables investment is key to achieving net zero

Jonathan Hicks Triple Point

www.decarbonisationtechnology.com 1
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 F
ollowing on from the article ‘Delivering the Global Methane
Managing Editor Pledge’* in our May edition, we welcome announcements
Rachel Storry in July that three more companies, ConocoPhillips, Pioneer
rachel.storry@emap.com Natural Resources and Devon Energy, have joined OGMP 2.0.
tel +44 (0)7786 136440 Another three companies, QatarEnergy, Wintershall DEA and
Neptune Energy, have signed OGCI’s ‘Aiming for Zero Methane
Consulting Editor Emissions Initiative’.
Robin Nelson
Our August edition illustrates the all-embracing nature of the
robin.nelson@
energy transition with articles on two industrial clusters, HyNet
decarbonisationtechnology.com
North West and East Coast/Teesside, confirmed for ‘Track 1’
Graphics development with support from the UK Government. A third cluster,
Peter Harper the “Scottish cluster”, was announced as a reserve. We plan to
follow progress with all three clusters.
Digital Editorial Assistant Thermal energy storage can provide stable, long-term energy
Ciaran Nerval storage, overcoming issues with intermittency from renewable
energy sources. In Denmark, an electro-thermal energy storage
US Operations (ETES) system will be commissioned in 2023, which will buffer
Mark Peters energy supply from offshore wind and tidal sources with energy
mark.peters@emap.com demand in the form of sustainable electricity, heating, and cooling
tel +1 832 656 5341
for the city of Esbjerg. Whilst the Esbjerg system uses water as the
medium for energy storage, solid particles such as silica sand are a
Business Development Director
viable solution for thermal energy storage from concentrated solar
Paul Mason
info@decarbonisationtechnology.com
power, as described in the article by Solex.
tel +44 844 5888 771 Moving from Europe to Japan, KBC has conducted a techno-
economic assessment on carbon capture and utilisation together
Managing Director with green hydrogen for producing renewable chemicals in the Goi
Richard Watts industrial area in Tokyo Bay. The assessment uses pricing scenarios
richard.watts@emap.com for green hydrogen over 30 years. They conclude that mandates or
other form of support are required for the introduction of low carbon
EMAP, 10th Floor intensity products such as sustainable aviation fuels (SAF).
Southern House The topic of sustainable fuels continues with articles on different
Wellesley Grove, phases in the transition. In the short term, technically mature, lower-
Croydon CR0 1XG cost routes using sustainable bio-based feedstocks will be deployed,
but ultimately these are likely to be limited by feedstock availability.
Thus e-fuels, currently at lower maturity and more costly, will be
required in the longer term.
In July, the European Parliament approved the Refuel EU regulation.
This regulation will come into effect in January 2023 with mandates
on the minimum levels of biofuels and e-fuels in aviation kerosene,
starting at 2% (with 0.04% e-fuels) in 2025 and increasing to 85%
(with 50% e-fuels) by 2050.
Challenges in processing bio-feedstocks include their physical
and chemical compatibility with conventional refinery streams, as
discussed by Grace, as well as cost and logistical issues concerning
the transport of bulky biomass over long distances. AFRY makes a
clear case for co-locating renewable methanol production in pulp mills
Cover Story
Galp Sines Refinery, Portugal Credit: Galp or bio-waste processing plants where there is a source of biogenic
CO₂ and renewable electricity for green hydrogen production.

UPDATE *Please note that the article ‘Delivering the Global Methane Pledge’, published in Decarbonisation
Technology May 2022, now includes some valuable feedback from Simon Blakely, Senior Advisor, S&P Global
Commodities Insight. Please click HERE to read the feedback together with the full article.

www.decarbonisationtechnology.com 3
ENERGY TRANSITION TO
REFINING TRANSFORMATION
What does it mean to be part of the global energy transition?
At Grace it means transforming the way we support the
petroleum refining industry for a more sustainable future.
Let’s collaborate on the next wave of FCC technology.

Contact your Grace

representative today.

grace.com
Best practices in decarbonisation
for LNG export facilities
Reducing emissions from LNG plants can be technically feasible and
economically viable as well as environmentally desirable
Peter Zhang Gulf LNG Solutions
Saeid Mokhatab LNG Consultant
R
ecently, all business organisations have
been under greater pressure from both
the public and investors to manage their
operations associated with reducing carbon
footprints. As the US liquefied natural gas
(LNG) market continues to grow due to globally
increased demand for cleaner energy, reducing
greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from each
stage of the LNG value chain has become
particularly important to LNG project developers
and facility owners.
Carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions associated
with the liquefaction process account for
approximately 6 to 10% of overall GHG
emissions of the entire LNG value chain.
Decarbonising current LNG export facilities is a
difficult challenge for facility owners. Not only do
they need to justify the increased cost associated
with deploying various decarbonisation options,
but they also must find those options that have
demonstrated unmitigated success and can meet
owners’ unique decarbonisation goals.
Natural gas
pipeline
Natural gas
pretreatment facilities Natural gas
liquefaction trains
Figure 1 LNG export facility
www.decarbonisationtechnology.com
This article reviews some of the best practices
in addressing decarbonisation for LNG export
facilities from an engineering design point of
view. Not all LNG projects are designed equally
and with the same level of emissions. As a result,
the authors believe there are opportunities
for LNG facility owners to address the unique
decarbonisation issues associated with their
existing facilities, and for LNG project developers
to do it right in the first place during the
development of new projects.
Process overview of LNG export facilities
An LNG export facility (see Figure 1) is typically
comprised of natural gas treating facilities, one
or more liquefaction trains, LNG storage tanks,
one or more LNG ship-loading facilities, as well
as supporting infrastructure and utilities. In the
natural gas liquefaction plant, LNG is produced
from a cryogenic liquefaction process where
natural gas (mainly methane) is cooled down to
approximately -160oC (-256oF) at 103 kPa (15 psi)
LNG
storage Ship
tanks loading
facilities
LNG ship
5
 Sulphur recovery/
thermal oxidiser
Acid gas Water/
removal mercaptans
removal
Raw natural
gas
Inlet
separation
NGLs to storage
Water Condensate
Figure 2 Typical LNG production process flow
to liquefy it for easy storage and transportation.
The LNG production process flow is as follows:
natural gas from raw gas transmission pipelines,
typically at relatively high pressure, is fed to the
LNG plant (see Figure 2), where it first goes
through a series of processing steps to remove
the undesirable components. These include
heavy hydrocarbon liquids (condensate), free
water, acid gases (carbon dioxide and hydrogen
sulphide), water vapour, mercaptans, mercury,
and other hydrocarbons heavier than methane
called natural gas liquids (NGLs) contained in
the natural gas feed stream, to prevent freezing
issues in the cryogenic process, and to meet final
LNG product specifications. Nitrogen, a potential
natural gas contaminant, will be removed in the
later cryogenic process through fractionation or
fuel gas purge. After the NGLs are removed, the
residual natural gas stream gets liquefied (using
an external refrigeration system) and then sent to
the end-flash nitrogen removal unit to meet the
required specification to improve its calorific value
and to avoid storage problems. The flash gas
stream from nitrogen removal unit can be used as
fuel gas. However, to meet fuel gas requirements,
excess nitrogen needs to be rejected from this
flash gas stream.
Emission sources in LNG export facilities
To understand the decarbonisation options in
an LNG export facility, one must first locate the
main GHG emission sources. There are primarily
two major GHG emission sources in an LNG
plant facility. One is CO₂ and methane contained
in the feed gas, and the other is the flue gas
produced from fuel gas combustion devices,
such as gas turbines, thermal oxidiser, and other
process fired heaters.
6 www.decarbonisationtechnology.com
Nitrogen Nitrogen
Fuel gas
rejection vent to ATM
Mercury Nitrogen
removal rich gas
NGL End flash LNG to
Liquefaction Nitrogen
recovery storage
removal
CO₂ in the feed gas is typically removed by
amine absorption during feed gas treatment in
the CO₂ absorber in the acid gas removal unit
(AGRU). The off-gas from the amine regeneration
column, which typically contains CO₂ and a small
amount of hydrogen sulphide (H₂S) and other
light hydrocarbons, is sent to a thermal oxidiser
to destroy the hydrocarbons and other hazardous
components by combustion or oxidation. The
thermal oxidiser is often operated with some
augmented fuel gas due to the low heat value of
CO₂ off-gas from the AGRU. The flue gas from
the oxidiser mainly contains nitrogen, unreacted
oxygen, CO₂, water vapour, nitrogen oxides
(NOx), sulphur oxides (SOx), and tiny amounts
of uncombusted hydrocarbons depending on
the combustion efficiency of the burner. These
components can be vented to the atmosphere (to
the extent allowed by local regulations) at a safe
location. Alternatively, a carbon capture unit for
CO₂ recovery can be added if needed.
The amount of flue gas produced from a
gas turbine is proportional to its fuel gas
consumption, which in turn is a function of
the duty required (or power output), fuel gas
composition, and thermal efficiency.
In addition, there are other emission sources in
an LNG export facility. They can be intermittent
or continuous and together can sometimes make
significant contributions to the overall annual
emissions of an LNG facility. Those emission
sources include fugitive leaks from process
equipment/turbomachines, piping and valves,
vents from pressure control, compressor seals,
emergency relief (flaring), and venting during
commissioning, start-up, maintenance, and
shutdowns. They may also include fuel gas purge
for nitrogen removal (usually flared), nitrogen-rich
venting from the nitrogen rejection unit, boil-off
gas venting when boil-off gas compressor is
down (usually flared), and ballasting vents during
LNG storing and ship loading/unloading (also
normally flared). Methane is a far more potent
GHG than CO₂, so flaring those emissions (rather
than venting them) can reduce their impact by a
factor of 35 or more.
Means to decarbonise LNG export facilities
While decarbonising an LNG export facility is
a challenge, various efforts have been taken
in the LNG sector to reduce emissions, which
basically can be divided into the three following
categories:
Elimination This category represents the
choice of energy forms that power an LNG
facility which can eliminate GHG emissions.
Due to a proportional relationship between
fossil energy or fossil fuel usage and GHG
emissions, using a non-fossil fuel energy source
will be the ultimate solution to achieve zero
emissions. This includes using electrical motors
based on electricity generated from renewable
energy sources for refrigerant compressors.
While partial substitution of fossil fuel by
non-fossil fuel is possible for an LNG facility,
with current technologies and energy mix,
completely substituting fossil fuel is unlikely. It is
particularly challenging for those existing LNG
facilities that have already installed gas turbines
for their refrigerant compressors.
Mitigation On the basis of utilising fossil
fuel energy, decarbonisation means reducing
emissions from fuel gas combustion or methane
leaks from piping and instrument leaks. This
category includes improving energy efficiency
through process design and equipment
modifications. This includes utilising more
energy-efficient equipment and advanced
technologies associated with minimising
emissions. It should be noted that, even if all of
these mitigation methods are applied, not all
GHG emissions associated with operating the
facility may be eliminated.
Sequestration The amount of CO₂ in the feed
gas and the turbine exhaust gas will be released
into the atmosphere if it is not captured and
www.decarbonisationtechnology.com
stored. Carbon capture and sequestration
(CCS) is considered a must-deploy technology
to achieve net-zero emissions by 2050. CCS
for LNG plants includes efforts that utilise
commercially available CCS technologies to
capture and sequester CO₂ emissions, mainly
from the AGRU and the gas turbine exhaust.
Examples of decarbonisation practices:
 Improvement of energy efficiency
The energy efficiency for an LNG plant
is generally defined as energy input or
requirement to produce a unit mass of LNG,
such as kWh/kg or kWh per metric ton (MT).
Each metric ton of LNG produced is estimated
to require approximately 170 to 350 kWh of
energy. In the absence of utilising renewable
power from the grid, about 8 to 12% of feed gas
is needed to produce power to run an LNG plant
(including the fuel gas needed for gas turbines
that drive refrigerant compressors). This is
equivalent to GHG emissions of approximately
0.16 tCO₂e/tLNG to 0.48 tCO₂e/tLNG. For
given feed gas conditions (such as pressure,
temperature, and compositions), site conditions,
and liquefaction technology selected, those
values are strongly dependent on the type of
drivers used for refrigeration compressors and
the level of energy and heat integration.
Driver type Efficiency of drivers varies with
type. Heavy-duty frame turbines typically have
an energy efficiency of 33 to 35%. For aero-
derivative turbines, the energy efficiency ranges
from 41 to 44%. The energy efficiency of a
combined cycle gas turbine (CCGT) can run
up to an energy efficiency of 60%. Recently,
electrical motors with zero emissions (if the
electricity is from a renewable source) have
increased interest. Electric drive has been
proposed for new LNG facilities that are
geographically located where it is feasible to use
renewable power from the grid.
Heat recovery and integration For LNG plants
that use gas turbines, recovering heat from
turbine exhaust gas has become a standard
design. The recovered waste heat can be
used as a heat source for process use, such as
providing heat for molecular sieve dehydration
regeneration gas and heating medium. This can
7
eliminate the use of dedicated fired heaters,
which means no fuel gas consumption and no
emissions for these necessary utilities.
Energy recovery In several areas of an LNG
plant, high-pressure fluids are sometimes let
down to lower pressure for process reasons.
For instance, in the feed gas circuit, the high
pressure of feed gas is often let down to a lower
pressure as required for NGL recovery. And in
the rich amine circuit, the high-pressure, rich
amine stream exiting from the bottom of a high-
pressure amine absorber is typically let down
to a lower pressure for amine flashing. In those
instances, pressure letdowns are commonly
realised by throttling valves. An alternative is
to use turbine/expanders and turbochargers,
respectively, to recover some of the lost
energy. Note that the cost of equipment and
maintenance of said equipment is not trivial and
must be considered in the overall analysis.
Mitigation of emissions
In addition to improvement in energy efficiency,
there are other areas where decarbonisation
opportunities exist in a liquefaction export
facility. Many have been successfully practised
in operating LNG facilities and are accepted as
standard features, designs, or procedures. The
following is a short list:
Fugitive emissions prevention Prevention of
hydrocarbon leaks from static equipment and
turbomachines, piping connections and valves,
plus associated safety and environmental
regulation compliance are ongoing tasks of LNG
facilities during design and operations. A good
fugitive emission management programme
should address quantifying and eliminating
fugitive emissions in the first place, i.e., during
the design phase. This includes compressor
type selection (including seal type) and valve
selection (i.e., low [external] leakage valves
versus high leakage valves).
Abnormal venting and emergency relief
Emissions through venting/flaring during
emergency shutdowns can sometimes
be enormous. Implementing predictive
maintenance programmes and improving
equipment reliability can help prevent
8 www.decarbonisationtechnology.com
unplanned shutdowns and thus reduce lifetime
emissions from the facility.
Overpressure protection Overpressure protection
through relief and depressurisation systems in
LNG process facilities is the standard means of
protecting people, an owner’s assets, and the
environment. However, in reviewing emission-
mitigating methods for overpressure protection,
atmospheric release (usually via flaring) and the
associated negative environmental impact, as well
as the potential lost revenue due to relief valve
opening, must be addressed. It is common practice
to consider solutions such as inherent safer design
through high-integrated pressure protection
systems (HIPPS) that can address both potentially
hazardous emissions and the costly release while
still providing overpressure protection.
Commissioning and start-up Venting
during process commissioning and start-up
is unavoidable. However, emissions can be
mitigated through proper planning and reviewing
of commissioning and start-up procedures. For
instance, utilising nitrogen for initial dry-out of
mercury removal beds (placed downstream of
the dehydration vessels) may have advantages
over using fuel gas in minimising CO₂ emissions.
Similarly, during AGRU commissioning, or
turndown operation at start-up, the over-
circulating lean amine may be unnecessary
as it will increase the amount of dissolved
hydrocarbons in the rich amine and potentially
increase emissions, depending on the disposition
of the flash gas.
Carbon capture and storage
Chevron Australia’s Gorgon LNG facility installed
the world’s largest CCS system to capture carbon
emissions. After treatment, CO₂ captured from
the AGRU in the feed gas pretreatment section of
the LNG plant is injected into a giant sandstone
formation about 2000 meters deep from the
surface, where it remains permanently trapped.
Peter Zhang
pzhang9898@gmail.com
Saeid Mokhatab
s.mokhatab@yahoo.com
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HyNet: a case study on
industrial symbiosis
How a collaboration of over 30 organisations across different industries can
work together to transition to a low-carbon economy
Chris Manson-Whitton
Progressive Energy
H
yNet is a project creating the
infrastructure for carbon capture
and storage (CCS) and producing,
transporting, and storing low-carbon hydrogen.
HyNet is a decarbonisation cluster – a project
designed to remove and reduce carbon dioxide
(CO₂) emissions from a regional industrial
hub that produces economic output and,
subsequently, emits CO₂. HyNet and similar
clusters across the UK connect companies that
generate CO2 and companies that can use low-
carbon hydrogen to displace fossil fuel sources
such as natural gas. HyNet is a case study on new
industrial networks that together can transition to
a low-carbon economy.
Background
Progressive Energy was formed in 1998 to
deliver hydrogen and CCS clusters and is the
architect of HyNet. In this article, HyNet is used
as a case study on how a collaboration of over 30
organisations across different industries can work
together to deliver an outcome.
A perspective on UK energy consumption
Have you ever thought about how much energy
Five-fold expansion by 2030 A major energy gap to fill – this needs a proper transition
Electricity
Electricity Misc
Electricity Misc Natural gas
Electricity Misc Natural gas
0% 10% 20% 30% 40%
Figure 1 Anchoring energy – the UK picture in 2021
www.decarbonisationtechnology.com
it takes to produce ordinary household tasks?
As a consumer, the task of boiling a kettle,
a menial element of a Briton’s day, uses on
average 2-3 kWh of energy, roughly equivalent
to someone climbing the stairs to the top of the
Empire State Building! A household gas boiler
uses 10 times that energy to provide heating
and hot water. The production of energy can be
taken for granted.
From a national perspective, the UK is one
of the world leaders in offshore wind. In 2021,
it generated over 30 TWh of electricity from
offshore wind, against the UK electricity demand
of around 300 TWh. Beyond electricity, natural
gas supplies around 600 TWh of our energy,
while 800 TWh comes from petroleum products.
Thus, while the UK is a world leader in offshore
wind, 30 TWh is only 10% of our electricity
consumption and just 2% of our total energy
flows of 1740 TWh (see Figure 1).
Rightly, the UK plans a massive expansion of
offshore wind, but a five-fold expansion would
still only make 10% of our total energy flow. So,
the question is, how do we fill the gap?
Progressive Energy believes we need
renewable energy. For renewables to take a
1740TWh
Petroleum
50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100%
11
 HyNet’s foundations
1200 HyNet was conceived around five years ago. The
UK territorial emissions story starts with the demand from industry to
1000
contribute to the journey to net zero.
Figure 3 shows the demand for the
MtCO2 eq/yr

800
infrastructure that HyNet is building. Progressive
600
UK consumption emissions Energy is working with major industrial
400 organisations across the North West to support
their switch across to low-carbon hydrogen or
200
capture their carbon emissions.
0 The driver for this change comes from
both business-to-business and end-user
90
92
94
96
98
00
02
04
06
08
10
12
14
16
19
19
19
19
19
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20
20
consumers recognising that this is not just about
Figure 2 UK greenhouse emissions (MtCO₂ decarbonisation but value creation, allowing them
eq/yr) 1990-2017 to differentiate themselves.
The users of the Hynet infrastructure are
much greater share of the UK’s energy sector, a given in Figure 3. Around three-quarters of
level of fossil resources will form an inevitable partners and associated companies are looking
part of our energy system in the short term to to decarbonise by fuel switching to low-carbon
transition successfully. And so, projects like hydrogen, with some also using the HyNet
HyNet must not only deliver renewable energy infrastructure to safely transport and store the
into the future but also capture the carbon CO₂ they produce.
emissions produced in the short term, targeting
hard-to-abate sectors of the economy, such as Key partners
heavy industry. The location of HyNet gives access to the
The UK Climate Change Committee monitors Liverpool Bay depleted gas fields owned by Eni.
the trend in UK greenhouse gas emissions and This represents a low-cost, low-risk site for CCS
shows that over the last 25 years, emissions have (see Figure 4). The gas field is serviced through
fallen from around 800 million tonnes of CO₂ eq/ an existing pipeline, originally used to transport
yr (0.8 GT) in 1990 to around 450 million tonnes the natural gas from the offshore field, which will
by 2017. However, when the carbon embedded in be repurposed to deliver the CO₂ to the offshore
imported products is factored in, our consumption CCS site, shown in orange in Figure 4. The
emissions over the same period have held pretty pipeline will be extended to reach the Ellesmere
constant at roughly 800 Mt/yr (see Figure 2). So Port industrial zone, with Essar’s refinery located
how can the UK solve this? HyNet will use carbon at the Stanlow Manufacturing Complex.
capture, an almost 50-year-old solution for storing Encirc, the largest bottling plant in the UK, will
CO₂, then transport the CO₂ to the depleted oil use locally produced hydrogen to power Encirc’s
and gas fields for permanent storage. furnaces, reducing carbon emissions by more
than 90%. This will enable the
manufacture of billions of low-
carbon glass bottles, create over
200 new jobs, and grow a skills
base fit for the future to establish
the region as the global centre of
excellence for glass innovation.
Hanson’s Padeswood cement
plant produces CO₂ as an inherent
part of the cement-making process.
The HyNet infrastructure will
safely transport and securely store
Figure 3 HyNet demand led decarbonisation 800,000 t/yr CO₂ from this facility.

12 www.decarbonisationtechnology.com
 Initial phases of Cadent's H2
pipeline
Future phases of Cadent’s H2
pipeline
CO2 CO2 transportation and
Liverpool storage system
Future CO2 pipeline
Manchester connections

Industrial CO2 capture

CO2
H2 CO2 storage
Flint

Low carbon H2 production

Northwich

Chester Underground H2 storage

H2 blending for homes
and business
H2 fuelling for transport Industrial H2 user

H2 from offshore wind H2 Flexible H2 power generation

Wrexham
H2 from solar and wind CO2 shipping

Figure 4 Overview of HyNet

Fuel switching to hydrogen has been Next steps

successfully trialled at Pilkington Glass, which
created a world first by firing pure hydrogen in
its flat-glass manufacturing process. Similarly,
Unilever has successfully trialled hydrogen
for generating the steam used in its Port
Sunlight plant.
Vertex Hydrogen is building a large-scale
hydrogen production plant, using Johnson
Matthey’s low-carbon hydrogen technology
with a conversion efficiency from methane to
hydrogen of 85% and a CO₂ capturing efficiency
of 97%. The captured CO₂ will be sent via the
pipeline for offshore storage.
Cadent is building a 120km hydrogen
distribution pipeline, which will be connected
to the storage of hydrogen in underground
salt caverns managed by Inovyn, to
balance hydrogen supply and demand and
give dispatchable power generation that
can compensate for the intermittency of
renewables, such as wind and solar power. In
the longer term, there is potential for hydrogen
to be added to the wider natural gas network
as a means of decarbonising household
gas supplies.
HyNet establishes an infrastructure for all
sources of hydrogen, encouraging investments
in low-carbon hydrogen from electrolysis (green
hydrogen) in this region (see Figure 4).
The HyNet project is now moving from the
development to the delivery phase. The Vertex
hydrogen production facility has already gone
through front end engineering design (FEED),
and planning permission has been submitted.
The Cadent hydrogen distribution pipeline is
already in FEED, and consultation is taking
place. Inovyn has almost finished the FEED for
the hydrogen storage, and soon 1.3 TWh of
hydrogen storage will have gone through FEED
and consenting. Eni is also at an advanced stage
in its engineering and consenting process. HyNet
will be able to store 10 MT CO₂ annually by
2030, while almost 50% of the region’s natural
gas can be displaced by hydrogen.
The project will create an estimated 6,000 new
green jobs and help diversify the economy. This
is an opportunity for economic redevelopment
in the North West and Wales and could support
75,000 jobs. HyNet represents the UK’s first net-
zero industrial cluster. The project will not only
build on the region’s rich industrial heritage with
an estimated economic impact of £17 billion for
the North West and North Wales but also reduce
the region’s carbon emissions by a quarter within
five years.
Chris Manson-Whitton
chris.mw@progressive-energy.com

www.decarbonisationtechnology.com 13
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Teesside: the heartland of the
UK’s energy transition
Teesside is perfectly placed to become a world-class, low-carbon energy hub
and is an excellent test bed for bp’s hydrogen ambitions
Matt Williamson
bp
B
p is in the midst of a sweeping
transformation to help the world reach
net zero. We are committed to our aim of
reimagining energy for people and our planet.
And in doing so, we aim to reduce carbon
emissions from our operations and production,
and build new low-carbon businesses.
We are committing significant resources to that
transition – from an oil and gas company to an
integrated energy company. We want to rapidly
become a market leader in low-carbon energy by
developing 20 GW of renewable power by 2025
and 50 GW by the end of the decade.
Clean energy sources like wind, solar, and
biofuels will play an important role. But hydrogen
will also play a crucial role in bp’s transition. The
industrial and commercial use of low-carbon
hydrogen energy is still nascent, but its potential
to help drive decarbonisation is massive. We think
it will be a vital part of the energy transition, and
we are not alone – according to the IEA, hydrogen
could provide 10% of total global energy
consumption by 2050.
The bp Energy Outlook suggests that the share
of low-carbon hydrogen could reach between
6% and 8% of total global energy consumption
by 2050 in its “Accelerated” and “Net Zero”
scenarios (bp, 2022), with total hydrogen demand
– including that used to produce synthetic fuels
and generate power – nearly double this.
It is clear that hydrogen will play a vital role
in helping to reduce carbon from the global
economy. Yet it will be most important for
carbon-intensive sectors where electrification
will be difficult and, therefore, an unrealistic
option. In heavy industry, for example, hydrogen
can be used as a power source to decarbonise
www.decarbonisationtechnology.com
high-temperature processes used in steel and
cement production, refining, and petrochemicals.
And in the transport sector, where ships and
HGVs carry heavy loads for great distances,
hydrogen and its derivatives have great potential
as low-carbon fuels.
The world is also coming together on hydrogen.
The technology is advancing, our understanding
is developing every day, and government support
is building. This is why bp is aiming to capture
10% of the hydrogen market by 2030 in our core
markets. One of those core markets is bp’s home,
the UK, where we are committed to championing
the development of a hydrogen ecosystem. We
believe Teesside, in the North East of England,
is perfectly positioned for the development of
decarbonisation infrastructure.
There are a number of reasons for this. First, the
Teesside industrial cluster (see Figure 1) is in a
tightly packed area with a radius of seven square
kilometres, making it cost effective and efficient
to decarbonise. The region is already a UK energy
hub, with access to gas from the UK North
Sea, helping ensure national energy security.
Importantly, Teesside also has a rich industrial
history and is home to five of the country’s 25 top
emitters. It is the perfect test bed for industrial
decarbonisation at scale.
Blue hydrogen
A key element of our vision is H2Teesside – a
world-scale blue hydrogen project aiming to
produce 1 GW of hydrogen, ramping up in
two 500 MW phases in 2027 and 2030. It will
produce hydrogen from natural gas, with up to
2 million tonnes of CO₂ emissions, which will be
stored safely underground.
15

East Coast
Cluster
Blue hydrogen
Green hydrogen
Figure 1 bp’s planned hydrogen projects on Teesside
Blue hydrogen will play a vital role in
helping to decarbonise sectors where direct
electrification is likely to be technologically very
challenging or prohibitively expensive, such as
steel production and long-distance shipping. It
will also be vital in the scale-up and transition to
hydrogen more broadly.
Through H2Teesside, we have the opportunity
to supply a diverse range of customers, including
those already established in the region and
new businesses attracted to this low-carbon
hydrogen produced at scale.
The CO₂ captured at H2Teesside will be
transported and stored by the Northern
Endurance Partnership, a joint venture whose
partners include bp (who is also the operator),
Equinor, Shell, TotalEnergies, and National Grid
Ventures.
Gas-fired power station with carbon capture
Also using this infrastructure will be another
bp-led project, Net Zero Teesside Power, which
is aiming to be the world’s first commercial-scale
gas-fired power station with carbon capture.
This will be a large-scale 860 MW gas-fired
power station. That is enough low-carbon
electricity to provide power to 1.3 million homes,
or 5% of all UK homes. It is also power that
can be dialled up or down and switched on or
off as needed. And it is power with a very big
difference – it will be low carbon.
16
CO2
Northern Endurance Partnership
CCUS
1 GW
The plant is a joint venture between bp and
Equinor, with bp as operator. A project of
this nature has been discussed in the energy
industry for decades, so it is incredibly exciting
to see it finally in sight. A Development Consent
Order has been submitted, and Front-End
Engineering Design is underway.
Together, H2Teesside and Net Zero Teesside
Power will capture up to four million tonnes
of CO₂ per year, roughly comparable to the
emissions from heating two million homes. This
CO₂ will be captured and piped 145 miles to be
stored safely in the rocks beneath the North Sea
via the Northern Endurance Partnership.
Hydrogen through electrolysis of water
We are also developing HyGreen Teesside, a
green hydrogen project that uses a different
technology – producing hydrogen through the
electrolysis of water. In this process, electrolysis
splits and separates the hydrogen from the
oxygen molecules. And if the electricity used is
from renewable sources, the hydrogen produced
is known as green hydrogen – a zero-carbon fuel.
HyGreen Teesside aims to be one of the UK’s
largest green hydrogen production plants,
ramping up over the next decade from 60 to
500 MW. This is a really important and strategic
project for bp because we need to make
advances in green hydrogen. We need to make
it efficient and commercially viable.
www.decarbonisationtechnology.com
 We also expect HyGreen to fuel the
development of Teesside into the UK’s first
major hydrogen transport hub, paving the
way for large-scale decarbonisation of heavy
transport, airports, ports, and rail in the UK. To
put it into context, the project could provide
enough low-carbon hydrogen to power over
10,000 heavy goods vehicles.
The project has now entered the pre-FEED
(front end engineering design) stage, which will
run until early 2023, so we are on track for our
delivery schedule and excited about the progress
we have made so far.
Together, we estimate that our two hydrogen
projects in the region – H2Teesside and
HyGreen Teesside – will deliver around 1.5
GW of energy by 2030, which is 15% of the
UK government’s national target of 10 GW.
But these projects are also significant from an
international perspective. Hydrogen and CCS in
Teesside can be a real showcase and a chance
for the region to shine on the world stage. One
early example is the interest and support we
have received from international partners.
We recently announced that ADNOC – the
Abu Dhabi energy company – will take a
25% stake in the design stage of H2Teesside.
ADNOC is a highly innovative energy company,
a long-time partner of bp – and this is its first
investment in the UK. And Masdar, the Abu
Dhabi renewable energy company, has also
signed a memorandum of understanding to
acquire a stake in HyGreen Teesside.
This is a great boost for the projects – a strong
signal of confidence among investors – and
good news for the region at the heart of the
UK’s ambitions for building a hydrogen sector.
But importantly, with these projects, the focus is
not solely on global prestige and partners. It is
about the people.
To really succeed, these projects have to benefit
local households and families. They need to
create quality jobs that allow people to build
their careers and lives in this region. Too often,
industrial change brings about dislocation. It
leaves communities without workplaces and
leaves people without hope. This must not
happen again. We need to have a just and fair
transition to the low-carbon future. And this
region will not only be a source of low-carbon
energy – but good-quality, high-skilled jobs.
www.decarbonisationtechnology.com
H2Teesside is estimated to create 1,200
construction jobs by 2027 and more than
600 operational jobs. We also expect Net
Zero Teesside Power to provide 3,000 jobs in
construction, peaking in 2024, and then 1,000
jobs annually to 2050.
We will help train local people in the specialist
skills required. That is why, for example, we are
supporting and investing in the development
of a Clean Energy Education Hub at Redcar &
Cleveland College. This will train school leavers,
apprentices, and adults in the skills needed for
jobs in the kinds of facilities we are building, as
well as in wind and solar farms.
Our ambition for the region and hydrogen
globally is bold, but we are not starting from
scratch. We have vast experience gained from
engineering, building, and operating some of
the world’s most ambitious commercial energy
projects. In fact, in the five years from 2016 to
2020, we constructed and launched over 25
major projects in partnership with more than ten
national governments worldwide.
And our expertise across the value chain and
global network means we can offer a breadth of
decarbonisation solutions, as highlighted by the
diversified energy path we are taking to reach net
zero by 2050.
We are able to draw on decades of experience in
producing and managing grey hydrogen at scale
across our refineries. And we have a growing
green and blue hydrogen portfolio around the
world with a robust pipeline of future projects.
Conclusion
For hydrogen projects to be a success, we
believe you need three key pillars – ample
access to natural resources, a set of customers
ready to begin decarbonising, and a supportive
community and local government in the region in
which you are operating. Teesside has all of these
in abundance. It is perfectly placed to become
a world-leading low-carbon energy hub. We
believe it can be and we couldn’t be prouder to
be playing our part in that journey.
VIEW REFERENCES
Matt Williamson
matthew.williamson@se1.bp.com
17
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Maximise renewable resources
with thermal energy storage
A new approach to energy management and storage, electro-thermal energy storage
is bringing balance to some of the hardest to tackle clean energy challenges
Raymond C Decorvet
MAN Energy Solutions
O
n the road to net zero, there are some
pretty steep hills to climb. Hard-to-
reach energy-intensive sectors, along
with heating and cooling of existing building
stocks, have hitherto resisted the siren call of
sustainability. However, a new approach to
energy storage and management now opens up
even the toughest nut to clean energy.
The breakthrough is centred on tried and
tested technology, but its novel deployment
offers a real opportunity for corporate,
communities, and even whole cities to reach
their net-zero ambitions.
Sector coupling – in which heat demand is
connected with sources of so-called ‘waste
heat’ and demand for cooling – is a remarkably
efficient approach to meeting system-wide
energy consumption. In developing electro-
thermal energy storage (ETES), MAN Energy
Solutions has created a bulk energy storage
system that links electricity, heating, and cooling
in a high-efficiency reversible process. In a first
for a major city, Esbjerg in Denmark is putting
the ETES system at the heart of its plans to
become entirely carbon-free by 2030.
Reversible conversion of electricity into
thermal energy
The ETES storage system is built around a multi-
stage radial turbo-compressor. Developed for
highly efficient gas compression and proven in
the harshest subsea environments, the HOFIM
compressor allows the reversible conversion of
electricity into thermal energy stored in simple
and scalable insulated water tanks.
Incredibly robust, oil-free, and hermetically
sealed, the high-speed motor-compressor runs
www.decarbonisationtechnology.com
on magnetic bearings and uses environmentally
safe and non-toxic CO₂ as the working fluid. This
refrigerant (R744) is successively compressed or
expanded in a closed cycle with the outputs of hot
and chilled water or electricity as desired.
Initially, the CO₂ is compressed to around 140
bar and 150°C. It then passes through a heat
exchanger and the hot store. The hot side may
include up to four storage tanks at different
temperatures or a direct supply to consumers.
Once pressurised, the CO₂ is then expanded
where it condenses and cools. A second heat
exchange process uses the now liquid CO₂ to
produce ice or cold water for the cold storage tank.
To reverse the process and produce electricity,
gaseous CO₂ is passed through the cold side heat
exchangers, where it condenses while raising the
temperature of the cold tank water. Once liquefied,
the CO₂ is passed through the compressor, where
the pressure is increased. It then goes through
the hot side heat exchangers, increasing the
temperature and pressure still further. Heated and
pressurised, the CO₂ passes through an expansion
turbine. A coupled conventional generator
produces electricity.
The current round-trip efficiency of ETES is
45%, but continued development is expected to
see around 60% achievable in the near future.
However, unlike chemical batteries, which
degrade during each charge and discharge
cycle and have a lifespan of only 10-12 years,
the impressive efficiency figures from the ETES
system remain constant throughout its more than
35-year design life.
ETES and the carbon-neutral city
Simple, reliable, and efficient, the tried and
19
tested turbo-compressor with integrated
expander at the heart of ETES is comparable to
a conventional domestic fridge but represents
a real advance in city-scale energy system
management. Furthermore, while the ETES
process not only allows heating and cooling to
be distributed according to demand – as well
as the option of converting this resource back
into electricity – the process can be powered
by renewable electricity such as wind or solar.
This raises the possibility of using renewables
and other carbon-free energy sources to
provide the heat needed for previously tough-
to-reach sectors.
Recognising the advantages of this integrated
energy management approach, DIN Forsyning –
the Danish multi-utility company that operates
the district heating network in the port city of
Esbjerg, nearby Varde and part of the island of
Fanø – is installing two large-scale ETES heat
pump units.
Using renewable electricity for heat was one
of the big selling points for the ETES approach.
“What we see from the major global trend is
that renewable electrical power will be the basis
of the whole energy system in some way. We see
ETES as part of a transition,” said Claus Nielsen,
Business Development Director at DIN Forsyning.
“If we are to bring more renewable energy
into the district energy system in Esbjerg then
we have to find a smart way to integrate the
network with the electricity system. The best
method we have seen is the electrically driven
heat pump,” he added.
MAN Energy Solutions is developing a two-
unit heat pump for the city with a total capacity
of more than 50 MWth and is supplying the
entire system, including the heat exchangers
and all the associated electrical infrastructure.
The turnkey project will supply around 235,000
MWh of heat annually and will largely replace
an existing coal-fired thermal plant scheduled
for decommissioning in 2023.
Once completed in April 2023, the ETES
project will form the backbone of a network of
smaller and more sustainable heat sources for
the city as part of its plans to become carbon
neutral by 2030. It will be the largest CO₂-based
heat-pump plant deployed to date.
Energy to power the system will be supplied
from nearby wind farms. However, as any heat
20
source can be recovered as usable energy
through the ETES system, the Bay of Ho (Ho
Bugt) in the Wadden Sea, a UNESCO World
Heritage Site, will be employed as an energy
resource. Nielsen explained: “Because we are
close to the coast, we have a big heat sink. It’s
at a low temperature, but it’s stable, and with
eight million cubic metres of new water each
tide, there is a huge and stable heat source
accessible from the ocean.”
The ETES system will extract heat energy
from the bay by fractionally cooling the water.
This heat will then be supplied to 100,000 of
the city’s residents connected to the network
as well as the company’s commercial and
industrial customers. DIN Forsyning currently
delivers around 1 million MWh to its district
heating network.
System-wide benefits of flexibility
While the ETES system enables the use of
renewable energy in normally unreachable
heating and cooling applications, it also
offers a number of associated benefits. The
flexibility ETES provides allows energy to
be stored or delivered depending on supply
and demand. For example, when demand for
electricity is high, ETES can convert energy in
the heat store into usable power. When there
is excess renewable generation, this can be
stored as heat and cold. Furthermore, along
with the energy storage capacity provided
by the ETES, the district heating system itself
can also act as a significant energy store.
Additional capacity, and thus flexibility, can
be achieved by temporarily adjusting the
energy flows into the network to free up extra
energy for other purposes, for instance as
electricity. Nielsen explained: “The thing about
a heating system is that a heat network is
much better prepared for variability than the
electricity system. The electricity system has
to balance consumption and production at all
times. With the heat system in Esbjerg, we
can have up to 10 hours without any inputs
and still meet demand using residual heat in
the network, accumulated heat and moving
around consumption at the consumer end.
Even on the coldest day, we can supply heat
to all customers for seven hours without any
production.”
www.decarbonisationtechnology.com
 ETES offers a potentially climate-neutral alternative to conventional fossil-
fuelled heating and cooling technologies and represents an efficient route
to bring clean electricity solutions to otherwise challenging sectors
There are also grid management gains.
Where a lot of variable output renewable
energy generation appears on a network,
this can create potential imbalances between
supply and demand. This, in turn, has knock-
on effects on important grid characteristics
like frequency, and these challenges can be
extremely costly to manage. ETES has the
ability to balance renewable energy sources
such as wind and solar, and can therefore make
a substantial contribution to overall renewable
energy economics. It can also help cut potential
grid congestion and improve load factors
across the network. “If you have to integrate
renewable power into the energy system, you
need to be flexible, and that’s what the ETES
heat pump solution gives to our customers,”
said Nielsen.
Although the Esbjerg project ETES system is
being deployed as a heat pump only and is not
acting as a heat-to-power system or supplying
cooling, the inherent flexibility afforded
by ETES makes the concept of city-wide
energy management a reality. It is one of the
reasons ETES makes a good solution for city
infrastructure where there is inevitably demand
for heating, cooling, and electricity.
Nielsen said: “City-wide energy management
helps the whole region move towards the
clean transition by having that flexibility and
being able to pull energy from different parts
at different times to suit supply and demand
characteristics. Most of western Europe and
some parts of the US, like many university
campuses, have a district energy network.
In these district energy networks, you can
achieve this transformation to decarbonise
heat and integrate more renewables because
you can add flexibility to renewable electricity
production.”
Reaching the goals of climate-neutral cities
ETES offers a potentially climate-neutral
alternative to conventional fossil-fuelled
heating and cooling technologies and
www.decarbonisationtechnology.com
represents an efficient route to bring clean
electricity solutions to otherwise challenging
sectors. Given that about half of Europe’s
total energy demand comes from heating
and cooling, any in-roads here will yield
substantial climate benefits. ETES features up
to four hot stores at different temperatures,
giving it ample scope to supply a whole host
of applications. As both electricity and the
stored energy can be readily converted into
other forms, ETES also presents multiple
advantages when balancing the grid and
improving system-wide performance. Low-
cost, easily scalable energy storage that
consists of simple water-filled and insulated
tanks is another significant bonus. And, given
the opportunities that come from sector
coupling to supercharge energy efficiency, the
ETES story presents a compelling technology
on a number of fronts.
The ETES development at Esbjerg is also
stimulating further progress on the clean
energy transition by encouraging renewable
energy investment while other important
elements are put in place. “It’s an important
stepping stone for us to ensure stable supply
and also to have an outlet for renewable
electricity production to settle excess power.
Power-to-X or power to hydrogen plants
will be available in five years, but wind farm
developers need somewhere like the ETES heat
pump to sell the power into until then,” said
Nielsen.
The core technology has been proven in the
highly demanding world of subsea oil and gas
production, and the full ETES system has also
flown through all factory acceptance tests.
With full-scale deployment now under way,
ETES is set to prove that it can balance the
diverse energy needs of a large modern city.
Raymond C Decorvet
21
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Decarbonising through advances
in heat exchange technology
How moving bed heat exchange technology is driving innovation in thermal
energy storage
Gerald Marinitsch, David Moon and Lowy Gunnewiek
Solex Thermal Science
F
ossil fuels have been at the centre of a
truly remarkable period of development
and growth for the global population.
In recent decades, however, the negative
environmental impact and increasingly high
economic cost of fossil fuel use have powered
what many are dubbing the “next energy
transition” – or should we say “energy evolution”
– as we search for new ways to decarbonise our
energy use.
Today, this drive to decarbonise our energy
needs can be found everywhere – from
discussions about a circular economy to the
environmental, social and governance (ESG)
strategies of businesses around the world.
Given the energy needs of today’s highly
connected and mobile world, a tremendous
amount of work and money is being directed
toward making decarbonised and renewable
energy available to us when we need and want it.
This is leading to a pressing need for more
readily available energy storage, from which a
variety of different technologies are currently
available or being developed, such as batteries,
pumped hydro, and green hydrogen.
One of the more notable and promising
developments in this arena relates to long-
duration thermal energy storage (LD-TES)
systems that use solid particles. This technology
is garnering significant interest and investment
primarily because it is targeting a need for
storage systems that can provide energy for a
period of 10 hours and more. To date, this has
not been realised.
An example of this is taking the thermal energy
that can be generated from concentrated
solar power (CSP) and transferring it to solid
www.decarbonisationtechnology.com
particles so it can be stored and used later when
the sun is not shining.
To enable this option for LD-TES, a new
generation of moving bed heat exchangers
(MBHEs) are also being developed so the
thermal energy can be extracted from solid
particles and subsequently converted into a
useable energy form such as electricity.
In this article, we will reflect on how changing
energy demands have brought us here, along
with the unique challenges associated with
storing and recovering thermal energy.
We will also explore recent developments in
vertical tube and diffusion-bonded MBHEs that
are being used – specifically, in CSP systems
that incorporate LD-TES. Included will be a
discussion around the background requirements
for these types of systems, along with design
considerations and challenges for MBHEs when
being implemented.
Lastly, we will highlight several examples
taken from work currently under way that will
help illustrate the potential for these particle-
based LD-TES systems in helping us evolve to a
more decarbonised energy system.
Changing energy demand
Prior to the Industrial Revolution, electricity
played an insignificant role. Rather, chemical
energy sources such as biomass or oil were
common – and useful in that this energy was in
a form that was ‘stored’ and useable whenever
needed and wanted. Combustion (oxidisation
reaction) of the ‘fuels’ typically liberated this
energy for use. Concern about carbon dioxide
emissions from combustion did not exist then as
it does today.
23
Figure 1 An estimated 31% of greenhouse gas emissions can be traced to electricity and heat
generation, according to the World Resources Institute
Since then, we have become accustomed to
using diverse types of energy in forms such
as combusting fossil fuels, wind energy, and
solar energy, which are generally converted to
electricity for our use.
Yet, in switching from chemical to renewable
energy sources such as solar, we are realising
there is a shortfall in being able to provide
energy whenever it is needed and wanted. To
take full advantage of renewable energy as
we work to displace fossil fuels in our drive to
decarbonise, it is now necessary to store energy
during peak production hours when it exceeds
demand – which, subsequently, can be used
when demand exceeds production.
With that, there are additional factors to
consider. As an example, how long does the
energy need to be stored? Will energy stores
need to be loaded and unloaded in seconds
or minutes? Or are the needs more seasonal,
requiring the need to store energy for months?
All this dictates storage size in closing the
gap between generation and utilisation – and
subsequently, the required storage technology.
That is not to mention that, with very few
exceptions, stored energy will be used as
thermal or electrical energy – the latter of which
24
Credit: World Resources Institute
is also the most difficult energy form to store for
long periods of time.
The most common method of storing electrical
energy today is in batteries. However, batteries
are limited in how much and how long they can
store energy due to technical and economic
limitations.
Consequently, other technologies are
needed to store large amounts of energy for
long durations. Such technologies are used
as intermediate storage, meaning they store
energy in a form that can be used to produce
‘on-demand’ electricity.
Long-duration thermal energy storage
LD-TES has been identified as a critical enabler
for the large-scale deployment of renewable
energy – in particular, within CSP applications.
Before going any further, it is important to
differentiate CSP from more commonly known
photovoltaic (PV) technology. PV is the direct
conversion of sunlight into electricity using the
photovoltaic effect in semiconducting materials
to directly generate electricity. Storing the
electrical energy from PVs is economically
restricted to battery technology, and current
battery technology is generally limited to short-
www.decarbonisationtechnology.com
duration storage – for example, three to four
hours. As such, PV technology is largely limited Solids in

to supplying a base load of power while the sun

is shining. In comparison, CSP can generate
thermal energy by concentrating the sunlight on
a collection point.
In principle, CSP can generate temperatures
greater than 2,000°C. However, for practical
applications, receiver temperatures operate in
the range of 500°C to 1,000°C.
That thermal energy is then commonly
used in a CSP plant to generate electricity via
technologies such as steam turbines, Organic
Rankine cycles (ORC), or supercritical carbon
dioxide (sCO₂) cycles. In general, higher
operating temperatures are desirable because
the overall conversion efficiency from light to
heat to electricity is higher.
While a CSP plant can easily provide on-
demand base-load electricity while the sun is
shining, to fully leverage the capacity of this
technology, there are strong drivers to be able
to store the thermal energy generated during
daylight hours. The objective is to have enough
thermal storage so electricity can be produced
even when the sun is not shining over a period
of days or longer.
Today’s commercial CSP LD-TES plants
commonly use molten salt to store the thermal
energy collected from the sun. A key limitation
of this configuration, though, is the overall
conversion efficiency that can be realised due to
the operating temperatures practically achieved
with molten salts.
In addition, there are safety, environmental,
and operating constraints with molten salt
that need to be considered. This is driving the
development of CSP plants that use other types
of media for storing thermal energy.
Within this development arena, there is a
growing preference for CSP LD-TES based on
solid particles. This is primarily because solid
particles can withstand temperatures greater
than 1,000°C without decomposition. They are
also inert, do not contain any unusual corrosion
mechanism, and their erosion characteristics
scale with temperature.
In addition, in the event of a system leak,
particles will not cause hazards beyond the
initial transient high temperatures. As a result,
the systems do not require hermetic seals
Air (or
gas) out
Air (or
gas) in
Solids out
Figure 2 If the working fluid is a gas,
then a vertical tube heat exchanger is the
preferred design
and are compatible with silo and storage
technologies that exist already.
While the particle-handling technologies must
be designed to withstand high temperatures
and minimal heat losses, these are manageable
engineering challenges and not fundamental
challenges, at least up to around 1,000°C. And
in the case of a cool-down event, particles can
still flow and will not freeze, as is the case with
molten salt.
These types of particle-based systems, when
coupled with a CSP plant where the heliostat
field heats up the particles directly as they fall
into the hot storage silo, are an elegant solution
for LD-TES that requires only a single MBHE
to transfer the thermal energy from the hot
solids to the working fluid used in the power
generation block.
MBHE design considerations
Silica sand is emerging as a preferred working
media to store renewable energy for extended

www.decarbonisationtechnology.com 25
Figure 3 Model of a diffusion-
bonded heat exchanger
core that is designed for a
particulate material on the
solid side and CO₂ on the
fluid side
periods because it is
abundant, affordable, stable,
non-toxic, and can be heated
up to high temperatures
without degradation. In
addition, the hot sand can be
easily stored in silos at high
temperatures.
Other materials also
considered suitable for these
applications include alumina,
bauxite, magnetite, and
engineered ceramics.
MBHEs are used to recover
thermal energy from the hot
sand and transfer it to the
working media of the CSP power generation
block – for example, sCO₂. These MBHEs are
compact, efficient, and simple to operate as
gravity is used to flow the sand through the heat
exchanger. With the low velocity of the particles
in these MBHEs, the natural abrasion rates on the
heat exchanger surfaces are minimal, resulting in
high availability and a long lifetime.
Depending on the working media, the MBHE
configuration and design will vary. If the
working media is a liquid, the most common
option involves the use of vertically oriented
pillow plates. If the working fluid is a gas – for
HT solar
receiver
Solid
particle
loop
Solar field
Figure 4 Process diagram of a concentrated solar plant with solid particle energy storage
26
example, air – a vertical tube heat
exchanger is the preferred design
(see Figure 2).
In situations where sCO₂ is
the working media, a diffusion-
bonded heat exchanger core is
preferred because of its ability to
accommodate the pressure and
temperature needed for high heat
exchange efficiency (see Figure 3).
Operating temperatures of
MBHEs for CSP plants are limited
by the thermal stability of the
materials of construction, which
today is mainly high-temperature-
resistant steel such as 316
stainless steel. Nickel-based alloys
can also be used, but come with
increased capital cost.
To extend the operating
boundaries beyond what is
practical to achieve with today’s
technology and materials in the
drive to improve the efficiency of CSP plants,
MBHEs constructed from ceramic materials are
also being developed.
LD-TES in action
Canadian-headquartered Solex Thermal Science,
which specialises in thermal and bulk materials
engineering, is seeing increased applications of its
MBHE technology within a number of CSP LD-
TES project developments around the world.
Together with US-based research organisation
Sandia National Laboratories and Vacuum
Process Engineering (VPE) of Sacramento, Calif.,
Hot
storage
Heat
exchanger
Generator
Cold Turbine
storage
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 Feature Solid Particle Molten Nitrate Molten Chloride Gas Receiver
Technology Salt Technology Salt Technology Technology

Operating Ambient to >1000°C ~300-600°C ~400-800°C Ambient to >1000°C

temperatures
Solar flux No flux limitations Limited to tube- Limited to tube-wall Limited to tube-wall fluxes
on particles wall fluxes of fluxes of 800- of 800-1200 kW/m2 or
800 kW/m 2
1200 kW/m 2
less depending on gas-
side heat-transfer coefficient

Freezing No freezing Freezing below Freezing below No freezing
200-300°C; requires 200-300°C; requires
trace heating trace heating

Corrosion Inert materials, non- Corrosive to Extremely corrosive to Potentially corrosive

corrosive containment materials containment materials depending on gas
in presence of air or water

Storage Direct thermal Direct thermal Direct thermal No direct thermal

storage storage storage storage; requires
intermediate heat
exchanger

Ducting and No hermetic seals Hermetic seals Hermetic seals Hermetic seals
containment required required required required

Conveyance Particle lift (bucket Long-shafted pumps Long-shafted pumps High-temperature

elevator or skip hoist) blowers; lifts for
particles if used as
storage media

Table 1 Comparison of CSP technologies using different heat transfer and storage media
Credit: Sandia National Laboratories

Solex is collaborating on Sandia’s $25 million
US award to build a 1 MW demonstration plant
for CSP technology. The CSP configuration
utilises a heliostat field to directly heat solid
particles that would then go into a hot storage
silo (see Figure 4).
For this project, MBHE technology based
on the VPE’s diffusion bonded know-how
and expertise is being used to transfer stored
thermal energy at temperatures greater than
700°C to a sCO₂ power generation flow loop.
Solex is also working with Sandia to supply
a 2.5 MW thermal heat exchanger using
vertical tube MBHE (VT-MBHE) technology.
This is part of a test programme to evaluate
the performance of an upstream solar receiver.
In this project, the VT-MBHE is being used in
the solid media cooling loop using ambient air.
This project is anticipated to be installed and
commissioned in Q4 2022.
In another CSP LD-TES development, Solex
and VPE are working with Heliogen Inc. on
an advanced particle-to-sCO₂ MBHE for a
5 MWe power block. This is anticipated to be
the first and largest commercially integrated
recompressed Brayton cycle power block
coupled with thermal storage from a CSP field.
This project includes a test loop that is
being developed to evaluate and optimise the
performance of the MBHE – first at the 1 MW
scale prior to the implementation of the 5 MW
commercial installation. Solex and VPE are
providing both a diffusion bonded particle-sCO₂
test exchanger and a hot air-to-particle heater
(to simulate a CSP field in the test loop) for the
test loop.
Meanwhile, King Saud University in Saudi Arabia
is pursuing CSP to generate hot compressed air
that would then drive a power generation turbine.
The hot air comes from thermal energy stored
in sand or other particle media, with the thermal
energy provided by a CSP plant.

28 www.decarbonisationtechnology.com
 Solex developed and built a prototype 50 kW
sand-to-air heat exchanger using its VT-MBHE
technology for this application. This prototype
is part of the proof-of-concept work under way,
including requirements to develop operational
familiarity with the system.
Final thoughts/considerations
Advances in heat transfer technology are
helping to enable today’s efforts to decarbonise
our energy systems. This is being clearly
illustrated as we harness the intermittent and
variable energy provided by the sun to supply
our energy needs and wants of today.
For developments that combine CSP with LD-
TES based on using solids for thermal energy
storage, MBHEs are instrumental in transferring
energy from the solids to a working fluid used in
the power generation block.
For the power generation options being
incorporated in these CSP LD-TES plants,
there is a need for MBHEs to accommodate the
different working fluids in use, whether it be air,
water, or sCO₂.
As such, MBHEs using vertical plates,
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horizontal tubes, or diffusion-bonded
technology are being developed to provide
elegant, effective, and efficient solutions for
transferring the stored thermal energy to the
working fluid – again, with the ultimate goal of
generating electricity from the sun when it is
not shining.
As has been illustrated through the various
projects in development today and with the
advancements being made in MBHE technology,
we can be optimistic about the progress being
made to use renewable energy as an integral
part of the solution in decarbonising our
energy systems.
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Techno-economic metrics of
carbon utilisation – Part 1
Technological and economical parameters of carbon utilisation and how these
parameters vary widely depending on external and technology-specific variables

Joris Mertens, Mark Krawec and Ritik Attwal

KBC (a Yokogawa company)

C
arbon capture, utilisation, and storage
(CCUS) is often confused with carbon
storage (CS) rather than carbon utilisation
(CU). This misunderstanding is logical since, CapEx
ultimately, CS is a form of waste disposal
while CU refers to the new circular world that Market
TRL
emphasises more efficient use of resources. With demand
CU being in general more expensive than CS, Product /
some CU technologies need further development, feed delta
which explains the current focus on storage.
Currently, Yokogawa, a leading provider CO2 pricing H2 cost
of industrial automation and test and
measurement solutions, is performing a strategic Utilities /
decarbonisation study of the Goi industrial area other Opex
in the Chiba Prefecture at Tokyo Bay (Yokogawa,
2021). The purpose of this research is to make
the industrial area net carbon neutral by 2050,
preferably using CU rather than CS. Figure 1 Carbon utilisation: the techno-
Figure 1 shows the technological and economic economic variables
parameters in play for CU. Economically, capital
costs and different operational costs will affect demand and the technical readiness level (TRL)
project viability. In addition, product market for a given CU technology should be considered.

Main Non Reaction Capture?

Name products C02 feeds T (ºC)

Methanation (Tripodi et al., 2020) Methane H2 200-450 Yes

Methanol (Nyári et al., 2020) Methanol H2 230 No
Fischer-Tropsch (Zang et al., 2021) Syncrude/SAF H2 220-290 Yes
Oxo Synthesis (Liu, 2017) Butanal Propylene, H2 90 Yes
Carbonation (Kamyab et al., 2021) Building material Steel slag 35 No
Xylenes (Zhang et al., 2017) Mixed xylenes H2 400 No
Urea (de Haas et al., 2016) Urea Ammonia (NH3) 170 No
Polyols (Fernandez-Dacosta et al., 2017) Polyether carbonate polyol Propylene oxide (PO) 135 No
Polymeric Carbonates (Demirel, 2015;
Moon et al., 2011) Polypropylene carbonate (PPC) Propylene oxide 90 No

Table 1 Carbon utilisation technologies

www.decarbonisationtechnology.com 31
 RWGS: CO2 + H2 CO + H2O
CO2 recycle

RWGS recycle gas compressor

CO2 feed Prod RWGS

H2 feed
RWGS feed
Heater E Reactor RWGS

Hydrogen compressor
No flow
Cooler
CO2 absorbed
R
RWGS effluent
cooled
CO2 absorber

Separator
RWGS net product Cond

Knock-out drum

Oxo recycle gas Oxo: C3H6 + CO + H2 C4H8O

RWGS net product
Purge
A
Oxo recycle gas compressor
R
Syngas mix Oxo reactor effluent
Oxo sep. gas
Heater

Oxo feed C Oxo reactor

Propylene feed
Vapouriser Cooler

Solvent
feed Separator 1

Solvent Separator 2 feed Separator 1 liquid

recycle

R Gas compressed

Sep.2 condensate
Oxo product

Separator 2
R

Splitter
Solvent recycle

Figure 2 The reverse water gas shift and Oxo synthesis steps of the butanal production process

32 www.decarbonisationtechnology.com
Carbon utilisation technologies
KBC performed a techno-economic evaluation of
the nine CU technologies listed in Table 1. Table
1 also includes the feeds, other than CO₂, and the
operating temperature of the CU paths. For most
of the feed and product pricing, KBC relied on
third-party market intelligence from Argus Media.
The Fischer-Tropsch (FT) and Oxo synthesis
configurations considered in the referenced
articles consume CO rather than CO₂. Therefore,
a reverse water gas shift (RWGS) step is
included upstream to convert the CO2 into CO.
The RWGS step includes CO₂ capture to recycle
the unconverted CO₂.
The methanation process considered uses
CO₂, not syngas (CO). However, due to low
CO₂ conversion per reactor pass, a CO₂ capture/
recycle step is required, too.
Four of the nine CU technologies were
simulated partially or entirely using KBC’s
Petro-SIM software. Figure 2 shows the Petro-
SIM simulation model of the Oxo process. The
technologies were simulated when a process
flow diagram was missing, or the assumed
process heat integration was incomplete
or unrealistic.
Operating cost
Many CU technologies require significant
amounts of hydrogen. In the upcoming Part 2
article, we will demonstrate that the hydrogen
used for this study should have a very low carbon
intensity. The cost of the green hydrogen used
and the revenue generated from utilising CO₂ will
significantly impact CU technology economics.
Two price scenarios were considered (see
Table 2). The 2030 scenario employs a high
price of green hydrogen and a low price of CO₂.
The 2050 scenario adopts a much lower price
of green hydrogen and a much higher price of
carbon emissions. The price sets correspond with
possible carbon and hydrogen pricing in 2030
and 2050. These are semi-arbitrary and based
on price scenario trends, not on an in-depth
analysis of current and upcoming legislation,
carbon markets, and green hydrogen project
pipeline. The primary purpose is to demonstrate
the sensitivity of the CU economics with carbon
and hydrogen pricing.
The 2030 and 2050 price estimates have been
established with a more rigorous market analysis
www.decarbonisationtechnology.com
2030 Scenario 2050 Scenario
Green hydrogen USD 4000 /t USD 1500 /t
CO2 utilisation revenue USD 50 /t USD 200 /t
Table 2 Green hydrogen and CO₂ price
scenarios based on pre-inflation 2021 prices
by Argus Media for the other feeds (propylene,
PO) and the CU products. Yokogawa and KBC
established price estimates for the carbonation
feeds and PPC products. The estimates are
based on price data before third-quarter 2021
inflation rates hit, when natural gas prices
wavered around USD 40/MWh rather than
surpassing USD 100/MWh.
Figures 3 and 4 show the operating cost/
revenue breakdown for the different CU
technologies under the two H₂/CO₂ pricing
scenarios. Hydrogen, other utilities (electricity,
fuel, steam), and fixed operating cost are shown
on the debit side of the graph, below the zero
axis. Revenue streams generated by the product/
feed differential and CO₂ utilisation are shown as
positive bars in the chart. The resulting operating
cost/revenue balance (EBITDA) is plotted in
Figures 5 and 6.
The charts demonstrate that hydrogen is
the key driver of operational costs for many of
these technologies. These technologies will
only become economically profitable if green
hydrogen costs drop significantly, although
product pricing can play a decisive role, too. The
following sections discuss the operating cost
FT H2/CO2 price: 4000/50 $/t
PPC
Carbonation
CH4
$/t Product
0
Urea
Oxo Polyols
(butanal)
MeOH
Xylenes
Feed/product value addition H2 cost CO2 revenue
Electricity/fuel/steam Fixed Opex
Figure 3 Operating cost/revenue breakdown -
2030 scenario
33
 FT PPC
H2/CO2 price: 4000/50 $/t
PPC
Carbonation Carbonation
CH4

$/t Product
CH4 FT Urea
Urea
$/t Product

0
0
Oxo Polyols
Polyols (butanal)
Oxo
MeOH
MeOH (butanal)
Xylenes
Xylenes
H2/CO2 price: 1500/200 $/t

Feed/product value addition H2 cost CO2 revenue

Electricity/fuel/steam
Figure 4 Operating cost/revenue breakdown –
2050 scenario
elements in more detail, as well as the capital
cost and technology readiness.
Hydrogen consumed
The hydrogen utilisation intensity (HUI) heavily
depends on the CU technology considered and
largely correlates with the destination of the
oxygen atoms in the utilised CO₂ molecule. The
process of producing oxygen-free products
involves separating the oxygen atoms in the
CO₂ molecule from the carbon atom, which is
done by binding the oxygen with hydrogen
and generating water. Hence, hydrogen is not
only required to generate hydrocarbon but also
to capture the oxygen atoms of the CO₂ into
water molecules.
The HUI and carbon utilisation intensities (CUI)
of the process can be defined as the tonnes of
hydrogen and carbon consumed to produce
one tonne of product, respectively. Figure 7 is
Fixed Opex Figure 5 Operating cost/revenue balance –
2030 scenario
and y axes are the ratio of the number of oxygen
and hydrogen-to-carbon atoms in the product.
Acetic acid (CH₃COOH), for example, has an
#H/C and #O/C ratio of 2 and 1, respectively. The
lines on the graph show lines of equal hydrogen
intensity, i.e. lines of equal hydrogen intake for
products produced from CO2, as a function of the
oxygen and hydrogen content of the products.
Acetic acid is located close to the line of 0.13 tH2/
tproduct. Therefore, a green acetic acid facility with
a production capacity of 100 t/h of acid out of
CO₂ will require just over 13 t/h (~150 kNm3/h)
of hydrogen.
The graph shows that even the production of
hydrogen-free carbon from CO₂ requires more
than 0.3/t of hydrogen per tonne of product,
only to remove the oxygen atoms from CO₂.
5
0.50 tH2
/t product
0.40 tH2/tproduct Methanol
4
Methane 0.20 tH2 /tproduct
# H/C ratio in product

a theoretical hydrogen intensity chart. The x 0.30 tH2 /tproduct

3
0.15 tH2 /tproduct
PPC
Mid distillate/FT
H2/CO2 price: 1500/200 $/t 2
Butanal Acetic acid
FT
Xylenes
Carbonation
1 Acrylic acid
0.13 tH2 /tproduct
CH4 Urea
$/t Product

Carbon
0 0
MeOH Oxo Xylenes Polyols 0.0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0
(butanal)
# O /C ratio in product

Figure 6 Operating cost/revenue balance – Figure 7 Theoretical H₂ utilisation intensity for

2050 scenario product synthesis for CO₂ and H₂

34 www.decarbonisationtechnology.com
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At the same time, the hydrogen requirement
drops below 0.2 t/t in most cases if the product
contains oxygen.
Producing oxygen-free products from CO₂
requires more hydrogen to remove both
oxygen atoms. In addition, removing oxygen
from the CO₂ results in products with lower
molecular weight, which further increases the
H₂ requirement, at least if expressed per tonne
of product.
Figure 8 shows the HUI for each of the nine
technologies considered. The carbonation,
urea, polyol, and PPC technologies require no
hydrogen because the CO₂ molecule is bound to
another molecule without prior oxygen removal.
Note that the CUI of the FT process tested is
close to 0.52 tH2/tProduct, which is considerably
higher than the theoretical intensity of around
0.44 t/t (see Figure 7). This is because a
significant purge of a syngas stream is applied
in the specific process set-up considered
in our study (Zang et al., 2021). In Figure
7, the hydrogen in that syngas stream has
been deducted from gross hydrogen intake,
which reaches 0.57 t/t. Even so, the net HUI
remains higher than the theoretical value due
to the presence of CO in the purge stream. The
conversion of CO₂ to CO, which is then purged,
requires hydrogen and increases the ratio of
hydrogen consumed to FT product produced.
The Oxo synthesis process generates butanal
(also known as butyraldehyde, C₄H₈O) from CO₂,
hydrogen, and propylene. The use of propylene,
which adds hydrogen and carbon to the product,
results in the HUI of this process being only
a fraction of the theoretical 0.31 tH2/tbutanal HUI
based on the production of butanal from only
H₂ and CO₂. The same applies to the polyol and
polypropylene carbonate (PPC) products, which
0.6
CH4 FT
0.5
0.4
t H2/t prod
0.3
0.2
Carbonation
0.1
Urea
0.0
MeOH Oxo Xylenes
(butanal)
Figure 8 H₂ utilisation intensity for
each technology
36
2030 Scenario 2050 Scenario
Electricity 0.26 0.00
Fuel/steam 0.14 0.00
Table 3 Electricity and fuel/steam emission
factors, tCO₂/MWh
in the technologies investigated use propylene
oxide, in addition to hydrogen and CO₂.
Carbon utilisation: impact on
operating revenue
The utilisation of CO₂ is assumed to generate a
revenue stream. Figure 9 shows the CUI for each
technology. In general, higher CUIs are preferred.
The CUI data in Figure 9 includes a correction
for the emissions related to electricity and fuel/
steam that the process requires or exports.
Different electricity and fuel/steam emission
factors are assumed for the two cases (see Table
3). Therefore, Figure 9 shows two series of bars.
In the 2050 scenario, zero-carbon power and fuel
are assumed to be available.
The hydrogen import is assumed to have a
zero carbon intensity (CI). If the CI of imported
hydrogen is significant, then the CUI of the
processes will drop significantly. The utility
balance and the impact on the CUI will be
discussed in more detail in Part 2.
There is an inverse correlation between CUI
and HUI. As mentioned previously, the inclusion
of feeds other than CO₂ and hydrogen (oxygen,
PO, and propylene) dramatically reduces the
relative hydrogen demand. However, it also
reduces the CUI.
The carbonation technology, in particular, has
4
FT
3 CH4
t CO2/t prod
2
1 Carbonation Urea
PPC
0
MeOH Oxo Xylenes Polyols
PPC (butanal)
Polyols ‘2030’ ‘2050’ (zero carbon imports)
Figure 9 Carbon utilisation intensity of the
investigated technologies
www.decarbonisationtechnology.com
a low CUI. Carbonation binds CO2 to the calcium
and magnesium oxide in the slag of the steel
plant. The CUI is particularly low because, in
addition to calcium oxide (CaO), the slag contains
other elements such as silica and alumina.
Product/feed value delta
Natural gas, urea, and methanol are high-volume
commodities with a relatively limited product
value. The uplift is even smaller for steel slag
carbonation. The production of xylenes, polyols,
PPC, and butanal offers a slightly to significantly
higher product value. The upgrade is tempered
in the case of the xylenes technology because
nearly half the product mix consists of lower
value naphtha or gas.
To forecast product prices, conventional
methods such as demand growth and cost-
plus-margin approaches were used. Price
incentives were not considered for using CO2
instead of fossil feedstocks due to the current
lack of clear legislation, with one exception:
sustainable aviation fuel (SAF). Different
countries, regions, international institutions,
and business organisations are developing
legislation and frameworks to facilitate and
support SAF production. Similar to renewable
diesel in the US, mandates and other support
mechanisms are expected to create a new
market for high-value products. The SAF price
applied in this study is five times higher than
fossil mid-distillate products.
SAF represents 40 wt% of the total product mix
of the FT technology investigated in this study.
With the high SAF price expectations, the value
of the combined product mix more than doubles,
which has a major impact on the EBITDA, as seen
in Figures 2 to 5. Indeed, while methane, xylenes,
and methanol production all show highly negative
cash flows in a high H2 cost scenario, the FT
technology EBITDA is marginally positive, despite
the high demand for hydrogen. This difference is
wholly due to the SAF price bonus. This SAF price
bonus corresponds with a carbon abatement
value in the range of USD 500 to 1000/t of CO2.
Note that all technologies, except for
methanation, will be cash flow positive in a high
H2 cost scenario if the CO2 price reaches USD
350/t. Methanation requires at least USD 700/t.
Road fuels and methane fuel may never
benefit from the support SAF is expected to
www.decarbonisationtechnology.com
receive because more cost-efficient alternatives
are available, i.e. electricity, ammonia, hydrogen,
and methanol. Mandates for 'green' chemicals
using CU are a potential future low-carbon policy
option. Similar to what is currently observed with
biodiesel and SAF, this would create a separate
market with higher values. These CU-based
products are expected to compete with chemicals
generated from waste streams.
Fixed operating cost
The fixed operating costs shown in Figures 3 and
4 include labour, maintenance, insurance, and
catalyst/chemicals. The impact of this cost factor
is small compared to the other costs.
Some technologies use expensive catalysts
that contain noble metals. Similar to naphtha
reforming catalysts in conventional oil refining,
only a regeneration and lease fee of the noble
metal is considered, not the full noble metal value.
In Part 2 of this article, we will dive deeper into
the CU technology economics by investigating the
capital expenditure for the different technologies
and the impact of the CI of green hydrogen,
power, and fuel consumption.
Key takeaways
The following can be concluded from the
operating cost analysis performed in Part 1:
• Producing fuels and other oxygen-free
products requires large amounts of hydrogen,
which in the short and medium term makes the
technology uneconomical due to the high cost of
green hydrogen.
• The potentially very high value of SAF illustrates
that production mandates on low-carbon intensity
products can change this equation and make CU
economically viable at a higher hydrogen cost.
• High-value niche chemicals, especially those
containing oxygen, are viable candidates for CU.
Producing building materials using CO2 and slag
uses relatively limited amounts of CO2 but should
be economically viable with limited support.
VIEW REFERENCES
Joris Mertens
Joris.Mertens@kbc.global
Mark Krawec
Mark.Krawec@kbc.global
Ritik Attwal
Ritik.Attwal@kbc.global
37
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compared to activated alumina.

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to see how Sorbead® can lower the carbon footprint of your process.
Biomass, BECCS and electrolysis
for climate-neutral liquid fuels
Synthetic e-fuels, biofuels, and BECCS can be ‘carbon-negative’ and therefore
have a valuable role to play in a ‘net-zero’ energy system
Stephen B. Harrison
sbh4 Consulting
T
he energy transition has many geopolitical,
economic, and environmental drivers.
Principle drivers include diversification
of energy supply, avoidance of dependence on
fragile fossil fuel supply chains, avoiding price
spikes in traded commodities, and mitigating
climate change. Synthetic e-fuels and carbon
dioxide (CO₂) utilisation from bioenergy with
carbon capture and storage (BECCS) related
to biofuels can be part of the solution. The
recycling of atmospheric CO₂ into synthetic fuels
using renewable energy offers a solution with
no net CO₂ emissions. Renewable synthetic
liquid fuels will therefore play a key role in the
energy transition alongside green hydrogen, as
traditional refined products are challenged by
fossil-free energy vectors.
Carbon accounting and credible climate-
neutral claims
The production of liquid fuels from biomass
can be carbon neutral or carbon negative.
Greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions that emanate
directly from production are referred to as Scope
1 emissions. However, in a full lifecycle analysis
of the environmental impact, it is important to
go beyond production of the fuel and consider
GHG emissions from the use of the fuel: referred
to as Scope 3 emissions. For example, ammonia
and hydrogen yield no CO₂ emissions when
used. On the other hand, synthetic e-fuels or
synthetic methanol do emit CO₂ when burned
to release its energy value. So-called Scope 2
emissions, which are generated by inputs to the
process such as power generation, must also be
accounted for, and all three must be considered
for a valid ‘carbon negative’ declaration.
www.decarbonisationtechnology.com
Furthermore, we must think beyond carbon
neutrality to ‘climate neutrality’, meaning the
CO₂ equivalence of methane emissions must be
considered. For example, biogas, biomethane,
and renewable LNG are all low-carbon energy
vectors, but if there are methane leaks that result
from their production or distribution, they can
have a very negative environmental impact. Per
tonne of emissions to the atmosphere, methane
is a much more potent GHG than CO₂.
The mechanics and principles of ‘carbon
accounting’ and ‘life cycle analysis’ are well
documented in ISO standards, and these can
be followed to justify the use of labels such
as ‘climate neutral’ or ‘carbon negative’ for
certain fuels. For example, these standards give
guidance on how the substitution of fossil fuel
usage or the avoidance of alternative biomass
decomposition pathways can have a positive
effect on carbon accounting calculations.
Some biomass-related pathways to produce
energy vectors have the potential to be carbon
negative or GHG emissions negative. According
to the EU Renewable Energy Directive, certain
modes of biomethane production from biogas
are regarded as carbon negative. Annex VI
declares numerical values for the climate impact
of biomethane production from various digester
technologies and feedstocks for heat and power
or mobility applications. In certain scenarios,
there are significant carbon-negative impacts of
producing and using renewable biomethane.
Another example would be the gasification
of biomass to make syngas and the conversion
of that syngas to gasoline, either via methanol
and methanol-to-gasoline process (MTG) or via
Fischer-Tropsch (FT). This pathway could be
39
 Limitations to scaling up biofuels and the use
Solid waste Syngas, ~35% H2 of MSW as an alternative feedstock
Biomass gasification to yield syngas is a viable
techno-economic pathway to methanol and other
liquid fuels. However, the difficulty of securing
Note: mass-scale biomass feedstock has limited scale-
– For the reaction up and has acted as a bottleneck for biofuels.
stoichiometry
shown, methane is The planting of energy crops to displace food
used as an production and deforestation to make way for
example
hydrocarbon. energy crops must be avoided if biofuels are to
be a sustainable part of our future.
Biomass collection and use are therefore limited
to regions with significant agricultural waste,
such as the central Californian valley, where
Char, slag, ash
almond shells or pruning clippings from orange
groves are abundant. Other notable examples
Plasma gasification of solid
include managed forests, such as in Canada or
hydrocarbons, eg waste
northern Europe, where saw-mill wastes can be
Carbon feedstock Municipal solid waste, dried used as pelletised woodchips.
waste water treatment The use of municipal solid waste (MSW) as an
sludge, biomass, waste paper, alternative feedstock to biomass is technically
tyres, etc
possible. Both have similar moisture content
Target chemical Hydrocarbon + 02➔ 2CO + 4H2
reactions Hydrocarbon + H²O ➔CO+ 3H2
and handling properties. MSW is generally
Additional side reactions Hydrocarbon + 202 ➔CO2 + 2H20 around 50% biomass, even after sorting out the
Carbon produced as CO, CO2, char, slag and ash green and paper fractions. The residual content
Product gas pressure Close to atmospheric pressure is often plastics from packaging that are also
Product gas temp ~1,000°C hydrocarbons, like biomass.
Gasification technologies have been used
Figure 1 Plasma-based gasification of waste or to process biomass and MSW. See Figure 1
biomass for a generic plasma gasifier representation.
Some have even made the bridge from MSW
carbon negative if the CO₂ from the biomass to biomass. For example, the InEnTec plasma
gasification process is captured and permanently gasifier has been used on more than 13 MSW
sequestered, referred to as BECCS. However, the gasification projects since 1995. Aetemis is also
overall life cycle of that pathway must consider planning to deploy the InEnTec plasma gasifier
the CO₂ emissions from the use of methanol for a biomass-to-hydrogen gasification process
or liquid fuel. Furthermore, if the gasification in the US using feedstock signed for walnut,
is optimised for hydrogen production using almond, and pistachio nut waste from Californian
reforming within the gasification process, and farms with 20-year supply contracts now
subsequent water gas shift reactions and BECCS signed. A life cycle analysis study has concluded
are involved in sequestering the CO₂ emissions that this is a carbon-negative process due to
from the process, we can produce a fuel that has avoidance of CO₂ emissions from crop waste
zero emissions when used. burning on the farms. The Plagazi system, which
In the case of other lower temperature is designed to process landfill waste, or MSW,
biomass thermolysis processes, such as also uses a plasma gasification reactor at the
pyrolysis, we often yield solid carbon as char heart of its process.
in addition to producing liquid fuels similar to
heavy fuel oil. Locking carbon into biochar is Captured CO₂ & synthetic e-fuels as a solution
also regarded as carbon negative, and in the EU, An effective solution to the biomass feedstock
the regulations allow for carbon credits through issues is the use of captured CO₂ and synthetic
this pathway. e-fuels. An alternative pathway to synthetic

40 www.decarbonisationtechnology.com
 AEC AEM PEM Air SOE H2
O2 + – H2 O2 + – H2 O2 + – H2 plus O2 + – (plus CO)

OH - OH - H+ O2 -
30% KOH(aq)

30% KOH(aq)
Diaphragm

Membrane

Membrane

Electrolyte
1% KOH(aq)
Cathode

Cathode

Cathode

Cathode
Anode

Anode

Anode

Anode
H2O H2O H2O Air H2O as water
as water as water as water (plus CO2)

Alkaline electrolysis Anion exchange Polymer electrolyte Solid oxide electrolysis

cell (AEC) membrane/alkaline membrane/proton cell (SOE/SOEC)
electrolyte membrane exchange membrane
(AEM) (PEM/PEMEC)

Electrode material Cathode: Ni, Co or Fe Cathode: Ni / Ni al loys Cathode: Pt/Pd Cathode: Ni

Anode: Ni Anode: Fe, Ni, Co oxides Anode: lrO2i RuO2 Anode: La/Sr/MnO (LSM)
or La/Sr/Co/FeO (LSCF)
Electrolyte Lye: 25-30% Anion exchange
Fluoropolymer Zirconium oxide with
potassium hydroxide ionomer (e.g. AS-4)
ionomer (e.g. Nation, ~8% yttrium oxide
solution in water a DuPont brand)
Energy source 100% electrical power 100% electrical power 100% electrical power ~25% heat from steam,
~75% electrical power
Current density Up to 0.5 A/cm2 0.2-1 A/cm2 Up to 3 A/cm2 Up to 0.5 A/cm2

Hydrogen or Hydrogen Hydrogen Hydrogen Hydrogen (or syngas if

syngas product fed with steam and CO2)

Gas outlet pressure Up to 40 bar Up to 35 bar H2, 1 bar 02 Up to 40 bar Close to atmospheric

Cell temperature ~80°C ~60°C ~60°C ~750 to 850°C

Figure 2 Electrolysis technologies for hydrogen or syngas production

liquid hydrocarbons is through electrolysis. renewable power from solar, wind, or hydro
This can be using a solid oxide electrolyser cell schemes. Nuclear power is low-carbon, but the
(SOEC) system with CO₂ feed to yield syngas, debate is open as to whether it is a ‘sustainable’
a conventional polymer electrolyte membrane mode of power generation or not. These are
(PEM), or an alkaline electrolyser to make effectively the Scope 1 emissions.
hydrogen and then convert it to hydrocarbons For the CO₂ feed to the e-fuels process,
with the addition of CO₂ and further processing. implementation of BECCS on major biomass
For example, hydrogen and CO₂ can be power generation facilities can provide
converted to methanol using a hydrogenation abundant raw material. For example, the Drax
process over copper and zinc-oxide catalysts. power plant, which opened in 1974 in North
Alternatively, the CO₂ can be reduced to carbon Yorkshire, is the largest thermal power plant
monoxide (CO) to form syngas in combination in the UK. It was previously coal-fired and has
with hydrogen. switched to burning imported wood pellets in
In the case of electrolysis, significant amounts recent years. It is still the UK’s largest single
of electrical power must be consumed. For CO₂ emitter but is regarded as carbon-neutral
the process to be carbon neutral, this must be because it burns biomass.

www.decarbonisationtechnology.com 41
 CO2 lean CO2 rich CO2 lean CO2 lean
flue gas flue gas flue gas flue gas

CO2 lean CO2 lean CO2 lean 20%

amine flue gas methanol NaOH(aq)
CO2 lean
solvent
CO2 CO2 CO2
rich CO2 lean rich rich
CO2 rich flue gas
flue gas flue gas flue gas
solvent
CO2 rich CO2 rich Na2CO3(aq)
amine methanol

Amine-wash with Amine-wash

tower rotating disk Methanol
contactor contactor wash Mineralisation

Separation principle Absorption Absorption Absorption Absorption

Specific energy demand 3 GJftCO2 Predominantly 1.4 GJftCO2 8.3 GJftCO2
electrical power,
with heat
Typical temperature 40-60°C 40-60°C -40°C <35°C
Typical pressure Ambient Ambient 25-70 barg Ambient
Typical CO2 removal 90% 90% (target) Up to 100% 90%
Typical CO, purity >99% 95% (target) >98.5% CO2 mineralisation to
Na2CO3
Typical plant size (tonnes 40,000-400,000 1,000-500,000 > 100,000,000 1,000-75,000
per year CO2 removal)
Technology maturity level Commercial from Laboratory, eg ROTA- Commercial, eg Linde Demonstration, eg
many suppliers CAP from Rectisol SkyMine
GTI &CCSL

Figure 3 Absorption-based process for CO₂ capture from flue gases

On the other hand, those CO₂ emissions could
be sequestered or utilised for e-fuel production.
Until major emitters such as the Drax plant
implement BECCS, there will be an ongoing
debate about how ‘climate friendly’ large-scale
biomass to energy really is. The good news is that
Drax is planning to implement BECCS as part of
the ambitious and visionary Zero Carbon Humber
project. According to Drax, it aims to become a
carbon-negative company by 2030. In its climate
change proposal, it claims that BECCS at Drax
could remove up to 8 million tonnes of CO₂ per
year. This is around 40% of the BECCS with
power needed to meet the UK Climate Change
Committee’s Balanced Net Zero Pathway.
Capturing CO₂ from the post-combustion flue
gases is at the heart of BECCS. Carbon capture
has been executed at scale using amine solvents,
chilled ammonia, methanol, or potassium
carbonate for decades. See Figure 3 for some
process examples.
CO₂ removal from sour gas is an essential unit
operation in upstream natural gas processing.
Biomethane to biogas upgrades also rely on CO₂
removal using such technologies. CO₂ is also
recovered from beer fermentation to provide gas
to dispense the beer in pubs and restaurants,
or to carbonate the beer when packaged into
bottles or cans.
The CO₂ captured by such processes can be of
a very high purity after drying, liquefaction, and
distillation. Achieving food-grade purity for use
in beverage carbonation is possible. The capture
of biogenic CO₂ using BECCS can yield a suitable
high-quality feedstock for combination with
hydrogen in synthetic e-fuels production.
In the refining sector, carbon capture has been
executed on the CO₂-rich process gas stream
of steam methane reformers (SMR) at several
refineries. The gases leaving the water-gas
shift reactor and prior to the PSA hydrogen
purification unit have a high CO₂ concentration

42 www.decarbonisationtechnology.com
and are at high pressure, yielding a high partial
pressure of CO₂ that is ideal for cost-effective
CO₂ capture (see Figure 4).
An amine wash system is used at the Air
Products SMR at the Repsol refinery at
Tarragona in Spain. A vacuum pressure swing
adsorption (VPSA) system has been used to
capture CO₂ from the Air Products SMRs that
operate at the Valero refinery in Port Arthur,
USA. Figure 5 shows the basics of a VPSA
process for CO₂ capture.
It is evident there is a way to produce these
synthetic fuels in a carbon-neutral or carbon-
negative way if the CO₂ used in the process has
been captured from BECCS. Also, the refining
sector has a depth of experience capturing CO₂
Steam methane reformer
from fossil fuel processing, and this expertise will
be largely transferrable to biogenic CO₂ capture.
Bioethanol as an alternative to synthetic e-fuels
Bioethanol is an exceptional energy vector. A
lot can be done with it, the CO₂ emissions from
the process are very concentrated, and capture
costs are low in comparison to carbon capture
and storage (CCS) from a power plant, to name
an example. The ideal locations for bioethanol
production include those where there is suitable
agricultural land to support it, where there is no
deforestation to create that agricultural land, and
where competing food uses are considered.
Bioethanol is used today to blend with gasoline
and reduce the climate impact of liquid fuels. In
the US, blending is up to 15%, and in Europe, it is
limited to 10%. In some countries, such as North

CO2 lean Regeneration

flue gas gas

Charge Discharge
absorbent absorbent

Notes:
– CO2 emissions are also associated with the energy and
power requirements for this industry sector. CO2 rich CO2 desorbed
–These can potentially be decarbonised with renewable flue gas under vacuum
power and electrical heating or microwaves.
–CCS to capture CO2 from the process and/or the
associated energy production is possible
VSA- vacuum swing
Oil refining adsorption and desorption

Application that releases Hydrogen production from Separation principle

CO2
Chemical reaction
producing CO2
Decarbonisation approach
for CO2 generated by the
process
Reactions for the
decarbonised process
Other industries with
similar applications
methane reforming for Specific energy demand Adsorption
fuels desulphurisation Typical temperature 1.7 GJ/tC02 (mostly power)
CH, + H20  CO+ 3H2 Typical pressure <40°C
CO+ H20 ➔CO2 + H2 Cycling between moderate
Use turquoise hydrogen or Typical CO2 removal pressure and vacuum
green hydrogen to avoid Typical CO2 purity <90%
the reforming reaction; Typically combined with <95%
or feed the reformer with
Typical plant size (tonnes Cryogenic liquefaction
biomethane instead of
per year CO2 removal) 1,000-500,000
natural gas
Technology maturity level
As above using renewable
Demonstration /
methane
Commercial, eg Air
Ammonia, urea, methanol, Products Port Arthur
gas-to-liquids SMRs, USA

Figure 4 Process CO₂ emissions from steam Figure 5 VPSA adsorption technology for CO₂
methane reforming capture

www.decarbonisationtechnology.com 43
America and China, the use of 85% ethanol as an
alternative to gasoline is an established practice.
If in the future we are faced with a scenario
where liquid fuels demand falls as electric
mobility becomes dominant, there will still be
many valuable outlets for bioethanol. These
will include reforming to hydrogen to support
hydrogen fuel cell mobility or hydrogen-fired
internal combustion engines, which would also
be zero CO₂ emissions vehicles.
Ethanol to aviation fuel or jet fuel using ethanol
to jet (ETJ) technology is also a viable option.
According to a report from the US Department of
Energy, a life cycle analysis was conducted using
the Argonne National Laboratory’s Greenhouse
Gases, Regulated Emissions, and Energy Use in
Technologies (GREET) Model of corn to jet fuel
using the ETJ process, and it confirmed that the
life cycle could indeed be carbon negative.
Gevo, a leading American renewable
chemicals and advanced biofuels company,
and Axens, a well-established French company
in the energy and petrochemical sector, have
recently announced a partnership in the US to
commercialise this ETJ pathway. Gevo will be
the operator, and Axens will bring proprietary
technology to the table. The technology pathway
is achieved through dehydration, oligomerisation,
and hydrogenation. The core technologies for
these process steps can be leveraged from
decades of experience in the refining and
petrochemical sectors.
Penetration of e-fuels and biofuels vs green
hydrogen
Currently, green ammonia or green hydrogen
from renewable power or blue and turquoise
hydrogen with carbon capture in various forms
are in the spotlight and regarded as scalable
solutions for clean energy vectors. Utilisation
equipment such as fuel cells and hydrogen or
ammonia-fired gas turbines are rapidly emerging
to use hydrogen and ammonia directly. Even
aviation is considering the use of hydrogen or
ammonia as a fuel.
Synthetic e-fuels and bio-based liquid fuels
will need to compete for attention, funding, and
project capital. There are some key points for
synthetic e-fuels that utilise captured CO₂ and
biofuels to focus on to compete with hydrogen
and ammonia. These include:
44
• Use of renewable or low-climate impact electrical
power to provide energy for e-fuels production
• Continued development and capital cost
reduction of solid oxide electrolysis, which is an
ideal-fit technology for CO₂ utilisation to make
syngas in the e-fuels value chain
• Use of agricultural waste as a feedstock,
including rice husks, coconut husks, nut shells, and
pruning clippings
• Avoidance of deforestation to make space for
energy crops
• Consideration of urea fertilizer use and the CO₂,
methane, and nitrous oxide emissions from crop
cultivation. There are agricultural practices that can
reduce these emissions significantly
• The use of managed woodlands with certified
wood if wood is the biomass in question
• Use of fast-growing seasonal crops that rapidly
remove CO₂ from the atmosphere whilst yielding
energy vectors at low cost. Grasses and food crop
wastes are good examples
• Careful consideration of land use or land re-
use with respect to local food requirements or the
regional impact on food pricing. As an example,
Germany was criticised for converting many acres
of food-crop land to biogas production. Whilst the
German public could tolerate the small consequent
increase in food prices, other regional countries
with lower per-capita incomes said their people
were being hit with unaffordable higher food prices
due to regional supply issues
• Finally, a responsible approach to
communication with consideration of full life cycle
analysis. In any claims of ‘climate neutrality’ or
‘carbon negative’ processes, it is essential to build
trust and avoid the accusation of ‘green washing’.
Conclusion
Synthetic e-fuels, biofuels, and BECCS can play
a significant role in the energy transition towards
net zero. They might not be in the spotlight to
the same extent as hydrogen, but that is by no
means a reflection of their potential as part of the
solution to our current dependence on fossil fuel
supply chains. In some cases, they can be ‘carbon-
negative’ and therefore play a valuable role in a
‘net-zero’ energy system to balance out difficult-to-
decarbonise processes in other sectors.
Stephen B. Harrison
sbh@sbh4.de
www.decarbonisationtechnology.com
ENERGY TRANSITION TO
REFINING TRANSFORMATION
What does it mean to be part of the global energy transition?
At Grace it means transforming the way we support the
petroleum refining industry for a more sustainable future.
Let’s collaborate on the next wave of FCC technology.

Contact your Grace

representative today.

grace.com
Optimizing combustion for
a greener tomorrow.

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Energy transition technology
scenarios
How the technology landscape may change in the short-, medium- and long-
term of the energy transition
Nick Flinn and Chris Egby
Shell Catalysts & Technologies
T
o meet their decarbonisation goals,
energy companies may need to rethink
their business models and apply suites
of technologies and tools, all while maintaining
their competitiveness. In recent years, the sector
has developed a wide range of highly effective
decarbonisation technology solutions. These will
be crucial, but it will also require technologies
that are still in development and need complex
engineering challenges to be resolved.
At Shell Catalysts & Technologies, we have a
unique perspective on energy-transition-related
technologies; our corporate heritage is that of
an energy provider, and we also provide tools,
technologies, and insights to help Shell and
others meet their energy transition objectives.
So, this article explores technologies that may
play a key role and discusses some of the
engineering challenges that must be overcome.
This report is broken down into short-,
medium- and long-term trends, but no dates
are given because the pace of change will vary
around the world. Although each phase may be
shorter or longer in different regions, the overall
sequence is likely to be broadly applicable to
most countries.
In addition, it must be emphasised that,
although these insights describe what the
world may look like in each period, these are
not forecasts or predictions. The intention is to
provide context for the technologies through
plausible representations of how things could
play out. Much of this aligns with Shell’s Sky
scenario, but of course there are other possible,
credible futures.
Interestingly, you will notice that many future
technology solutions are likely to involve
www.decarbonisationtechnology.com
repurposing or integrating existing, tried-and-
tested technologies.
Clearly, further scientific advances are
necessary, for example to open new routes for
re-engineering hydrocarbon molecules – and
Shell continues to invest heavily here – but
one should not overlook the opportunities that
repurposing can provide.
Two new Shell technology solutions illustrate
this point. The recently introduced Shell Blue
Hydrogen Process is based on the Shell
Gasification Process, which has a 70-year track
record. And our new hydrotreated vegetable oil
(HVO) technology, the Shell Renewable Refining
Process, is based on fundamental, decades-
old hydrotreating and isomerisation catalyst
technologies. That is not to say there was no
ingenuity involved in its commercialisation,
though: it took a great deal of innovation to
understand the implications of the changing
feed qualities, reaction kinetics, and product
qualities, for example, and to manage the risks
appropriately. But ultimately the heart of the
technology already existed.
This is highlighted for two reasons. First, the
need for retraining in the oil and gas industry is
high on the agendas of policymakers worldwide,
but, from a technology perspective, the skills
gap could be smaller than it may seem.
Second, energy companies, often seen as risk
averse, may be reassured that many emerging
technologies draw on long track records.
PART 1: Technology trends in the short term
In this period, the energy transition is gathering
pace. Driven by the need to meet the goals
of the Paris Agreement on climate change
47
 Engineering challenges of processing biofeeds
In 2020, Shell Catalysts & Technologies
commercialised the Shell Renewable Refining
Process, an HVO technology for converting
100% biofeeds into renewable diesel and
jet fuel. Its rapid development owes much to
lessons learned from other technologies, as
Roy Henket of Shell Catalysts & Technologies
explains.
“There are many technical challenges
to overcome when processing renewable
feedstocks: the high levels of contaminants,
high heat release and high hydrogen
consumption, to name a few. Much of our
technology de-risking is built on lessons
learned from other technologies, such as
and achieve a world of net-zero emissions, oil
demand stagnates, coal use declines, and use
of natural gas and solar both grow. Government
policies begin to crystallise and, as energy
companies develop their energy-transition-
related ambitions, technologies such as blue
hydrogen, HVO, and carbon capture are adopted.
Adapting to the new energy landscape
In the short term, it will be critical for energy
companies to begin to adapt or reposition their
businesses while concurrently maintaining
their competitiveness. Flexibility will be key,
so there will be a need for incrementally
moving molecules to the most profitable paths.
For example, many refiners’ profitability will
depend on their ability to find ways to shift
increasingly heavy, low-value, bottom-of-the-
barrel molecules into lighter aromatics and
olefins to make intermediates for the growing
manufacturing and chemicals industries.
To maximise margins, it will also be important
for them to supply the increasing global demand
for kerosene molecules, which has almost
recovered to pre-pandemic levels, while diesel
and gasoline may start to decline in certain
geographical markets.
As the market changes, there will likely also be
a need for repurposing existing assets through
revamps. Important technology solutions may
be revamping a hydrocracker to capture new
48
the Shell gas-to-liquids process and our
dewaxing hydroprocessing technology,
which, like the Shell Renewable Refining
Process, has a first-stage conversion reactor
and a second-stage isomerisation reactor.
Shell’s experience in fouling abatement and
reactor design was also crucial.
“As you might expect, though, this is not the
end of the story. Research and development
continue. Key focus areas include increasing
the feedstock processing window, which will
be important as new regulations mandate
the use of even more challenging feeds, and
optimising the design for increased SAF
yields.”
business opportunities in petrochemicals
or lubricant base oils, revamping a fluidised
catalytic cracker to maximise propylene for
polypropylene production, or revamping
newly built HVO units to increase the yield of
sustainable aviation fuel (SAF) or extend the
catalyst cycle life.
Decarbonisation pathways
Energy companies will likely need to act in each
of the three classic decarbonisation pathways:
they will need to increase energy efficiency,
make lower-carbon energy products, and store
the remaining emissions.
Many will probably begin with energy
efficiency studies, as these are low-cost
solutions. In addition, carbon pricing, which may
be adopted by governments globally during
this period, would lead to a meaningful cost
for carbon being embedded into consumer
goods and services and help justify more
developments.
Essentially, this would change the evaluation
criteria for energy efficiency improvements.
In the past, the main criterion was the cost of
energy, but the economic case is likely to be
strongly enhanced when the cost of carbon is
factored in.
Although it is imperative for energy companies
to ensure that their own operations use energy
as efficiently as possible, the reality is that most
www.decarbonisationtechnology.com
of their emissions come from their customers’
use of the energy products they sell. So,
drives to achieve net-zero emissions will likely
also require the introduction of low-carbon
energy products such as biofuels. Incremental
government mandates may provide further
stimulus during this period.
Consequently, to reduce the carbon
intensity of liquid fuel products, one of the
most important solutions may be a phased
investment programme with an initial period
of co-processing up to 20% renewable
feedstock in an existing hydrotreating unit
for little or no capital expenditure. As biofuel
mandates become more stringent in the future,
a dedicated HVO unit for processing 100%
renewable feeds could follow.
Such a strategy would be highly capital
efficient, but there are challenges. For example,
co-processing renewable feed can affect
unit operation in several ways. Hydrogen
consumption and heat release will increase, for
example, and there are the risks of increased
corrosion and fouling. Nevertheless, although it
is vital to identify all the risks for a specific unit,
the mitigation measures are well established.
In addition, the type of dedicated HVO unit
a company invests in is crucial. Many biofuel
regulations around the world are likely to
mandate the use of more difficult feeds in the
Engineering challenges of CO₂ capture at scale
The oil and gas industry has been capturing
CO₂ for decades, for example, in natural gas
treating. However, for large-scale carbon
capture and storage projects to be successful,
it had to be done on post-combustion gases
containing an abundance of oxygen. It also had
to be made cost-effective, as Laurent Thomas
of Shell Catalysts & Technologies explains.
“The presence of oxygen would cause
traditional amine solvents to degrade quickly,
but the Cansolv DC103 absorbent that we use
today, which is the result of a sustained, multi-
year research and development programme,
has a much higher oxidation resistance, and
we continue to make improvements through
further improving the formula.
www.decarbonisationtechnology.com
future, so refiners must plan carefully to avoid
regret investment.
SAF is quickly becoming the preferred
product from HVO units, and high SAF yield
can be facilitated by utilising a two-stage HVO
unit and state-of-the-art catalysts and reactor
internals, either in new units or by revamping
existing units.
Another technology that could play a major
role during this period is gasification, as it
enables unwanted streams such as steam
cracker residues to be converted into synthesis
gas (syngas), a high-value product that can be
used for producing chemicals, hydrogen, and
power.
The third decarbonisation pathway requires
carbon capture, utilisation and storage, which
the International Energy Agency (IEA) says is
a key technology for cost-effectively reducing
carbon dioxide (CO₂) emissions from large
industrial facilities.
According to the IEA, there are currently
21 large-scale carbon capture, utilisation and
storage facilities worldwide. One of these is
using Shell’s Cansolv* CO₂ Capture System
to capture about 1 MT/y of CO₂ from the
flue gas. Shell Catalysts & Technologies is
currently involved in the front-end engineering
and design (FEED) or pre-FEED stage of
many more.
“The challenge now is to make post-
combustion capture cost-effective. Low-
pressure gases in large-scale projects mean
huge gas volumes and, therefore, very large
equipment. Thus, although the technology is
now commercially deployed, we continue to
look for improvement opportunities.
“For example, we’re working closely with
our alliance partner, Technip Energies, to
drive down the cost for customers and
make carbon capture more viable for
smaller emitters. That has led to rapid
improvements in the last 18 months,
enabling the technology to be more viable
for a wider range of emitters across multiple
industries.”
49
Importance of blue hydrogen
In the short term, the use of blue hydrogen is also
set to grow and provide an important stepping
stone between grey and green hydrogen.
Grey hydrogen is produced from natural
gas, often in a steam methane reformer or
a gasification unit from residue. The large
volumes of CO₂ generated are neither captured
nor reused.
Blue hydrogen is cleaner because the CO₂
emissions are captured and stored or reused.
The aspiration is to move to green hydrogen,
which is generated using renewable energy
sources that do not produce CO₂ emissions in
the first place. However, analysts suggest green
hydrogen may not achieve cost parity with blue
hydrogen until about 2045.
In the meantime, the use of blue hydrogen will
encourage infrastructure and demand growth.
Then, by the time green hydrogen projects
become commercially viable, they will have a
ready-made market in which to sell.
Blue hydrogen technology is already
commercialised: gas partial oxidation technology
followed by amine-based CO₂ capture. The
challenge, in the short term at least, is what
to do with the captured CO₂. Sequestration is
possible but only adds cost to an asset. Some
forms of utilisation, such as redirecting CO₂ from
industrial sites to accelerate crop growth, are
well established, but the longer-term goal is to
convert the CO₂ into high-value liquid and gas
products. These are technologically viable but
not yet economic at scale.
PART 2: Technology trends in the medium
term
In this period, the energy transition accelerates.
Government policies are well developed and
understood, and the associated rewards for
investing are clearer. Solar and wind power are
well established at scale, and sales of diesel and
petrol cars have stopped in some countries and
are in significant decline in others. Biofuels are
gaining a significant market share in transport
and beginning to expand in aviation, marine,
and heavy-duty transport.
The significant blue hydrogen capacity
established during the earlier phase begins
a slow transition to green hydrogen, though
green may remain commercially unviable in
many locations.
Rise of industrial clusters
A key development in the medium term could
be the proliferation of industrial clusters, or
hubs: groups of relatively local organisations
that collaborate because they share a common
goal of reducing their carbon intensity while
making a margin. This is already an emerging
trend: Shell Catalysts & Technologies has been
involved in major projects, including one in
Europe, that have seen companies from hard-
to-abate sectors such as power, steel, cement,

Possible technology pathway Some ‘non-fossil’ products

Ethanol
Hydrocarbon-based feedstocks Methanol
and/or difficult-to-treat process Gasification
streams Dimethyl ether
Shell Gasification Process
Fischer-Tropsch diesel and lubricants (BtL)
Hydrogen

Renewable diesel
Plant-based oils and
Hydrotreatment Renewable jet/biojet fuel
animal fats
Shell Renewable Refining Process
Renewable naphtha
Pretreatment, hydrolysis Distillers’ corn oil, high-quality protein feed
Lignocellulosic biomass and fermentation
Shell Fiber Conversion Technology Ethanol
Woody biomass, agricultural
residue, algae and sorted Renewable diesel
Gasification
municipal waste Renewable jet/biojet fuel
Shell Gasification Process
Renewable naphtha

Figure 1 Four key synthesis pathways for converting bio-based feedstock into renewable liquid
fuels or chemicals

50 www.decarbonisationtechnology.com
A greater transition
to fewer emissions
is on the horizon
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Cut The Carbon today with our specialized, flexible solutions.

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 Feedstocks
Gas
Heavy oil
Refinery residue
SYNGAS
Plastics
Organic materials,
including wood chips
and municipal waste
Figure 2 With gasification technology, a wide variety of feeds can be converted into syngas, which
has many uses. Consequently, syngas can be seen as a key enabler for the energy transition
and petrochemicals working together within
clusters. These ‘anchor’ projects enable smaller
emitters to tap into the infrastructure and share
the associated costs.
Further, it enables one company’s waste
streams to be repurposed as others’ value
streams. For example, a steel producer can route
the CO₂ and carbon monoxide it generates to
other companies’ synthetic fuel projects. Profits
from new products generated within the hub,
which could eventually include ammonia and
acetic acid, could be shared.
Expanding use of biofuels
With continued reliance on liquid fuels, though
set against the need to reduce CO₂ emissions,
biofuel use expands rapidly in the medium
term. Four key synthesis pathways (see Figure
1) mean that a wide range of biofuels can
be derived from many bio-feedstocks, thus
increasing feedstock flexibility.
Of these, gasification is the highest severity
process and the conversion route of choice for
bio-based and difficult-to-treat hydrocarbon
feeds that differ significantly from the desired
product. For example, it can break down feeds
such as plastics and wood chips into syngas.
The syngas can be used to create a wide
range of chemicals or combined with the
Fischer-Tropsch process to create liquid fuels –
Shell is strategically prioritising the production
of synthetic fuels produced from renewables,
rather than from fossil sources – and very
high-quality synthetic lubricant base oils (see
52
Syngas uses
Chemicals such as methanol
and ammonia
Integrated gasification
combined-cycle power CO2
Synthetic natural gas
Synthetic hydrocarbon liquids
Transport fuels
Libricants
Hydrogen H2
Figure 2). Indeed, the combination of gasification
and Fischer-Tropsch technology may be one of
the most important technologies to grow during
this period. Both are well-established but costly
processes. Higher demand for low-CO₂ products
and legislation should foster their viability.
Low-CO2 chemicals
In the medium term, various low-CO₂ chemical
technologies may be commercialised, such
as the combination of biomass and plastic
gasification and Fischer-Tropsch technology to
produce chemicals, using bio-glycols to create
polyethylene terephthalate and using polylactic
acid to create bioplastics.
The use of chemical recycling may also increase.
In recent years, Shell has started making
chemicals from a liquid feedstock made from
hard-to-recycle plastic waste using pyrolysis and
intends to use 1 Mt/y of plastic waste in this way
by 2025.
PART 3: Technology trends in the long term
In this period, which is broadly the 5-10 years
from about 2035 or 2040 onwards, renewables
will have become the primary energy source and
many jurisdictions have 100% renewable energy.
Hydrogen will now be a material energy carrier, and
green hydrogen has achieved cost parity with blue.
The multi-industry hubs referred to in Part 2 are
capturing large volumes of CO₂, much of which is
being cost-effectively sequestered in shared CO₂
storage sites.
Oil production has decreased, but remains
www.decarbonisationtechnology.com
 Methanation
Methane
Power-to-gas CO2 PtCH4

H2
O2 H2
PtH4
H2O
Gas grid
Power generation Power Electrolysis
Storage caverns
Petrol,
Power-to-liquids diesel,
CO2 jet fuel
Synthesis

Figure 3 PtX pathways

significant, in part because non-road transport
and chemicals continue to require hydrocarbons.
Biofuels supplement the liquid fuel mix and
continue to grow.
Refineries look very different. There may
be fewer of them, but those that remain
are dramatically more complex and flexible,
and produce much greater proportions of
petrochemicals and other non-fuels products.
Power-to-X
A key development here could be power-
to-X (PtX) technology, which turns renewable
electricity into heat, hydrogen, synthetic kero/jet
and chemicals, and offers numerous utilisation
pathways (see Figure 3). One reason this is
attractive is that it facilitates the storage of
renewable energy, which is naturally intermittent.
For example, excess wind-turbine power
produced during blustery weather often has to be
disconnected from the grid. With PtX technology,
it could be used to generate hydrogen through
electrolysis, which can be stored.
PtX technology requires large amounts of
CO₂, which, to avoid additional greenhouse gas
emissions, should be captured directly from the
air rather than from industrial processes, which
requires another emerging technology: direct
air capture.
Right now, although 19 direct air capture
plants are operating worldwide, they have
much higher energy costs than other CO₂
capture technologies, chiefly because vast air
quantities must be processed due to CO₂ in
the atmosphere being so dilute. Nevertheless,
some analysts believe the cost will fall as the
technology matures.
Conclusions
A wide range of technologies will be necessary
for the world to navigate to a new, lower-
carbon energy system, some of which are
still in development. In the short term, it will
be necessary for energy companies to follow
the dual objectives of remaining competitive
while beginning to adapt or reposition their
businesses for the energy system of the future.
This will require them to move molecules
incrementally to the most profitable path. Blue
hydrogen will play an increasingly important
role, as will biofuels.
In the medium term, the energy transition is
likely to accelerate, and we may see a move
from blue hydrogen to green, with industrial
clusters being key enablers.
In the longer term, the emergence of PtX
technologies could see liquid fuels being made
from renewable electricity and CO₂ from the air.
*CANSOLV is a Shell trademark.
Scenarios are not intended to be predictions of likely
future events. Read the full cautionary note in www.
shell.com/skyscenario.
Nick Flinn
nick.flinn@shell.com
Chris Egby
chris.egby@shell.com

www.decarbonisationtechnology.com 53
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Co-processing of bio-based
feedstocks in the FCC unit
Using bio-based feedstocks as a decarbonisation lever is one of the most
effective methods to address Scope 3 downstream emissions
Bob Riley, Stefan Brandt and Kenneth Bryden
W. R. Grace & Co.
W
hile the landscape varies around
the world, factors including societal,
regulatory, and investor pressures have
created a driving force for the decarbonisation
of the refining system. When the potential for
systematic changes to refining was recognised
decades ago, W. R. Grace & Co. began
research activities to support refiners as the
energy transition unfolds. One of the areas of
particular interest for many refiners has been the
processing of bio-based feedstocks in existing
operating units, including the fluid catalytic
cracker (FCC).
Processing bio-based feedstock is a particularly
interesting option for many refiners, as it is one
of the few viable options to address the largest
part of the refining system’s emissions – Scope
3 downstream emissions. For refiners, Scope 3
downstream emissions are those created from
the products in use – which in many cases are
combustion emissions associated with various
forms of transportation. By far, this emissions
scope represents the largest share of emissions
in a life cycle assessment of petroleum refining.
What are bio-based feedstocks?
While many often refer to bio-based feedstocks
in tandem or in conjunction with other renewable
resources, there are important differences to
note. The carbon in bio-based feedstocks is
sourced from the environment as part of the
biogenic carbon cycle (International Energy
Association, 2022). Compared to carbon from
traditional fossil-based sources, carbon from
biogenic feedstocks is not accretive to global
atmospheric carbon inventories. This way, when
fuels based on biogenic carbon feedstocks
www.decarbonisationtechnology.com
Atmosphere Atmosphere
Non-biogenic
Biogenic CO2
CO2
Bio-based
feedstocks
Fossil fuel
Figure 1 Biogenic and fossil-based carbon
emissions
are produced and consumed, global CO₂
inventories are not increased. Figure 1 illustrates
the difference between biogenic carbon cycle
sources and fossil-based sources.
A large variety of materials can be used to
create sustainable and renewable feedstocks
for refinery application. To support our refining
customers, Grace has evaluated many possible
feedstocks for their suitability in existing refining
processes as either a feed blend component (co-
processing) or, in some cases, a pure feedstock
stream. Although the most popular feedstocks
for refinery use include lipid-based seed oils and
animal fats, many alternate feedstocks sourced
from materials listed in Table 1, and converted
through a variety of processes, have been
considered by refiners.
Motivation for processing bio-based
feedstocks is largely driven by ambitions to
control global CO₂ inventories. These ambitions
can be embodied in regulatory frameworks
(such as the European Renewable Energy
55
 Materials used to prepare bio-based refinery
feedstocks
Seed oils (rapeseed, sunflower,
palm, soybean, etc.) Sugars
Animal fats Algal oils
Waste cooking oils Straw
Oils extracted from biomass Corn stover
Bio-based pyrolysis oils Organic fraction of the same decarbonisation benefit that bio-
(Hydrotreated, demetallated, municipal solid based feedstocks carry in the fuels value chain.
raw) waste (MSW) Instead, these feedstocks act more like fossil
Cellulose-based oils Crude glycerin
Bagasse Nut shells
Proprietary Other recycled materials is an important future role for
Table 1
Directive [EU RED-II], US Renewable Fuel
Standard [US RFS], or California’s Low Carbon
Fuel Standard [CA LCFS]), driven by corporate
strategic directives, or the result of stakeholder
engagement initiatives with refiners. Some of
these frameworks can provide a financial return
(often in the form of credits, which are used to
demonstrate compliance and can be traded to
other market participants).
Recently, there has been an increase in the
use of recycled carbon fuels. The best example
of these types of feedstocks is oil derived from
hard-to-recycle plastics or other hydrocarbon-
based materials that cannot be recycled. The US
EPA’s Waste Hierarchy dictates that avoidance
of waste, by first reuse/recycling and then energy
recovery, is preferred to disposal, and care must
be taken to ensure recycled carbon feedstocks
for refinery use are sourced from materials
that cannot be easily recycled via other means
(Sustainable Materials Management: Non-
Hazardous Materials and Waste Management
Hierarchy, 2022).
Recycled carbon feedstocks serve important
societal purposes: to increase recycled content in
the plastics value chain and reduce plastic waste,
while at the same time reducing the amount of
fossil fuels required. However, they do not carry
resources with respect to their contribution to
global emission inventories. So, while processing
refining, it is important to differentiate recycled
carbon feedstocks from bio-based feedstocks
with respect to the impact on global emissions
inventories.
What is necessary to co-process bio-based
feedstocks?
Generally, bio-based feedstocks introduce new
challenges in the refining system. There are
several possible unit operations in a refinery
where bio-based feedstocks can be introduced,
but the FCC unit has received significant
attention. Table 2 presents representative
properties of a selection of renewable feedstock
types that Grace has received from refiners, along
with a comparison to typical FCC feedstock.
The primary difference to note between the
renewable feedstocks and traditional FCC
feedstock is the high level of oxygen content
found in many of the renewable feeds. However,
beyond the challenges that come with high
oxygen content, many of the renewable
feedstocks contain elevated and highly variable
levels of metals. Both the overall contaminant

Selected renewable feedstock (and traditional FCC feedstock) compositions

Soybean Rapeseed Palm Tallow2 Pine-based Crude Median value Typical ranges
oil oil
1, 5 1
oil (refined)
1
pyrolysis oil3 tall oil4 FCC feedstock5 FCC feedstock5

Oxygen, wt% 10.5 10.6 11.3 12.6 51 Alkali &9.9

alkaline 0 0-0.5
Na, mg/kg 0-2 5 0 55 5 earth metals 0.3 0-10
Mg, mg/kg 1-40 0.3 0 5 130 reported as 0.1 0-5
K, mg/kg 0-88 0 0 no data 160 56 mg/kg 0.0 0-5
Ca, mg/kg 3-60 14 0 40 400 0.4 0-20
P, mg/kg 6-150 4 0 60 no data 36 0.0 0-5

References: 1 Watkins et al, 2008. 2 Riley & Willets, 2011, 3. Pinho et al., 2017, 4. Anthonkutty et al., 2015, 5. Grace internal data.

Table 2

56 www.decarbonisationtechnology.com
level and the lot-to-lot variability can create
challenges in refining operations.
The FCC is especially well suited to handle
this level of variation in properties due to the
flexible nature of the process. The continuous
replacement of catalyst offers a method to
manage metals contaminants that is not available
in other refining processes, and the ability to
adjust operating conditions continuously to
optimise against constraints makes the FCC an
attractive place to consider co-processing of
renewable feedstocks. Finally, the FCC process
is known for its high degree of deoxygenation
without the necessity for separate hydrogen
addition, which means that the renewable fuels
produced in the FCC have the potential for very
low carbon intensity.
However, not all feedstocks are easy to co-
process in the FCC, and the FCC is not the only
unit in the refinery used to co-process bio-
based feedstocks. To help refiners determine
the optimum processing scheme, Grace has
developed a multi-stage advanced evaluation
protocol to determine the suitability of new
feedstocks, and we have applied this protocol
across a wide variety of challenging bio-based
feedstocks. Our protocol evaluates the physical
and chemical compatibility of new bio-based
feedstocks with existing FCC feedstock streams
Figure 2 Grace’s Davison Circulating Riser Pilot Plant
www.decarbonisationtechnology.com
and determines the FCC yield potential of the
new feedstocks. Grace achieves the latter using
pilot-scale testing units, up to and including our
Davison Circulating Riser (DCR) Pilot Plant (see
Figure 2).
The DCR Pilot Plant offers an excellent
set of capabilities for the evaluation of bio-
based and alternative feedstocks. (Bryden,
Weatherbee, & Habib, 2013). The DCR Pilot
Plant is a continuously operated pilot plant
with riser cracking, stripping, and regeneration
capabilities, which closely simulates commercial
FCC unit yields (Bryden, Predicting FCC unit
performance with laboratory testing, 2013).
Grace has licensed the DCR Pilot Plant
technology to over 30 licensees, making it the
leading commercially available technology for
detailed evaluation of FCC dynamics on the
pilot scale. Additionally, Grace has undertaken
specific modifications to both the DCR and
other technologies in our portfolio to enable
these evaluations.
While many research groups have published
work on co-processing in the FCC using
smaller-scale batch reactors, the continuous
operation of the DCR offers a chance for many
more significant insights. As an example, the
continuous operation and larger scale of the
DCR Pilot Plant allow for larger quantities
57

Soybean oil
VGO
Increasing riser height
960 970 980 990 1000 1010 1020 1030 1040 1050 1060
Tempertaure, ˚F
Figure 3 Riser temperature profile for cracking
of soybean oil and vacuum gas oil
of products to be collected. For bio-based
applications, these larger quantities can be
fractionated and tested for biogenic carbon
content via 14C analysis, which is used to
demonstrate the amount of bio-based material
that partitions in the various FCC product
streams. Quantification of the fate of biogenic
carbon is necessary under some regulatory and
credit structures. Large quantity liquid samples
also allow for engine octane testing and other
specialised product quality tests. Producing
samples for these types of analysis is not
possible using smaller-scale batch reactors.
Additionally, continuous pilot plant testing
can provide insights that are not possible to see
with smaller-scale batch testing or isothermally
operated pilot plants. An example is shown in
Figure 3 (Bryden, Weatherbee, & Habib, 2013),
which demonstrates the significant difference
in the riser temperature profile when cracking
100% soybean oil vs 100% VGO. This illustrates
the large difference in the heat of cracking of the
soybean feedstock compared to the VGO, which
has important design implications for FCCs that
might attempt large percentages of soybean oil
co-processing.
Grace has evaluated many bio-based
feedstocks and uncovered important insights
using our evaluation protocols. For example,
in 2013, Grace reported that continuous co-
processing of raw pine-based pyrolysis oil at
low percentages created significant operability
problems in the DCR. This led to operational
modifications on the pilot plant and ultimately to
58
commercial adaptations for the FCC to enable
both trials and continuous co-processing of
bio-based pyrolysis oils. Without this testing,
refiners who may have attempted co-processing
this material would have taken on significant
risk to equipment in their refineries.
Additionally, beyond laboratory feasibility,
Grace’s Global Customer Technology (GCT)
team has developed expertise in the practical
elements associated with bio-based feedstock
coprocessing. This team has engaged globally
with our customers to assist with both
commercial trials and ongoing applications
using bio-based feedstocks, providing feasibility
reviews, assessing risks, determining metals
balances, reviewing catalyst strategy, and
delivering customised technical guidance for co-
processing implementation.
What has been achieved commercially with
FCC co-processing?
While co-processing remains a relatively
nascent market, many refiners around the
world have executed tests in the FCC, and
some have deployed co-processing as part of
continuous, ongoing operations. Most refiners
who are executing co-processing in the FCC are
considering the use of a lipid-based feedstock
(seed oils, animal fats, waste cooking oils);
however, other feedstocks are in use in some
operations. For some refineries, co-processing
has been achieved with near-zero disruption to
existing operations, while others have reported
challenges associated with their co-processing
schemes. It is important to note, though, that
most of the co-processing presently executed in
FCC units is below 10 wt% of FCC feed content,
meaning that issues that can occur from the use
of these feedstocks can be harder to detect in
commercial operations. For refiners considering
higher levels of co-processing, laboratory
evaluations (such as those described earlier in
this article) are a critically important part of the
planning process for full-scale deployment.
Where issues have been reported, oxygenates
have been cited as the primary culprits. Issues
identified have included: challenges in amine
units, sour water strippers, and sulphur recovery
units (Le Grange, Tekebayev, Goettler, Kiebert,
& Sheilan, 2022), oxygenates in liquid and
gaseous products (above internal refinery
www.decarbonisationtechnology.com
specifications), additional water production,
deactivation of downstream catalytic units (due
to trace oxygenates), and others. The specific
problems experienced are dependent on the
type of bio-based feedstock, its preparation
methods, its level of use in the FCC, and a
variety of other operational choices on the FCC.
Summary
Decarbonisation of refining processes is
expected to be an important theme for the
refining industry over the next several decades.
While many companies are seeking entry into
alternate energy value chains to achieve their
decarbonisation goals, there are significant
gains in decarbonising the refining system that
are possible today. Using bio-based feedstocks
as a decarbonisation lever is one of the most
effective methods to address emissions –
especially Scope 3 downstream emissions.
Bio-based feedstock co-processing in the FCC
has been employed around the world by refiners
and is expected to continue to grow over time.
Grace has supported refiners by leveraging our
laboratory evaluation capabilities, including
Take the road to
Servomex solutions for cleaner industry
Build a better, cleaner world with Servomex gas analysis.
Our expert systems will help enable you to reach your
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_SER-RET-359_HEDecarbAd-AW.indd 1
www.decarbonisationtechnology.com
our unique DCR Pilot Plant technology, for
qualifying schemes to co-process bio-based
feedstocks. Additionally, Grace’s Global
Customer Technology team has built expertise
in the adaptations that are necessary for the
FCC to enable bio-based co-processing. With
the use of these resources, we have helped
refiners uncover potential issues associated
with co-processing and have additionally helped
refiners select and process the most appropriate
(and avoid problematic) bio-based feedstocks to
meet their processing goals.
DCR™ Pilot Plant is a trademark of W. R. Grace & Co.-
Conn.
VIEW REFERENCES
Bob Riley
Bob.riley@grace.com
Stefan Brandt
stefan.brandt@grace.com
Kenneth Bryden
kenneth.bryden@grace.com
05/04/2022 17:01
59
ACCELERATING
DECARBONISATION
TOGETHER
The world’s energy system is changing. To solve the challenges those changes present, Shell Catalysts
& Technologies is developing its Decarbonisation Solutions portfolio — to provide services and
integrated value chains of technologies, designed to help industries navigate their path through the
energy transition. Our experienced teams of consultants and engineers apply our diverse, unique
owner-operator expertise to co-create pathways and technology solutions to address your specific
Decarbonisation ambitions — creating a cleaner way forward together.

Learn more at shell.com/decarbonisation

Decarbonisation
Solutions
Power-to-X integration, the
methanol case
Renewable power to methanol projects can provide an economically attractive
route to renewable methanol production
Raimon Marin
AFRY
P
ower-to-X (PtX) technologies use electricity,
preferentially renewable electricity, to
produce hydrogen via electrolysis of water,
with oxygen and low-grade heat as the main
by-products. The hydrogen is further used in a
range of applications, shown in Figure 1; namely,
e-methanol, e-ammonia, synthetic natural gas,
synthetic sustainable aviation fuel, direct reduction
of iron, and many more.
Integrating small and medium PtX projects
into existing facilities is an attractive approach
already taken by several players in the industry
(S&P Global, 2020) due to the revalorisation
of side streams and potential reduction of the
CO₂ footprint of the existing facility. For PtX
applications like methanol and other synthetic
hydrocarbons, pulp mills or bio-waste to
power are a good fit since there is availability
O2 Fish farming
Medical oxygen Smelters/copper
concentrators
Renewable Oxygen
energy
Wind
Solar
Electrolysis
Hydro
Figure 1 Power-to-X value chain
www.decarbonisationtechnology.com
of biogenic CO₂ and possibly a reliable supply
of renewable electricity. Here, a seamless
integration is required for financial success,
and it must be made by players with expertise
along the whole project value chain (from
market analysis and levelised cost of electricity/
hydrogen and final product to understanding the
technical particularities of pulp mill/bio-waste
to power, carbon capture, and PtX). AFRY(c)
has a long tradition in market analysis and both
pulp mills and bio-waste to power plants with
know-how in carbon capture and PtX, as shown
in Figure 2, with a track record of successful PtX
integration projects.
Selecting the hydrogen plant
Hydrogen is the pivotal element in PtX; selecting
the right technology that better adapts to your
Green steel - DRI
Ammonia
Methanol
Jet fuel
Mobile fuel cells / FCVs
Stationary fuel cells /energy
Green hydrogen
backup systems
Space rocket fuel
Gas turbines
Heat
Large scale energy storage
Polysilicon wafer / solar cells
Fat hydrogenation
61
 BECCS Methanol
production
Renewables
Wind, PV, Hydro...
Electrolysis
Nuclear
Ammonia
production
Gasification/
Biomass transport
reforming
Natural gas SMR/CCS transport
Pyrolysis
Solid carbon
applications
Civil, risk management, permitting, logistics
Harbour
infrastructure
Management consulting division (strategy, due diligence, sourcing)
Figure 2 AFRY value chain in Power-to-X
process needs will help you succeed in your
project. Currently, two main technologies can
be readily deployed at a certain scale, say more
than 20 MW. These are alkaline electrolyte
(AEL) and polymer electrolyte membrane
(PEM). There are also other technologies in the
pipeline at different stages of maturity (such
as solid oxide electrolyte and anion exchange
membrane); however, none have yet been
deployed and operated at any significant
industrial scale.
Common knowledge says that PEM is well
suited for fluctuating power inputs (like those
in wind and photo-voltaic farms), whereas
AEL has better efficiency at the cost of lower
flexibility in rapid turn-down/up scenarios.
Although true, that is a rather simplistic
approach, and it could lead to costly pitfalls
when designing hydrogen plants above 100s
MW. Through experience, we have developed
the know-how in managing and executing the
design and optimisation of medium- and large-
scale electrolysers of either technology in a way
that works better in terms of plant availability
and flexibility, project finance, power profile,
and any other constraints you may encounter.
Furthermore, we can forecast both electricity
and hydrogen price, which is key to optimise
hydrogen plant size and the storage facility
(should this be needed).
62
Filling stations
H2 Pipe Mobility
Cars, trucks, trains...
Chemical
H2 Truck
industry
H2 Ship H2 storage
Other
applications
Steel industry Fuel cell Power & heat
Direct technology production.
reduction Gas turbines
Shipping
The X in the equation
The value chain in PtX is very wide and aims at
servicing many industries, as seen in Figure 1.
Applications that may be easiest to adapt are
those that traditionally use hydrogen, such as
fuels, ammonia, methanol, and direct reduction
of iron. All these processes and applications
have well-established and reputable equipment
vendors and process licensors. Our role at AFRY
is to work as the ‘glue’, integrating every part of
the project value chain, from licensed processes,
electrolyser equipment and balance of plant,
compression and storage, utilities from existing
facilities (should it be a brownfield project), and
developers’ and owners’ interests.
e-Methanol
Methanol has a vital role in our daily life, being
fundamental to the commodities value chain
and one of the most promising sustainable
fuels for the shipping industry (Maersk, 2021).
The main feedstocks to make e-methanol
are hydrogen (or electrical power and water)
and CO₂. Other inputs to the process are low/
medium-pressure steam for carbon capture and
methanol distillation, compression power, and
other utilities.
As discussed above, to extract maximum value
from e-methanol, the CO₂ must come from
biogenic sources, which are abundant in pulp
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 Where energies make tomorrow

Inspiring
a cleaner
future
©HafslundOsloCelsio

Technip Energies is a leading engineering and technology company for the energy transition.
Leveraging a 50-year track record, we support a more sustainable world by driving the
decarbonization of the industry with best-in-class technologies, proven experience and
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At Technip Energies, we inspire a cleaner tomorrow by reducing carbon emissions today.

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mills and bio-waste to power plants. There are
various ways of integrating the PtX plant into
the CO₂ provider facility. An example would be
to route the steam demand from the carbon
capture and methanol plant into the pulp mill or
a bio-waste to power plant, aiming to minimise
its cost and loss in power production. Another
example of process integration would be dealing
with side streams; for example, oxygen is freely
produced in PtX as a by-product. Although
oxygen has a well-established market, it is
quite often a saturated market; hence, finding
new off-takers may be challenging, especially if
the market becomes flooded with oxygen from
many MW (or GW) scale PtX projects. One
option is to find a nearby off-taker, like the pulp
mill itself. Here, knowing intimately how a pulp
mill operates creates a leading advantage for
the project by monetising this side-stream that
otherwise would have been vented or sold at a
marginal price. This is another example of how
partnering with an engineering specialist in PtX
and associated industries can give you the extra
edge in your project’s viability.
Case study: viability of integrating an
e-methanol facility in a pulp mill
A pulp mill was considering revalorising ca.
70 MW of surplus electricity by producing
e-methanol. The three main operating units to
deploy are: the hydrogen plant (electrolysis-
based), carbon capture and conditioning, and
the methanol synthesis loop. Figure 3 shows a
representative diagram of the main units in an
e-methanol facility.
Biogenic CO₂ is abundant in pulp mills and,
as such, was not a limiting factor in sizing the
Stack CO2-depleted flue gas
Boiler feed
CO2
Hydrogen
CO2 scrubbers
& gas cleaning
Hydrogen
plant
Recovery Oxygen
boiler (back to mill) Power Demin water
Figure 3 Schematic representation of e-methanol plant adjacent to a pulp mill
64
e-methanol facility. Amine-based carbon capture
technology for flue gas applications was selected
in this project as a proven way of recovering CO₂.
The content of CO₂ in the flue gas was around
15 vol%, whereas the purity of CO₂ recovered
was more than 98 vol%, with the balance being
mainly water. The front end of the carbon capture
plant was designed to remove particulate matter,
SOx, and NOx, although it was important to
ensure there was no sulphur slip (from reduced
species) in the recovered CO₂, which would
irreversibly damage the catalyst if it slipped
through to the methanol synthesis loop. The
technology to remove reduced sulphur species
is readily available; however, proper sulphur
speciation is required for an adequate design.
The flue gas from the recovery boiler comprises
<10 ppmv of reduced sulphur, of which >80%
is H₂S and the balance light sulphur organic
species. The low-pressure steam needed to run
the reboiler in the carbon capture section is taken
from the main facility condensing turbine.
Hydrogen production was the limiting factor
in this case study (in fact, renewable power
to produce hydrogen) and very likely in most
projects of this type. Given the power profile
available, alkaline water electrolysis was well
suited. The hydrogen generated is at 99.95
vol% purity, the balance being mostly moisture
since the deOxo catalytic unit depletes oxygen
that slips with hydrogen. The oxygen by-product
is sent back to the mill as a chemical consumable,
creating a credit for the e-methanol facility.
Hydrogen and CO₂ are mixed in an over-
stoichiometric ratio. A sulphur guard upstream
of the methanol converter removes any reduced
sulphur that comes with the CO₂, extending
water Steam to
distillation
Separator
MeOH
MeOH AA grade
converter Steam
drum
Condensate
Distillation
www.decarbonisationtechnology.com
 Parameter Value
Power available for hydrogen production, MW 70
Hydrogen production, Nm3/h 15,400
Carbon capture reboiler duty, MW 7.5
MeOH distillation reboiler duty, MW 6.5
MeOH production, tpd 147
Table 1 Summary of key values in the
e-methanol facility
the life of the methanol catalyst. Then the gas
mixture is compressed up to the operating
pressure of 80 barg in the make-up compressor.
The methanol synthesis technology selected
takes care of the heat of reaction by raising
steam in a steam raising reactor; the generated
steam is further used in the distillation reboiler.
The conversion per pass is rather low as the
reaction runs towards equilibrium, yielding a
methanol content at reactor exit close to 5.5
vol%. Crude methanol is recovered at 40ºC,
and unreacted gases are recirculated in a large
recirculating loop to the high-pressure stage in
the make-up compressor. The crude methanol
is distilled to AA grade in a distillation column.
Steam generated in the methanol reactor is not
sufficient to run the reboiler in the distillation
column, therefore medium-pressure steam is
bled from the pulp mill to balance the energy
demand. In compensation, the higher alcohols
and other by-products formed in the reactor and
the off-gas are used as fuel in the mill’s recovery
or auxiliary boilers. Table 1 summarises the key
indicators in the e-methanol plant.
Economic analysis
To evaluate the profitability of the project, the
cost of methanol was calculated considering
the production rate, and the Capex and Opex of
the PtX facility. Fossil-based methanol market
price was used as a reference. The results are
summarised in Figure 4. To help understand
whether the owner of the facility should look
further to invest in a brownfield e-methanol plant,
the price of selling electricity to the grid was also
plotted (see Figure 4). Note that if electricity is not
used to produce e-methanol, it is otherwise sold
to the grid, marking the break-even point.
For a region with low electricity prices of around
20 Euro/MWh, such as the northern part of
Scandinavia (Energiförsk, 2021), with plenty of
www.decarbonisationtechnology.com
Profit (Euro/day)
400 600
MeOH selling price
MeOH profit, Euro/day El profit @ 80 euro/MWh
Oxygen credit, Euro/day El profit @ 20 Euro/MWh
Carbon credit, Euro/day
Figure 4 Economic results from producing
e-methanol at different methanol market
price. Green and yellow lines indicate profit if
electricity is sold, instead of used for e-methanol
biogenic CO₂ available, it may be worth considering
such a facility, as Figure 4 suggests. Recent moves
towards sustainable maritime fuels have highlighted
the potential of e-methanol (Maersk, 2021) and may
foster the deployment of these types of facilities
in areas with these conditions (low electricity price
and plenty of biogenic CO₂ available). Other regions
with plenty of biogenic CO₂, such as South America,
may consider this approach if electricity prices are
around the same mark and there is an oxygen off-
taker nearby, like the pulp mill itself.
Conclusions
Power to methanol projects can provide an
economically attractive route to renewable
methanol production when the plant is co-located
in a pulp mill or bio-waste site with sources of
biogenic CO₂ and a source of renewable electricity.
Success factors include short- and long-term
market scenarios, site selection and permitting,
plant integration with shared utilities, an off-
take for oxygen by-product, and sound technical
solution selection. The early appointment of a
reliable engineering partner with the relevant
know-how in all areas around PtX, who supports
the project owner’s interests, is fundamental for
successful project delivery.
VIEW REFERENCES
Raimon Marin
raimon.marin@afry.com
65
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LOHC: H2 delivery pathway for
emerging hydrogen market
Transportation of H2 is an important element of the emerging H2 economy,
and liquid organic hydrogen carriers could be a cost-effective choice
Sebastien Lecarpentier, Arnaud Cotte and Stephanie Decoodt
Axens
I
t is widely accepted now that the net-zero
targets could not be achieved without a
large-scale decarbonised hydrogen economy,
and decarbonised hydrogen is a significant
part of the low-carbon energy system. As
hydrogen is already mainstream as an industrial
commodity used by several industries, including
refineries and chemicals, the recognition of
hydrogen as a viable component of the energy
transition has been faster and easier.
The DOE H₂@Scale Demand Analysis
report mentions that in addition to growing
existing markets such as petroleum refining
and ammonia production, hydrogen helps the
development of new markets such as metals
refining, synthetic fuel and chemical production,
biofuels, fuel cells, transportation sector,
industrial processes, and injection into natural
gas pipelines (DOE, 2020). According to the
IEA’s Net Zero by 2050 Roadmap, the size of
the H₂ economy could be as large as 500 MTA
(see Figure 1), including about 200 MTA of blue
H₂ (IEA, 2021).
Hydrogen requires a range of supporting
infrastructure for production, storage, and
distribution at a scale large enough for the
hydrogen economy to play a key role in the
energy transition. Technology for hydrogen
distribution is currently available commercially,
and several companies deliver bulk hydrogen
today. However, future hydrogen demand will
require regional expansion of this infrastructure
and the development of new technologies, such
as chemical carriers, to transport hydrogen at
high density and high throughput.
Therefore, the feasibility of transporting H₂
is an important element of the emerging H₂
www.decarbonisationtechnology.com
600
Fossil
500
By-product
400
Fossil with CCUS
Electricity
Mt H2 300
200
100
0
2020 2030 2050
Figure 1 Sources of hydrogen production in the
NZE, 2020-2050. In this NZE scenario, fossil with
CCUS is mainly blue hydrogen, and hydrogen
from electricity is green hydrogen produced
through renewable sources (solar, wind,
hydropower) Source: IEA (2021), Net Zero by 2050
economy. The choice of hydrogen transportation
technology depends on a wide array of
parameters, and this article makes a case for
using liquid organic hydrogen carriers (LOHC)
such as toluene/MCH (methyl-cyclohexane).
Transport: a key element of the hydrogen
economy
The most favourable renewable energy
production locations are often found in
remote, renewable-rich locations, whereas
demand will likely be highest in heavily
industrialised and densely populated areas.
As shown by the IEA (see Figure 2), H₂
production cost, which depends on the cost
of green electricity used in the electrolysers,
can be reduced by a factor of almost three
in countries such as Chile or Australia where
renewable energy such as solar and wind is
abundant compared to Europe or Japan.
67
 Source: IEA - 2019

Figure 2 Hydrogen costs from hybrid solar photovoltaic and onshore wind systems in the long term

To reconcile supply and demand for green and LOHC: a safe and scalable transportation
affordable hydrogen, there is a need for viable, solution
large-scale clean hydrogen transportation LOHC are a unique way to deliver and store
solutions. Four hydrogen transportation hydrogen by hydrogenating a chemical
technologies have the highest potential: compound at the site of production and then
pipelines that transport gaseous hydrogen dehydrogenating it at the demand centres.
and the three hydrogen transportation vectors The transport of hydrogen in LOHC systems
ammonia, liquefied hydrogen, and LOHC has numerous advantages over other carriers
carriers. On a regional scale, repurposing the such as ammonia and liquid H2, as shown in
natural gas distribution networks over land may Table 1:
be an option. This repurposing to hydrogen • Safety: equivalent to petroleum products or
may require significant investment, but there sustainable fuels
is growing confidence, especially in the EU, • Handling convenience: liquid at ambient
that this could be done successfully. However, conditions, which is more economical as there is
in regions where new pipelines are needed no need for expensive refrigeration systems
for hydrogen transport, especially over long • Lossless transport and storage: there is no
distances such as in North America from the material loss through boil-off compared to liquid
Gulf Coast to West Coast states, and certainly hydrogen, and LOHC is chemically stable.
for oceanic transport, hydrogen carriers could More importantly, LOHC systems enable
be more competitive. the use of existing infrastructure for fuel,

Power generation
H2
Transportation
Fuel cell
Synthetic fuels
ATR/SMR & CCS Upgrading oil or biomass
H2 + LOHC LOHC + H2
Industry supply
Metal production
Chemical/industrial processes
Ammonia/fertiliser
ATR: AutoThermal Reforming
SMR: Steam Methane Reforming
Building heat and power
Electrolysis CCS: Carbon Capture and Storage

Figure 3 Using an organic molecule to safely carry H₂ on long distances

68 www.decarbonisationtechnology.com
including storage facilities, without the added
LOHC
complexity or need to mitigate operational/ Liquid H2 Ammonia
(MCH)
safety risks. Additionally, the use of existing
Long-term storage
infrastructure potentially decreases CO₂ and long-distance
emissions as it negates the production effort transportation

for new infrastructure. Storage density

kg H2/t of carrier

LOHC: a cost-competitive solution Handling convenience -253˚C Ambient -33˚C

Various entities have evaluated several LOHC Very

Abundant Limited
existing
carriers compared to liquid and gaseous H₂ Existing infrastructure limited
petroleum
infrastructure LPG/NH3
and ammonia. The section below highlights infrastructure

two such reports: Roland Berger for the EU Highly

and the US DOE for North America.
Roland Berger assesses three hydrogen
carrier technologies – liquefied hydrogen,
ammonia, and LOHC – and analyses their
costs and feasibility, with a focus on Europe
(Roland Berger, 2021). This includes a
comprehensive model comparing the cost of
ownership of the technologies based on four
hydrogen transportation routes that will likely
emerge in the future. Choice is dependent
on defined use cases, transportation modes,
distances, and potential partner synergies.
This report concludes that all the technologies
still require development work, with ultimate
success depending on cost-cutting potential,
speed of market uptake, and ease of use. Per
this report, for large-scale harbour-to-harbour
and mid-scale multimodal transportation,
LOHC is cheaper than other carriers and
almost comparable to ammonia for small-
scale transportation. The transportation could
be either inland trucks or intercontinental
hydrogen trade using tankers.
The US DOE report (Argonne National
Laboratory, 2019) compares ammonia and
LOHC (specifically toluene/MCH). Hydrogen
carrier pathways assume large production
plants (hydrogenation) for economy of scale,
located in the US Gulf Coast area with a
low natural gas price outlook and diverse
sources. The reference pathway is hydrogen
production by steam methane reforming with
comparative production, transmission, and
decomposition costs at different demands.
The transport assumes by train to storage
terminals in California with local transmission
by truck at the end. The MCH pathway
includes a transmission leg for return of
toluene to the production plant. Per this
flammable
Safety Can be Slightly toxic Acute toxicity
Flammable Non-
explosive
when mixed
flammable
with air
Table 1 Comparison of hydrogen carriers
report, NH₃ and MCH are comparable for
long-range transport.
Additionally, in their Hydrogen Insights
report, the Hydrogen Council and McKinsey &
Co. estimate that by 2030 the landed cost of
H₂ in various ports through LOHC will become
competitive with ammonia and liquid H₂
(Hydrogen Council, 2021).
LOHC: toluene/MCH technology a derivative
from large-scale commercial processes
Several organic carrier substances are
available, among which toluene, dibenzyl
toluene, and benzyl toluene are the most
common for LOHC deployment. Toluene as
a carrier has many more advantages over
other larger molecules, primarily because the
available technologies are derived from well-
known industrial-scale commercial processes
with long track records and the ability to
capture large quantities of hydrogen (see
Figure 4). In addition, as toluene and MCH are
more versatile and akin to gasoline, this easily
enables the use of existing infrastructure, such
as trucks, trailers and vessels, and storage
containers. Additionally, Toluene has a much
lower pour point and is less expensive than
other large molecule-based organic carriers.
Toluene and MCH are also more amenable
to on-site storage of large volumes with
minimum loss. Finally, toluene is available in
much larger quantities than other LOHC, which
are specialty chemicals produced in limited

www.decarbonisationtechnology.com 69
Hydrogenation: industry’s benchmark for
benzene hydrogenation using Axens liquid
phase technology
quantities. To satisfy the new market, these
specialty chemicals would require the scaling
up of production multiples with associated
CO₂ emissions. Toluene is abundant as it is
produced from naphtha for blending into the
gasoline pool to boost octane number. As
gasoline is expected to be in excess in the
coming years to meet climate objectives, no
shortfall is expected to support the growing
demand for toluene used as a carrier in the
LOHC.
LOHC loading with H₂ occurs through
catalytic hydrogenation at about the same
pressures as the H₂ supply pressures from
electrolysers and steam methane reformers.
The hydrogen release from the LOHC occurs
through catalytic dehydrogenation at low
hydrogen pressures.
These conversion and reconversion steps,
namely, ‘toluene hydrogenation’ and ‘MCH
dehydrogenation’, are briefly discussed below.
Toluene hydrogenation
Axens toluene hydrogenation to MCH
technology is based on the cyclohexane
production technology from benzene.
The hydrogenation of toluene is carried out
in the liquid phase with a continuous injection
of soluble catalyst. The high catalyst activity
ensures the complete conversion of toluene.
Toluene hydrogenation is highly exothermic;
the liquid is maintained at boiling conditions, so
the temperature in the reactor is automatically
controlled. Any increase in the reaction rate
results in the vaporisation of the liquid MCH
70
Dehydrogenation: existing asset
that can be used for LOHC technologies:
Axens reforming unit at ANCAP refinery
at a constant temperature. Moreover, the use
of highly active soluble catalyst enables the
operating of the reactor at a relatively low
temperature compared to other available
technologies. Thanks to this low and well-
controlled temperature, H₂ incorporation in the
carrier, toluene, is maximised with negligible
side reactions, allowing for enhanced efficiency
of the loop (toluene hydrogenation/MCH
dehydrogenation). The mild reactor section
operating conditions and simplicity of reactor
design lead to lower equipment and capital
cost as well as lower operating cost compared
to vapour phase technologies. In addition,
the mild reactor section operating conditions
associated with a well-integrated process
result in very low carbon intensity.
When produced by electrolysis from
renewable energy such as sun or wind,
low-carbon hydrogen is available on an
intermittent basis, and a large variation in flow
can be expected. The simplicity of the design
offers a solution to this variability as the
process is suitable to handle it and produces
an organic liquid that can be easily stored.
More than 35 cyclohexane units are licensed
by Axens, representing more than 50% of
the worldwide market share of capacity,
demonstrating the readiness of Axens
technology. This presence is based on well-
demonstrated reliability and performance.
The H₂ loading capacity in terms of operation
ranges from a few kta to a few dozen kta.
Larger capacity units could be designed while
minimising the number of parallel equipment.
www.decarbonisationtechnology.com
MCH dehydrogenation
MCH dehydrogenation is akin to Axens
naphtha dehydrogenation (Reforming)
technology to produce aromatics from naphtha,
and therefore the same or similar technology
with adjusted operating parameters could be
used to reform MCH to toluene while releasing
the hydrogen molecules. Catalytic naphtha
reformers are widely in use, and these are good
candidates for repurposing to the use of MCH
dehydrogenation. More naphtha reformers
should become available with the upswing in
the production of electric vehicles, especially
in regions such as the EU, North America,
Japan, Korea, and China. In the short run, this
approach is deemed quite attractive, as the
retrofit of existing naphtha reforming units is
relatively straightforward.
On-purpose MCH dehydrogenation
technology is available, which has been
demonstrated by a Japanese consortium,
including the transport of hydrogen in
2020 from Brunei to Japan. This technology
operates at a lower reactor temperature than
the naphtha reforming units. Several feasibility
studies are currently under way to transport
up to 400,000 TA of hydrogen.
Very soon, Axens will be able to offer the
complete suite of technologies, including
on-purpose dehydrogenation that enables
optimisation of the entire conversion/
reconversion/transport chain.
Conclusion
LOHC and ammonia are emerging as
the hydrogen carrier of choice by various
Decarbonisati n
Technology.com
The transition to sustainable fuels & energy
Your essential resource for navigating the
transition to sustainable fuels and energy
Decarb nisation
Technologies
www.decarbonisationtechnology.com
independent studies. LOHC appears to be
the cost-effective option, not only in the
near term but also well into the 2030s and
2040s, per the recently released IRENA
report (IRENA, 2022). In addition, as LOHC
technologies are compatible with traditional
refining technologies, this transport mode
is more amenable to repurposing to existing
refinery assets for dehydrogenation,
potentially driving down the overall capital
cost further and avoiding CO₂ emissions
associated with grassroots facilities as well
as the use of existing intermediate storage
(tank farm in refinery, ports). In regards to
safety and permit issues, existing regulations
on fuels and operating practices should
be adequate for LOHC, facilitating faster
project execution. Axens offers additional
solutions to clean up the feeds and the
hydrogen product, such as the removal of
oxygenates, water, and other contaminants.
The company also performs an in-depth
evaluation of client needs, offering
customised solutions to minimise cost and
overall carbon footprints.
VIEW REFERENCES
Sebastien Lecarpentier
Sebastien.LECARPENTIER@axens.net
Arnaud Cotte
Arnaud.COTTE@axens.net
Stephanie Decoodt
Stephanie.DECOODT@axens.net
71
Choosing the ideal CO2 drying
solution for CCS applications
Aluminosilicate adsorbents provide a reliable, low-energy solution for CO2
dehydration prior to transport, storage or usage
Kirstie Thompson, Margaret (Peg) Greene and Manish Mehta
BASF
C
arbon capture and storage (CCS) is a
rapidly growing market and will continue
to grow as stakeholders emphasise the
implementation of sustainable practices. In
the CCS realm, much focus has been on the
CO₂ capture itself, but dehydration of CO₂ for
transportation and storage is also a key step.
Many CO2 capture technologies utilise aqueous
amine solutions, saturating the CO₂ during the
capture process. This wet CO₂ is extremely
corrosive, causing concern for pipelines and other
surfaces it may contact. Thus, before the captured
CO₂ can be transported, stored, or utilised, a
dehydration step is necessary.
A robust and efficient method for the
dehydration of CO₂ will be necessary for the
emerging CCS market. BASF has been providing
materials for the dehydration of CO₂ in the
beverage industry and enhanced oil recovery
(EOR) applications for decades. Based on this
experience and an extensive study comparing
available technologies, BASF has concluded
Sorbead, a specialty aluminosilicate, is best suited
for the dehydration of CO₂.
This article will discuss the CO₂ dehydration
technologies currently available and the criteria
that should be considered when making
technology selection decisions. It will also detail
the benefits of choosing aluminosilicates such as
Sorbead for CO₂ dehydration, including longer
material lifetimes, lower energy duties, smaller
bed sizes, and lower Capex/Opex costs compared
to glycol and other adsorbent solutions.
Glycol – the old guard of dehydration
The archetypical dehydration solution for natural
gas, and most industrial plant-based operations,
72
is a triethylene glycol (TEG) solvent-based
system. In these operations, ensuring efficiency
and employee/environmental safety is of utmost
concern. The solvent-based nature of TEG
systems necessitates the use of circulating
equipment, frequent chemical quality checks,
and chemical make-up adjustments. In these
complex plants, additional maintenance and
chemical storage requirements can be very
burdensome and limiting in some cases, i.e.
off-shore operations. Also, the addition of any
liquid-based chemical increases safety concerns
by introducing the possibility of chemical spills
and emissions.
Along with water, TEG will co-adsorb heavy
hydrocarbon components such as benzene,
toluene, and xylenes. After adsorption, these
components would then be released into the
atmosphere along with desorbed water in
the regenerator off-gas stream. Additionally,
recoveries greatly depend on the system used,
and without enhancements such as a vapour
recovery system, additional contaminants
such as CO₂ and H₂S can also be present in
the off-gas vapour stream. These emissions
cause serious concern for the plant and the
surrounding environment.
Standard TEG systems can achieve outlet
H₂O contents of <100 ppmv. Though these
systems are considered standard practice,
they struggle to keep up with ever-changing
pipeline specifications (<<50 ppmv H₂O),
often requiring additional modifications or
add-ons such as enhanced stripping and
vapour recovery systems. It is also increasingly
common for pipelines to dictate very strict
glycol specifications, often <15 ppbv. With TEG
www.decarbonisationtechnology.com
systems alone, this specification is unattainable
and requires the addition of an adsorbent guard
bed. This raises the question: can adsorption
alone be applied for CO₂ dehydration, eliminating
the many complexities of TEG systems?
Adsorption dehydration options
Solid adsorption-based systems are another
proven dehydration technology. These materials
include activated alumina, molecular sieves,
and silica gels. This article will closely compare
activated alumina to amorphous aluminosilicate
gel, two products in the BASF portfolio sold
as F200 and Sorbead, respectively. BASF has
decades of experience designing temperature
swing adsorption units with these materials,
so it is well positioned to offer the optimum
solution for each project. The adsorption options
available share some common benefits, including
no maintenance between turnaround, quick
start-up times (0-5 hours), and easily achieved
pipeline glycol specifications. Also, the solid
nature of these adsorbents eliminates the safety
and storage concerns associated with the liquid
chemical nature of TEG systems. While adsorption
in general has many benefits, each of these
materials has unique properties, making some
better suited for CO₂ dehydration than others.
Molecular sieves have traditionally been
employed in the dehydration of natural gas for
liquefied natural gas (LNG) production. BASF
supplies molecular sieves into numerous natural
gas dehydration applications annually, but as
much as these materials are well suited for the
dehydration of natural gas, they are unsuited for
that of CO₂. Molecular sieves are very unstable in
acidic environments, like wet CO₂. To account for
molecular sieve degradation in acidic conditions,
much larger bed sizes are required, along with
more difficult and frequent bed changeouts.
Additionally, when compared to the other
adsorbent solutions available, they have some of
the highest regeneration temperatures (≥250°C
depending on the specific material chosen) and
thus the highest energy requirement. For these
reasons, molecular sieves are not recommended
for CCS applications. Activated alumina maintains
many of the same pitfalls as molecular sieves,
although to a lesser degree. They are not acid
resistant, leading to shorter bed lifetimes, larger
bed sizes, and the corresponding higher Capex
www.decarbonisationtechnology.com
Figure 1 Sorbead is the ideal adsorbent for CO₂
dehydration
and Opex costs. They also require a higher heat
of regeneration. While these pitfalls exist, in
some instances activated alumina may still be a
good option for CCS dehydration applications.
BASF is a leading supplier of aluminosilicate
gels, having served natural gas and CO₂
treatment applications with the Sorbead
portfolio for over 60 years. While other standard
silica gel options with cheaper initial material
costs are available on the market, these
materials do not exhibit all the same benefits,
robustness, and lifetime cost savings. Sorbead
aluminosilicate gel is made using a specialised
production process that imparts increased
durability and adsorbent surface area, resulting
in an overall higher-performing material.
There is a clear benefit to using an advanced
aluminosilicate for CO2 dehydration (see Table
1), as these provide the best combination of
material properties for CO2 dehydration.
Sorbead aluminosilicate – the best adsorbent
for CO₂ dehydration
The acidic chemistry of an aluminosilicate
makes it the only adsorbent stable to the acidic
conditions in CO₂ dehydration. This stability
ensures long lifetimes of 5-10 years and
bed sizes up to 75% smaller than activated
alumina. This further results in lower Capex
costs (smaller bed sizes) and lower Opex costs
(fewer bed changeouts, lower heat duty, less
regeneration gas). While the acidic nature of
73
 Activated alumina Sorbead

Heat of regeneration 220-250⁰C 160-170⁰C

Acid resistant No Yes
Lifetime ~3 yrs 5-10 yrs
Bed size Up to 4x larger bed sizes Smallest bed sizes
to match lifetime (high capacity material)
Cost High Capex and Opex Lowest Capex and Opex

Table 1 Comparison of activated alumina and Sorbead aluminosilicate properties

an aluminosilicate provides stability in CO₂ regeneration temperature for the aluminosilicate

streams, it makes it susceptible to instability in
the presence of basic contaminants, such as
ammonia, amines, and olefins. However, if these
impurities are present in low concentrations,
they can be easily accounted for in the design of
the CO₂ dehydration unit. If such contaminants
are present in higher quantities, many upstream
treatment methods are available. There are also
many references of Sorbead units successfully
operating downstream of acid gas removal
units (AGRUs), where amine carryover could
be a concern. Overall, the benefits of Sorbead
stability in the presence of the primary, acidic
CO₂ streams outweigh any instability in the
presence of minor, basic impurities.
Another significant benefit of Sorbead,
particularly in CCS application, is its low heat
of regeneration at 170°C. This lowers the
overall energy duty of the dehydration unit and
often allows for further cost reduction through
the elimination of a regeneration heater. The
can often be attained through the utilisation of
compressor waste heat or waste heat with the
addition of a trim heater, further reducing the
carbon footprint of the process.
A standard Sorbead CO₂ dehydration unit
utilising a trim heater to supplement compressor
waste heat is shown in Figure 2. BASF designs
that employ counter-current heating and co-
current cooling with wet gas and can easily
reach CO₂ specifications of 30 ppmv H₂O. The
design of these systems is also very flexible,
allowing for both lower and higher specification
ranges to be met with only small changes in
design and cost (higher and lower, respectively).
For example, even lower specifications of 10
ppmv H₂O can be reached by simply applying
treated gas for regeneration. With this design,
a regeneration compressor will be necessary.
This demonstrates the reliability and flexibility of
Sorbead for CO₂ dehydration.
In an example study of a plant producing ~2.5

Heating
Trim heater Cooling
(optional)
Balance
CO2 valve
compressor Dryer
CO2 Dryer (regen)
Inlet Regen
(adsorption) gas
KOD coalescer
(optional) separator
Compressor
Dry CO2 aftercooler

Regen gas
Dust filters cooler
Sorbead dryer unit
Water

Figure 2 Example CO₂ dehydration unit design that allows for CO₂ specifications as low as 30 ppmv
H₂O

74 vvvwww.decarbonisationtechnology.com

Choosing the Ideal CO2 Drying Solution for CCS Applications.indd 74 27/07/2022 12:24:59
MTPA of CO₂, Sorbead was found to be Activated
significantly cheaper than an activated alumina Sorbead
alumina-based system over a 30- Number of days down for TAR 67 25 Days over 30 years
year lifetime (see Table 2). This study Capex cost 14.9 7.2 $ MM
considered estimated turnaround (TAR), Opex energy 94.2 45.9 $ MM
Capex and Opex costs, each of which Opex maintenance 6.3 4.5 $ MM
was lower for the aluminosilicate. The Total cost over lifetime 115.4 57.6 $ MM
stability and longer material lifetime of
Sorbead results in fewer TAR days and Table 2 Cost comparison of activated alumina and Sorbead
lower associated costs. Additionally, over a 30-year lifetime for a plant producing 2.5 MTPA CO₂.
smaller bed sizes drastically reduce Opex costs estimated using average energy cost in the US
the Capex and Opex costs. Overall, for (0.14 $/KWH)
CO₂ dehydration, smaller bed sizes and
increased stability when using an aluminosilicate costs are typically 50% lower than activated
for CO₂ dehydration result in a 50% reduction in alumina for the same application.
cost when compared to activated alumina. Sorbead is a cost-effective solution that also
delivers a low carbon footprint. A lower heat
BASF offerings – CO₂ capture, purification, of regeneration, 170°C, allows for elimination
and dehydration of the regeneration heater requirement and
In addition to its CO₂ dehydration technology, utilisation of waste heat for regeneration.
BASF offers a range of CO₂ capture, purification, This, along with smaller bed sizes, drastically
and utilisation solutions (see Figure 3). One such decreases the energy duty of the process.
product, OASE blue, is used in the capture of CO₂ Further, longer bed lifetimes and the adsorbent
from industrial flue gas streams. This product not nature of an advanced aluminosilicate reduces
only provides a highly stable, low-maintenance the amount of waste generated. For the
solvent solution but also provides a customised CCS market, whose goal is to reduce carbon
technology package. Additionally, BASF has a emissions, the solution with the lowest carbon
wide array of purification technologies for the footprint is the best fit.
removal of many different impurities, including With many years of experience, BASF is well
oxygen, sulphur, halogens, carbon monoxide, and positioned to design effective dehydration
more. Together these technologies cover every solutions and has demonstrated the proficiency
stage of CCS projects. of these designs firsthand. This experience
extends into all phases of CCS. This experience,
Conclusion together with the process benefits of a specialty
Sorbead, a specialised aluminosilicate adsorbent, aluminosilicate, make Sorbead a compelling
is stable to the acidic conditions found in CCS. choice for CO₂ dehydration.
This stability allows for the longest adsorbent
bed lifetimes, smallest bed sizes, and the lowest
Capex and Opex costs when compared to other Peg Greene
margaret.greene@basf.com
adsorbent materials. Over a 30-year lifetime,

CO2
CO2 CO2 storage or
CO2 capture
Flue gas dehydration transportation
Producing plant
Purification
Off gas

Figure 3 BASF knowledge and technologies are available at every phase of CCS including CO₂
capture, purification, and dehydration. Purification can be implemented in various stages of the
process depending on the specific project needs

www.decarbonisationtechnology.com 75
Electric process heating – a call
for standard specifications
As electric process heater technology grows to enhance decarbonisation
efforts in all industries, a standard specification is required

Craig Tiras
Vulcanic EML

E
lectric process heaters (EPHs) are
commonly built by Vulcanic EML for the
oil and gas industry. Multiple applications
exist across different process industries,
including chemicals, renewable energy storage
systems, and carbon capture projects.
EPHs provide the most efficient route to
decarbonise manufacturing processes or convert
renewable electrical energy. For example, thermal
energy can be used to generate steam, which, in
turn, can be used to drive turbines and provide a
consistent renewable power source.
The proven technology behind EPHs ensures
the transition towards complete electrification
can be implemented within existing
manufacturing processes. The advantages of
EPHs include ease of operation, no emissions,
nearly 100% efficiency, smaller footprint, lower
capital cost, higher outlet temperature, and
remote heating.
The first EPH (shown in red in Figure 1) was
manufactured by General Electric around 1960
to maintain temperature on top of a distillation
column in the UOP Platforming process, which
converts naphtha into high octane gasoline.
This singular specification became the refinery
standard for many years. Since then, hundreds
of EPH specifications have been written, each
with its own design considerations. This article
reviews the process, mechanical, and electrical
aspects of EPHs.
Heater bundle
The heart of an EPH is the heater bundle,
typically made up of multiple hairpin heater
elements ranging from one to several electrical
circuits for proper power distribution to the
heater bundle. The hairpin elements are welded
into a ‘tube sheet’, and a UL/CSA (Underwriters
Laboratory/Canadian Standards Association)

Stacked Naphtha feed Net H2 rich gas

reactor from treating
Net gas Fuel gas
CCR EPH compressor
regenerator Combined Recovery
feed section
exchanger

Separator
Light ends
Stabiliser

Regenerated Aromatics
catalyst Fired heaters
rich
reformate
Spent
catalyst

Figure 1 Platforming process

76 www.decarbonisationtechnology.com
Figure 2 Heater bundle
housing protects the electrical connections.
Temperature monitoring of one or several
hairpin elements is typically done with a
resistance temperature detector (RTD) sensor.
Other arrangements exist, such as duct heaters,
indirect heaters, and various special designs.
For example, an air or gas heater installed
within a process duct in low-pressure high-flow
applications could also be considered an EPH.
The heater bundle can be contained in a fitted
pressure vessel for maximum fluid velocity
across the elements, or inserted into a tank to
keep the process warm or to vaporise liquids.
Sizes range from a few kilowatts to a few
megawatts. Most engineers are familiar with
shell-and-tube exchangers, but the heat transfer
of an EPH is different. A heat exchanger’s
maximum temperature is determined by the hot
inlet fluid temperature, whereas the maximum
temperature of an EPH is determined by the
heat transfer coefficient.
EPH applications also can be used for high-
temperature heating as the heater elements can
easily operate above 1200°F/650°C, and higher,
for gas applications. At bundle temperatures
over 1000°F/540°C, the internal wall of the
pressure vessel will rise above the process gas
temperature and essentially double the heat
transfer area. There are also similarities, such as
higher pressure drop gives better heat transfer.
A good viewpoint of EPH heat transfer is that
the process cools the heater elements, so higher
flow allows for higher watt density. Optimising
the EPH bundle into smaller diameter and using
full silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR) control
allows for higher heat flux. However, if on/
www.decarbonisationtechnology.com
off control is used, the bundle temperature
will increase with a decrease in flow. The
advantage of full SCR control is that the sheath
temperature of the EPH will drop with less
power applied (see Figure 3).
Three basic EPH calculations determine
power, film temperature, and pressure drop:
• Power is a function of mass flow, specific heat,
and delta temperature
• Sheath temperature is a function of four
physical properties (density, specific heat,
thermal conductivity, and viscosity), the
Reynolds number, and the heat flux (watt
density)
• Pressure drop is a function of density, velocity,
pressure vessel, and heater bundle geometry.
In the 1990s, the largest EPHs were 100’s
of kilowatts (KW), while by the 2000s, the
largest EPHs had increased to 1000’s of KW,
and now we are seeing 10’s of megawatts
per EPH. These sizes are required for
decarbonisation processes, such as keeping
Power and prerssure drop
Sheath temperature
Flow rate 10 to 100 percent
Sheath temp - On/off Pressure drop
Sheath temp - Full SCR Power
Figure 3 EPH bundle temperature vs flow rate
77
molten salt from freezing on solar energy plants,
storing power with heat and replacing fired
heating applications. This article considers the
mechanical, process, and electrical design of an
EPH to successfully advance the technology into
higher power considerations.
Mechanical design considerations
An AMSE (American Society of Mechanical
Engineers) code stamp is a formal requirement
for all EPHs with a volume greater than 1.5 ft3.
In practice, specifications also require EPHs with are done using proprietary methods for each
a lower volume to be code stamped.
ASME Section VIII, Div. 1 code typically
requires a heater flange to be three times thicker
than when using ANSI (American National
Standards Institute) flanges, which have shown and seals inside cool. The elements can be
to be sufficient with no flange deformation
reported in over 60 years. Indeed, ASME Section or wet side of the flange. There are advantages
VIII, Div. 2 calculations show that ANSI ratings
are sufficient while the Div 1 calculations are too aspect of electric process heating has fine
conservative.
For high gas temperature applications, the
vessel shell can reach higher temperatures
than the design temperature of the whole
vessel due to heat radiation from the heater
bundle. This has led to higher-rated ANSI
flanges, even though the flanges do not reach
this temperature. Ideally, the ASME should be
dual rated with the shell designed for a higher
temperature than the design temperature for
the rest of the vessel.
The first EPH specification required welding
the wet side of the heater flange, which has no
benefit and is higher cost. Welding the dry side
is effective in all applications. Once the bundle
has been welded, the welds must be hydro-
tested. If one of the elements in the centre of
the bundle leaks, all of the outer elements must
be removed to fix the inner element weld. With
a dry side weld, any element can be replaced
without removing other elements.
Some specifications require seamless tubing
or tubing thicker than 0.035” (0.98mm).
Unless the process is highly corrosive, such
as for heating tail gas or ionised water, these
specifications add unnecessary expense.
Even though the use of copper, steel, and
stainless steel is less expensive, standardising
on the Incoloy 800 series balances durability
with cost effectiveness and availability. Higher
78
alloys such as Inconel and Hastelloy are
recommended for highly corrosive applications.
For EPHs of 480 volt or higher, it is essential
to keep the compressed magnesium oxide
(MgO) free from moisture. MgO is a hygroscopic
substance with high heat transfer and high
dielectric strength when dry, whereas wet MgO
loses its dielectric strength. Hermetic seals
on the end of the heater element are required
to keep the MgO inside the heater elements
free from moisture. Today’s hermetic seals
manufacturer. However, unless it is specified, it
may not be included.
For hot applications, a stand-off electrical
terminal housing is required to keep the wires
welded inside the terminal housing on the dry
and disadvantages to both methods. Every
details that have been resolved over time, such
as Double clamping the over-temperature
sensor to the heater element. This facilitates
field replacement if needed. This article is meant
to discuss broader EPH topics.
Process design considerations
Process design has improved over the years
with the advent of computational fluid dynamics
(CFD) giving a step improvement in computer
modelling. CFD opened a black box in our
understanding of EPHs:
• For instance, it was thought that the hottest
spot was two-thirds down the bundle, so this
is where the over-temperature sensor was
placed. CFD simulation showed the biggest
factor is the placement of the outlet nozzle as
there is a reduction in fluid velocity about two-
thirds down the bundle on the same side of the
outlet nozzle
• In the 1990s, we found that the calculated
bundle temperature of 1600°F (870°C) for
heating gas to 1200°F (650°C) did not agree
with the field measured temperature of 1350°F
(730°C). Upon investigation, we found this
was due to radiant heat from the bundle to the
vessel shell and since then have incorporated
radiant heat calculations for high-temperature
gas applications
• Another useful CFD simulation looked at the
www.decarbonisationtechnology.com
optimum placement of the outlet temperature
sensor on a stepper/SCR application. As the
operation was not at 100%, some of the
circuits were in the off position. The inlet
gas was not heated evenly, resulting in a
much lower outlet gas temperature. This was
easily solved by moving the temperature
sensor further down from the outlet to ensure
sufficient gas mixing before measuring the
overall temperature.
EPHs specifications include an extra power
rating in case the operating voltage is less
than specified and allowances are made for
operating versus design flow conditions. Sizing
the EPH for the minimum voltage as well as
the design flow case thus combining the two
specifications (one electrical and one process)
results in an exponentially over-sized heater, as
Watts=Volt2/Resistance.
Electrical design considerations
The electrical choices affect the process and
mechanical aspects of the EPH and should
be taken into consideration. Common EPH
controls include on/off, stepper, stepper/SCR,
and full SCR.
Stepper/SCR works using multiple circuits, for
example, an EPH with eight circuits will have
seven circuits with on/off switching and one
with full SCR control. Modern SCRs and their
controllers are made specifically for electric
heating applications, including zero cross, burst
firing, single cycle delayed triggering, and phase
angle. SCRs with zero voltage switching (zero-
cross SCRs) reduce harmonic distortion caused
by phase angle control.
Terminal connections can expand and
contract with usage. Today’s heaters have
electrical terminals with constant torque
spring-loaded washers to prevent losing
electrical terminals and buss bar. Ceramic
insulation should be used as they do not
expand nor compress over time.
Over-temperature sensing of the heater
bundle is mandatory for industrial applications.
RTDs should always be used as they cannot be
miswired, and the controller will detect any loss
of signal. Both the over-temperature controller
and the associated magnetic contactors should
be wired in a fail-safe mode. Any interruption
of the control will disconnect power to the EPH.
www.decarbonisationtechnology.com
This should never occur, and if it does, an
operator must visit the control panel to reset
the loop.
Most process engineers are unaware of
the electrical engineering aspects of a control
panel, and most electrical engineers are
unaware of the heat transfer requirements
of a heat exchanger. Typically, EPHs are
categorised in the heat exchanger category as
‘electric heater’, which encompasses a whole
array of electric heating technologies. ‘Electric
process heater’ should be a distinct category
separate from others such as drum heaters,
and heat trace.
Conclusion
Decarbonisation significantly expands the
addressable markets for EPHs, and as industry
transitions towards carbon net zero, it should
embrace the benefits EPH technology offers.
High energy-consuming manufacturing
processes should consider replacing gas or
fired heating systems with ‘clean’ EPHs. As
heater technology has advanced over the years,
inherent problems have been systematically
removed, yet other considerations remain.
These considerations become more important
as the scale of the EPH technology increases.
Standard specifications have been developed
for heat exchangers and pumps, and an EPH
industrial specification, which doesn’t hamper
EPH potential and will be a guide to its growth,
must be properly created for all industries
to follow.
In developing this standard, it will be
important to balance setting the specifications
as tightly as possible whilst allowing for
continual improvement and recognising the
need to tune and customise the EPH design
to extend application areas. A third-party
organisation must either take up the challenge
or be created to arbitrate a specification with
input from all EPH technology leaders. This
organisation will regulate the growth of EPH
technology as it enhances decarbonisation
efforts in all industries.
Craig Tiras
craig@emlmfg.com
79
Holistic renewables investment
is key to achieving net zero
Investing in assets that support the transition to a low-carbon, more efficient
energy system can help the UK achieve net zero
Jonathan Hicks
Triple Point
I
f the UK is to realise its commitment to
achieving net zero by 2050 and limit
damaging increases in global temperatures,
we need to drastically increase investment across
the whole of the UK energy system as part of
decarbonisation and the energy transition.
According to the UK’s Department for
Business, Energy, and Industrial Strategy, this
country emitted 405.5 million tonnes of CO₂
in 2020, some of the latest figures available.
Though considerably lower than where we were
in 1990, our need for energy is increasing, with
the expected demand for electricity to triple
by 2050.
Balanced investment across the whole energy
system is needed. The International Energy
Agency’s (IEA) recent roadmap for the global
energy sector concluded that reaching net zero
by 2050 hinged on an unprecedented push
towards clean technologies by 2030, which
requires an “immediate and massive deployment
of all available clean and efficient energy
technologies.” But investment and development
cannot be siloed, just focused on specific parts
of the system.
Taking a holistic approach
We believe that the transition to net zero
requires a holistic approach with a move away
from centralised generation to decentralised,
low-carbon production located as close as
possible to centres of demand. It must have
adequate and efficient distribution and storage.
And efficiency of consumption and on-site use
must be considered, whether in an industrial,
commercial, or residential setting, to reduce
overall demand.
80
Supporting net zero requires whole-scale
decarbonisation of the energy system,
starting with energy production. Hydroelectric
generation, of which Triple Point Energy
Efficiency Infrastructure Company’s (TEEC)
portfolio includes nine assets across the Scottish
Highlands, produces a 100% renewable, low-
carbon energy source far more efficient than
its fossil fuel forebears. Greater proximity to
both the source of energy and point of grid
connection reduces waste, while the inputs
required to access water power are nil, as no
other energy is needed to access it. We estimate
that 3,578 tCO₂ has been abated to 31 March
2022 since the acquisition of these assets.
It will also require energy storage and
distribution to balance increasingly volatile
supply and demand profiles. For instance, last
year, enough energy to power almost one million
homes for a year, generated from wind, was lost
through inefficiencies in the system at a cost of
£507 million, according to LCP, a consultancy.
The UK’s wind capacity has increased from 5.4
GW in 2010 to 25.7 GW in 2021, but due to a
lack of adequate infrastructure, such as grid-
level battery storage, curtailment is costing vast
sums and wasted potential.
Cutting lost energy will, of course, be crucial in
meeting our energy goals, both in decarbonising
and reducing the cost passed onto consumers.
With wind energy curtailments expected to cost
the consumer a staggering £1 billion per year
by 2025, rapid investment and development
of infrastructure are needed now. An increase
of just 20 GH of battery storage could reduce
the amount of wasted wind power in the UK
by 50%.
www.decarbonisationtechnology.com
 But we must do what we can to reduce
demand for energy at the point of use. Business
as usual simply doesn’t work in our energy
futures. We must do more from less.
This means improving the energy efficiency
of our building stock through upgrades such
as better insulation and energy-efficient
appliances. Encouraging on-site generation will
mean homes and businesses can supplement
their energy needs by producing their own
through things like rooftop solar panels.
Combined heat and power facilities are a
good example to illustrate this. Last year, TEEC
invested in Spark Steam, a CHP provider in
Teesside, which provides heat, power and CO₂
to APS Group, which supplies tomatoes to our
major supermarkets, and is the country’s biggest
domestic grower of tomatoes. The heat supplied
to them by Spark Steam allows them to regulate
the temperature and humidity to create the
perfect growing environment in glass houses. In
turn, by also using the CO₂, which would have
otherwise been a waste product contributing to
global warming, APS can increase crop yields by
as much as 20%.
Looking forward
Governments have an important role to play by
providing funding for projects and committing
to long-term policies that encourage private
sector investment in clean energy infrastructure,
www.decarbonisationtechnology.com
reducing the risk for investors and developers.
The public sector must set an agenda
and engender an ecosystem in which the
innovations and capital of the private sector can
thrive to drive the mission to net zero.
It is no surprise that private sector investment
in clean energy technologies is rising and
fuelling progress. More money flowed into
clean infrastructure in 2021 than traditional
infrastructure – of the $530 billion spent on
all new generation capacity, 70% went to
renewables. Furthermore, with returns on a
renewable energy fund’s investment often
contractually linked to inflation, they offer an
attractive inflation hedge to institutional and
retail investors alike.
According to the IEA, rapid technological
improvements and cost reductions mean a
dollar spent on wind and solar photovoltaic
(PV) deployment today results in four times
more electricity than a dollar spent on the
same technologies ten years ago. With greater
investments in renewables, grids, storage, and
other critical infrastructure across the energy
matrix, we will see exponential improvements.
And so, funds that take a holistic approach are
key to supporting the UK’s transition to net zero.
Jonathan Hicks
81
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decarbonization of the industry with best-in-class technologies, proven experience and
ground-breaking CO2 management strategies. With continuous advancements, we offer our
clients competitive and at-scale carbon capture solutions to derisk investment and enhance
project affordability.
At Technip Energies, we inspire a cleaner tomorrow by reducing carbon emissions today.

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