Social changes Unit 5

India is the world’s largest democracy. It is the only country in Asia that has remained democratic ever
since it attained its independence from British rule. The only exception to this is the brief period of the
Emergency in 1975-76, when the democratic process was halted. Many in the world were apprehensive of
the success of democracy in India. Their belief was further strengthened when several countries in the
region, including Pakistan, failed as democracies and chose an authoritarian and militarist path in its
stead. But this did not happen in India, and we have crossed more than half a century as a democracy.
India has falsified all the prophecies of doom. It is the ballot, and not the bullet, that reigns supreme in
India.

After a long and difficult freedom struggle, India attained her independence from British rule in 1947. But
this independence came with the partition of the country. A new state of Pakistan was created with
portions of Western and Eastern India, taken away from the Indian map.

The Constitution guarantees fundamental rights to the citizens of India, ensuring equality, freedom and
justice. Besides the fundamental rights, the Constitution also outlines directives for state policy with a
view to give a desired direction to social and economic change in India.

Equality before Law:

Today, there is ‘rule of law’ in India. All citizens are equal and subject to the jurisdiction of the same
authority. Even, the privy purses, granted to the princes and feudal lords, were abolished in the late
sixties. Birth is no more the basis of recognising status and power. Religion, language, caste or ethnicity
are no longer considerations for providing social honour and privileges.

However, the weaker sections of Indian society, particularly the Scheduled Castes (SCs), the Scheduled
Tribes (STs), and Other Backward Classes (OBCs), have been provided special facilities and provisions
for their upliftment. They are protected against discrimination and exploitation by the dominant sections
of Indian society. Women have equality with men. All the citizens of India have the right to vote at all the
levels of our political system.

Progress in Education:
There has been tremendous progress in the field of education. More than 100 million children receive education at the primary
level. The increase in numbers at the secondary stage is also impressive. Education at college and university levels has also
increased enormously. Today, there are about 300 universities in India. Diversification of education at senior school, college and
university levels has also been taken up by the Government of India.

Basic education is being provided at the elementary level. Today, at senior school and university levels, emphasis is being put on
vocationalisation, computer studies, applied sciences, management and on some other relevant and gainful fields of knowledge to
tackle the problem of unemployment among the educated young men and women.

Five-Year Plans and Socio-Economic Changes:

In the field of industry as well, India has made a lot of progress since independence. Heavy industries at Hatia, Rourkela, Bokaro,
Sindri, Bangalore and other places were established in the fifties and sixties. Small-scale and cottage industries have also
received the attention of the government.

Industrialisation has been possible because India adopted the path of planned economic development and social change. The
Planning Commission of India was assigned the task of planning. The government has adopted its policy of ‘mixed economy’, a
policy of balanced growth of the private, the public, and the joint sectors.

Social Legislations and Progress:

The British enacted social legislations, particularly for preventing child marriages, sati, infanticide, and for encouraging widow
remarriages, etc. The Government of India passed the Hindu Marriage Act in 1955 and the Hindu Succession Act in 1956. Legis-
lation also was enacted to discourage child labour.

There is now stringent legislation against the institution of dowry. According to the Constitution of India, untouchability is a
criminal offence. The legislation for giving fair wages to wage-earners and to eliminate the intermediaries and the institution of
zamindari have helped poor workers in towns and villages to get minimum wages.

Despite these healthy developments in the post-independence period, the concentration of economic power in the hands of a few
families and individuals has increased. The poor are not yet getting their due share.

Tribal society in India unit 4

A tribe is a group of people, usually staying in jungle areas, in a small locality, absolutely
illiterate poor, hardly clad in clothes, usually dark and frail, fully living within their own
community whose marriage always takes place among themselves, engaged in hunting and
searching for roots, shoots and fruits as their veg food and roasted animals as non-veg food,
completely oblivious of the country’s political and economic condition, resisting all efforts of
development and have a strong dislike for strangers and educated modern community.

 Common definite territory, common dialect, common name, common religion and common
culture.
 They have strong sense of unity and any stranger is attacked with bows and arrows.
 All tribe members are related by blood, have their own political organization which has a
chief who exercises authority over all the members, even recommending marriage of young
boys with girls whom they have found suitable for marriage.
 Each tribe is guided by their own religion which is based on totemism, magic and fetishism
i.e. believing in god being embedded in a special piece of stone, a special tree or a peculiar
strange animal.
 A tribe is an endogamous group, as distinct from a clan who is exogamous, have common
name and is engaged in worshipping strange objects, hunting of small animals, and resists
entry of any outsiders inside their territory.

It remains a great job for the State and Central Government to bring tribes into confidence,
educate them, clad them, take health care and arrange for their living by developing skill.

Economic structure: Tribal people live within nature and absolutely clean environment and
this determines their economic activity which consists of hunting small animals and look for
food like roots and wild fruits.

They hardly have any transaction because nobody has any currency or coins and do not have any
knowledge and experience of organizing market.

Social Life: The life style of tribal society is primitive, and depends entirely on their
characteristic ways of non-monetary transacted life. The families live within themselves, without
knowing about their neighbours in the country who are educated, developed, move in cars, have
modern dress etc whom they hate and consider them enemy. The domestic division of labor
depends only on age and sex.

They have their own social functions and festivals where they sing and dance in characteristic
body movements in the same dress by girls, the males playing on musical gadget like drums,
metallic gongs, flutes etc.

The main problems the tribals face are:

i. They possess small and uneconomical landholdings because of which their crop yield is less
and hence they remain chronically indebted.
ii. Only a small percentage of the population participates in occupational activities in the
secondary and tertiary sectors.

iii. Literacy rate among tribals is very low. While in 1961, it was 18.53 per cent, in 1991 it
increased to 29.60 per cent which compared to general literacy rate of 52.21 per cent in the
country is very lo-w, because while the growth of literacy rate in the past three decades in the
country was 28.21 per cent, among the STs it was only 11.7 per cent {The Hindustan Times, July
11, 1995). Though tribal literacy rate in Mizoram is 82.71 per cent and in Nagaland, Sikkim and
Kerala it is between 57 per cent and 61 per cent, lack of literacy among tribal people has been
identified as a major development problem.

iv. A good portion of the land in tribal areas has been legally transferred to non-tribals. Tribals
demand that this land should be returned to them. In fact, tribals had earlier enjoyed considerable
freedom to use forests and hunt animals. Forests not only provide them materials to build their
homes but also give them fuel, herbal medicines for curing diseases, fruits, wild game, etc. Their
religion makes them believe that many of their spirits live in trees and forests. Their folk-tales
often speak of the relations of human beings and the spirits. Because of such physical and
emotional attachment to forests, tribals have reacted sharply to restrictions imposed by the
government on their traditional rights.

v. Tribal government programmes have not significantly helped the tribals in raising their
economic status. The British policy had led to ruthless exploitation of the tribals in various ways
as it favoured the zamindars, landlords, moneylenders, forest contractors, and excise, revenue
and police officials.

ix. The tribals are exploited by Christian missionaries. In several tribal areas, mass conversion to
Christianity had taken place during the British period. While the missionaries have been pioneers
in education and opened hospitals in tribal areas, they have also been responsible for alienating
the tribals from their culture. Christian missionaries are said to have many a time instigated the
tribals to revolt against the Indian government.

vi. Banking facilities in the tribal areas are so inadequate that the tribals have to depend mainly
on moneylenders. Being miserably bogged down in indebtedness, tribals demand that
Agricultural Indebtedness Relief Acts should be enacted so that they may get back their mort-
gaged land.

vii. About 90 per cent of the tribals are engaged in cultivation and most of them are landless and
practise shifting cultivation. They need to be helped in adopting new methods of cultivation.

viii. The unemployed and the underemployed want help in finding secondary sources of earning
by developing animal husbandry, poultry farming, handloom weaving, and the handicrafts
sector. Most of the tribals live in sparsely populated hills and communications in the tribal areas
remain tough. The tribals, therefore, need to be protected against leading isolated life, away from
towns and cities, through a network of new roads.

Rural and urban unit 2

SR .NO Rural Life Urban life
Environment: Close / direct Greater isolation from nature.
contact with nature. Predominance of manmade
Preliminaries influenced by (artificial environment).
natural environmental
elements like rain, heat,
drought, frost, sow etc. over
1 which there is no control.
Occupation: Agricultural is No fundamental occupation.
the fundamental occupation. Most of people engaged in
Majority of population is principally in manufacturing,
engaged in agriculture. mechanical pursuits, trade
Neighbors of Agriculturist are commerce, professions and
also agriculturist other non-agricultural
2 occupations.
Size of Community: Size of
community is very small in Size of community is large in
size. Agriculturalism and size size. Urbanity and size of
of community are negatively community are positively co-
3 co-related. related.
Density of Population: Size of community is large in
Density of population is size. Urbanity and size of
lower. Density and rurality are community are positively co-
4 negatively co-related. related.
5 Homogeneity and More heterogeneous than
heterogeneity of population: rural. Urbanity and
 heterogeneity are positively
co-related (Different type of
population is seen in cities,
More homogenous in social, different places, religions,
racial and psychological traits. caste, class race, community,
Negative co0-relation with economic and cultural
heterogeneity. (Most are differences, occupations and
agriculturists are directly behavioral pattern also
connected with agriculture). different).
Social Differentiations: Low High degree of social
6 degree of social differentiation differentiation
Social Stratification:     More
rigid Fewer economic, Less rigid Urban community is
occupational, and much more strategic than the
sociopolitical classes. Less rural with having much more
social stratification than economic, occupational and
7 urban. social political classes.
Social Mobility: Mobility is
less intensive. Territorial,
occupational and other forms
of social mobility of the Social mobility is more
population are less intensive. intensive. People change
They follows same occupation and even leave
occupation, stay in the same places in search of new and
8 village better occupation
Social Interaction: Less
numerous contacts. The area More numerous contacts. Area
of interaction system is of interactions is wider, the
narrower. More professional, relation are superficial and
simple, face to face. Informal, short-lived. The popular are
9 sincere relations. more formal and showy.
Social Solidarity: Social
solidarity or cohesiveness and
unity are more stronger /
greater than urban. Common Social solidarity is less
traits, similarity of stronger than rural,
experiences, common aims dissimilarities, division of
and purposes, common labour, interdependence,
customs and traditions are the specialization, impersonal,
basis of unity in village. strictly formal relationships
Strong sense of belonging and results comparatively less
10 unity. sense of belonging and unity.
Social Control: Social
pressure by community is Control is more by formal
strong. Conformity of norms impersonal means of laws,
is more by informal social prescribed rules and
11 pressure. regulations.
Social Change: Rural social Urban social life is under
life is relatively static and constant and rapid social
12 stable. change
Culture: Sacred (Religious) Secular (Non-religious)
13 culture. culture.
14 Leadership Pattern: Choice of Choices of leadership is
leadership more on the basis comparatively less on the basis
 of known personal qualities of
individual, due to greater face
to face contacts and more
intimate knowledge of of know personal qualities of
individual. individual
Group: Rural society is simple Urban society is complex
15 Unit-group society multi-group society.
Social Institutions: Most of
the institutions are natural
outgrowth of rural social life.
16 Less enacted institutions. Numerous enacted institutions.
Facilities Available: Home
conveniences, public utilities,
educational recreational
religious, medical,
communication and other In urban areas such
facilities for living can be conveniences and facilities are
provided if supported by provided due to greater density
17 sufficient population base of population
18 Standard of living is low. Standard of living is high.

Panchayati raj
In India, the Panchayati Raj generally refers to the system introduced by constitutional
amendment in 1992.

Only the persons who are registered as voters and do not hold any office of profit under the
government are eligible for election to the Panchayat. The persons convicted by the court for
criminal offences are disqualified from election of the Panchayat.

There is also provision for co-option of two women and one member of the Scheduled Castes
and Scheduled Tribes, if they do not get adequate representation in the normal course.

The Panchayat as a body is accountable to the general body of the village known as Gram Sabha
which meets at least twice a year. The Gram Panchayat must present its budget, accounts of the
previous year and annual administrative report before the Gram Sabha. Furthermore, it has to
secure the latter’s approval of the village production plan, proposals for taxation and
development programmes before they are enforced by the Panchayat.

Every Panchayat elects a President or Sarpanch and a Vice-President or Upsarpanch. In some

states the Sarpanch is directly elected by the Gram Sabha either through the show of hands or
through secret ballot while in other states the mode of election is indirect.
The Panchayat Secretary and the Village Level Worker are the two officers at the Panchayat
level to assist the Sarpanch in administration.

The Panchayat Secretary assists the Panchayat in recording decisions, keeping minutes,
preparing budget estimates and reports, and does other sundry jobs like preparing notices,
explaining circulars, organising Gram Sabha meetings etc.

The Village Level Worker now called Village Development Officer assists the Panchayat in
drawing up agricultural production plans, helps farmers in securing loans for agriculture,
arranges the supply of inputs like seeds and fertilizers, and educates farmers about modern
agricultural practices. He serves as the principal link between the Panchayat and the Panchayat
Samiti.

2. Panchayat Samiti:
The Panchayat Samiti is the second on join tier of the Panchayati Raj. The Balwant Rai Mehta
Committee report has envisaged the Samiti as a single representative and vigorous democratic
institution to take charge of all aspects of development in rural areas. The Samiti, according to
the Committee, offers “an area large enough for functions which the Village Panchayat cannot
perform and yet small enough to attract the interest and services of residents.”

Usually a Panchayat Samiti consists of 20 to 60 villages depending on area and population. 

3. Zilla Parishad:
The Zilla Parishad stands at the apex of the three-tier structure of the Panchayati Raj system.
Generally, the Zilla Parishad consists of representatives of the Panchayat Samiti; all the members
of the State Legislature and the Parliament representing a part or whole of the district; all district
level officers of the Medical, Public Health, Public Works, Engineering, Agriculture, Veterinary,
Education and other development departments.

The Chairman of the Zilla Parishad is elected from among its members. There is a Chief
Executive Officer in the Zilla Parishad. He is deputed to the Zilla Parishad by the State
Government. There are subject matter specialists or officers at the district level in all the states
for various development programmes.

Caste and religion in India

 Concept
In Hinduism there exists four castes arranged in a hierarchy. Anyone who does not belong to
one of these castes is an outcast. The religious word for caste is 'Varna'. Each Varna has certain
duties and rights. The highest Varna is of the Brahman. Members of this class are priests and the
educated people of the society. The Varna after them in hierarchy is kshatriya. The members of
this class are the rulers and aristocrats of the society. After them are the vaishya. Members of this
class are the landlords and businessmen of the society. After them in hierarchy are the Sudra.
Members of this class are the peasants and working class of the society who work in non-
polluting jobs. The caste hierarchy ends here. Below these castes are the outcasts who are
untouchable to the four castes. These untouchables worked in degrading jobs like cleaning,
sewage etc.

 Origin

It has origins in ancient India, and was transformed by various ruling elites in medieval, early-
modern, and, modern India, especially the Mughal Empire and the British Raj.[1][2][3][4] It is today
the basis of educational and job reservations in India.

 Politics and social cultural

All over the world, the political processes have ascended out of social environment. Tribes,
clans, castes, classes have existed around a social organization. Economy, polity, religion, family
and kinship networks have operated under a social structure.

(1) Caste Factor in Political Socialisation and Leadership Recruitment:

Different caste groups have their loyalties behind different political parties and their ideologies.
Right from his birth, an Indian citizen inherits a caste and grows up as a member of a particular
caste group.

He belongs either to one of the High Castes or to Scheduled Castes. In the process of picking up
his political orientations, attitude and beliefs, he naturally comes under the influence of caste
groups and casteism.

‘Caste values’ and caste interests influence his socialisation and consequently his political
thinking, awareness and participation. He banks upon caste solidarity for occupying and
performing a leadership role.

(2) Caste and Party Politics:

Caste factor is a constituent of the Indian party system. Some political parties have a direct caste
basis while others indirectly bank upon particular caste groups. In particular, the regional
political parties stand predominantly influenced by the caste factor. 

(3) Caste and Elections:

The caste factor is an important factor of electoral politics in India. All political parties give great
weightage to the caste factor in selecting their candidates, in allocating constituencies to their
candidates and in canvassing support for their nominees in the election.

In constituencies predominated by Muslims, Muslim candidates are fielded and in areas

predominated by Jats, Jat candidates are fielded. Even avowedly secularist parties like the
Congress, the Janata Dal, the CPI and the CPM take into consideration the caste factor in
selecting their candidates.

(4) Caste as a Divisive and Cohesive Factor of Indian Politics:

Caste acts both as a divisive and cohesive force in Indian politics. It provides a basis for the
emergence of several interest groups in the Indian system each of which competes with every
other group in the struggle for power. At times it leads to unhealthy struggle for power and acts
as a divisive force.

(5) Caste and the Exercise of Power by a Political party:

Since caste is a major feature of the Indian society and acts as an important factor in various
processes of politics, it also plays a big role in the decision-making process. Even the issue of re-
organisation of states is handled with an eye upon the prevention of undue predominance of a
caste group in a particular territory.

(6) Caste and Political Leadership:

Caste has been emerging as a factor in the process of leadership recruitment. The leadership of
Sh. Kanshi Ram and Ms. Mayawati is caste based. So was the leadership of Ch. Charan Singh in
UP, Karpoori Thakur in Bihar and Dev Raj Urs in Karanataka. The leadership of Sh. Laloo
Prasad Yadav in Bihar is again an example of caste based leadership.

Religion: Another type of identity politics is that produced through the development of a

community on the shared link of religion. Religion is a collection of belief systems or cultural
systems that relate humanity to spirituality and moral values. Many religions may have organized
behaviours, clergy, adherence or membership, holy places, and scriptures. The practice of a
religion may also include:
 1. - Rituals
2. - Sermons
3. - Sacrifices
4. - Festivals
5. - Funerary services
6. - Matrimonial service
7. - Meditation
8. - Prayer
9. - Music
10. - Art
11. - Dance
12. - Public service
13. - Other aspects of human culture.

Religions may also contain mythology. It can be used to enhance oneself financially or
spiritually. It can also be used to manipulate and control others for good or evil ends. It has been
used as an effective political and commercial tool as evidenced by the many historic records of
religious wars. Religion has great influence on political pattern in Indian society. Politicians use
religion as their loopholes. They hide their black money in the names of religion and trusts.
Politician use religion to gain success in politics.
Researchers have argued since many years to elaborate the notion of religion. Some highlight the
idea that religion is concerned primarily with conceptions of God, divinity and the meaning and
order of human existence. Others have asserted the way religion serves to draw distinctions
between sacred (that is, transcendent or other-worldly) forms of space and belief and more
mundane, or profane, domains of 'worldly' human endeavour.
In India, Hinduism, Islam, Sikhism, Christianity, and Zoroastrianism are major religions
practised by the people. Numerically, the Hindus have the majority, which stimulates many
Hindu loyalist groups like the RSS (Rashtriya Swayam Sevak Sangh) or the Siva Sena and
political parties like the BJP (Bharatiya Janata Party) or the Hindu Mahasabha to claim that India
is a Hindu State. These assertions create homogenising myths about India and its history. These
claims are contradicted by other religious groups who predict the likelihood of losing
sovereignty of practise of their religious and cultural life under such homogenising claims. This
initiates contestations that have often resulted in communal uprisings.
It can be evaluated that In the Indian culture, religion has significant role. Political leaders
realized that to retain unity in India, there is a need to remain secular. Therefore, Gandhiji had
been preaching brotherhood among the different religious groups. Nehru was a strong supporter
of secularism. Their efforts could not separate religion from politics rather in politics the vested
interests started exploiting caste and religion to achieve political advantage. After independence,
religious places are used for political publicity and the religious sentiments of the people are
excited in order to gain political control of the State. This emergence of religion-political party
has endangered the secularism in India. It is dreaded that if it succeeds, there is a possibility that
many other political parties with caste and religion as the basis may come up.
To summarize, caste, religion and ethnicity is entrenched into Indian politics. Many theorists
asserted that caste is a social phenomenon of Indian society. By partaking in the modern political
system, caste is now visible to divisive influences and a new form of integration resulting from a
new system of universalist-particularist relationships. Caste has gained a powerful position in
Indian politics. Religion also has significant role in Indian Politics. Religion and Politics co-
exists in India. Religion can guide a politician but a politician prejudiced in favour of one
religion, can never be good for all citizens. A politician is the representative of the general
people of India, and he/she use the spirit of religion to promote communal coordination. The
spirit of religion is an inner revelation, but politics leads to rights of the people. Religion is not
opposed to science. Religion binds people with duties to perform.

Reservation
Our Constitution guarantees/stipulates justice and equality of opportunity to all its citizens. It
also recognizes that equal opportunity implies competition between equals, and not ‘un-equals’.
Recognizing the inequality in our social structure, the makers of the Constitution argued that
weaker sections have to be dealt with on a preferential footing by the state. A special
responsibility was, thus, placed upon the state to provide protection to the weaker sections of
society.

Accordingly, the Constitution provided for protective discrimination under various articles to
accelerate the process of building an egalitarian social order. Thus, preferential treatment for the
depressed classes (SCs and STs), including reservation of seats, should not be understood as an
act of magnanimity on the part of the political elite at the national level but rather a strategy to
give them a share in power in politics and administration and to uplift them socially and
economically.

Initially, the percentage of reservation (in 1950 Constitution) provided reservation of 12.5 per
cent for the SCs and 5 per cent for the STs but these percentages were subsequently enhanced in
1970 to 15 per cent and 7.5 per cent for SCs and STs respectively. The reservation was provided
in jobs, admission to colleges and universities, and the central and state legislative assemblies.
Later, it was provided in public undertakings and nationalised banks, etc. All state governments
also enacted laws providing for reservation for the SCs (and STs) in the services under their
control. Further, other concessions like reservation in promotions, etc. were also provided by the
governments.

In January 1999, the President of India’s noting in a confidential file pertaining to judicial
appointments to the effect that special quota should be considered for the weaker sections of
society like SCs, STs and women in the appointment of judges in High Courts and the Supreme
Court, led to a future in legal circles and a debate on meritocracy versus protective
discrimination.

Arguments Offered By Supporters of Reservation:

a. Reservations are a political necessity in India

b. Although Reservation schemes do undermine the quality of education but still Affirmative
Action has helped many if not everyone from under-privileged and/or under-represented
communities to grow and occupy top positions in the world’s leading industries.

c. Although Reservation schemes do undermine the quality, they are needed to provide social
justice to the most marginalized and underprivileged which is their human right.

d. Meritocracy is meaningless without equality. First all people must be brought to the same
level, whether it elevates a section or decelerates another, regardless of merit.

e. Reservations have only slowed down the process of “Forward becoming richer and backward
becoming poorer”.

Arguments Offered by Anti-Reservationists:

a. Intellectuals and Philanthropists agree that reservations will divide India Reservation is similar
to internal partition because in addition to being a form of ethnic discrimination, it also builds
walls against inter-caste and inter-faith marriages. Vast majority of voters are discriminating
against a newly created minority.

b. Reservations are the biggest enemy of meritocracy. By offering reservation through relaxed
entry criteria, we are fuelling inflation of moderate credentials as opposed to the promotion of
merit based education system, which is the foundation of many progressive countries.
Meritocracy should not be polluted by injecting relaxation of entry barriers, rather should be
encouraged by offering financial aids to the underprivileged although deserving candidates only.
Today the NTs and IIMs hold a high esteem in the global scenario due to their conservation of
merit.
c. Caste Based Reservation only perpetuates the notion of caste in society, rather than weakening
it as a factor of social consideration, as envisaged by the constitution. Reservation is a tool to
meet narrow political ends.

d. Affirmative Action can be provided at a more comprehensive level taking into account various
factors of exclusion such as caste, economic conditions, gender, kind of schooling received etc.
A comprehensive scheme of Affirmative Action would be more beneficial than reservations in
addressing concerns of social justice.

e. Allocating quotas is a form of discrimination which is contrary to the right to equality.

f. There is great confusion in the “pro-reservation camp”. While they clamour for 33%
reservation for women in parliament and state legislatures [and do not accept caste quotas as part
of women’s quotas], they do not want special consideration for women in quotas in higher
education. This is implicit acceptance of the fact that there are multiple factors of exclusion and
discrimination at work in society.

g. The policy of reservation has never been subject to a widespread social or political audit.
Before extending reservation to more groups, the entire policy needs to be properly examined,
and its benefits over a span of nearly 60 years have to be gauged.

h. Poor people from “forward castes” do not have any social or economical advantage over rich
people from backward caste.

i. Combination of factors like Wealth, Income, and Occupation etc will help to identify real
needy people. Most often, only the economically sound people make use of most of the seats
reserved for “backward” castes, thus making the aim a total failure.

j. There is fear that reservation once introduced will never be withdrawn even if there is a proof
for upliftment of backward classes, due to political issues. For example, in Tamil Nadu, forward
castes were able to secure only 3% of total seats (and 9% in Open Competition) in professional
institutions at Undergraduate level as against their population percentage of 13%. This is a clear
case of reverse discrimination.

k. Many cite the Mandal Commission report while supporting the idea of reservations.
According to the Mandal commission, 52% of the Indians belong to OBC category, while
according to National Sample Survey 1999-2000, this figure is only 36% (32% excluding
Muslim OBCs).
l. This policy of the government has already caused increase in brain drain and may aggravate
further. Under graduates and graduates will start moving to foreign universities for higher
education.

Kinship
The kinship system refers to a set of persons recognised as relatives, either,

by virtue of a blood relationship technically called consanguinity, or by

virtue of a marriage relationship, that is through what is called affinity

 kinship system into which we are born and in which we are reared as

natural

 It will seem natural and right to us that certain close relatives should

be tabooed as marriage and sexual partners, and we feel quite certain

that disastrous consequences would follow any infringement of the

taboos

The Principles of Descent

Descent is the principle whereby a child is socially affiliated with the

group of his or her parents. In some societies the child is regarded as

a descendant equally of both the father and the mother, except that

titles and surnames are usually passed down along the 111ale line.

Such a system is termed Bilateral or Cognatic. The individual

belongs simultaneously to several descent groups - those of the two

parents, the four grandparents, the eight great-grandparents, and so

on

Types of Descent

UNILINEALLY, that is, in one line only. The child is affiliated either

wit11 the group of the father, that is, PATRILINEAL DESCENT, or

with the group of the mother, that is, MATRILINEAL DESCENT

in some societies one finds that the child is affiliated to the group of

either parent, depending on choice, or to one parent for some

purposes (for instance, inheritance of property) and to the other

parent for other purposes (for instance, the inheritance of ritual or

ceremonial roles). This is called DOUBLE UNILINEAL DESCENT

Rules of Residence

Ifhusband and wife set up their own independent home after

marriage, as is usually the case in modern western society, residence

is said to be NEOLOCAL.Where the wife goes to live with the

husband in his parents' home, residence is described as

VIRILOCAL, PATRILOCAL, or PATRIVIFULOCAL, and where

the husband moves to live with the wife, it is termed MATRILOCAL.

KINSHIP IN INDIA

In the Southern Zone, you usually find a preference for marriage

with certain categories of close kin, in particular with one or the

other or both of the cross-cousins (but never parallel cousins), or

even with the elder sister's daughter

In north India, by contrast, marriages are never between persons

who are already closely related

Unit 1
Purusharthas The four purusharthas are considered to be the following:
Purushartha is a Sanskrit word that can be translated as the "object of human pursuit” or “goals
of man.”

Concepts of Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha {dharma (moral duty), artha (economic
prosperity), kama (love or pleasure) and moksha (spiritual liberation).}

A life of righteousness for a Hindu is possible through the fourfold scheme of practical
endeavour. It comprises the concepts of dharma, artha, kama and moksha.

i) Dharma is honest and upright conduct or righteous action.

ii) Artha means a righteous and honest pursuit of economic activities.

iii) Kama is the fulfillment of one’s normal desires.

iv) Moksha is liberation, that is absorption of the self into eternal bliss.

Related to these four concepts are the concepts of karma and samsara. Depending upon one’s
deeds (karma) one is able to reach the stage of moksha or liberation. The stage of moksha or
liberation is a term for describing the end of the cycle of birth and rebirth. The cycle of birth and
rebirth is known as samsara. The Hindus believe that each human being has a soul and that this
soul is immortal. It does not perish at the time of death. The process of birth and rebirth goes on
until moksha is attained. This cycle of transmigration is also known as samsara, which is the
arena where the cycle of birth and rebirth operates. One’s birth and rebirth in a particular state of
existence is believed by the Hindus to be dependent on the quality of one’s deeds (karma). For a
Hindu, the issue of liberation is of paramount significance (Prabhu 1979: 43-48). Let us discuss a
little more about these two concepts, i.e., Karma and Samsara. 15.2.2 Karma and Samsara The
concepts of dharma, artha, kama and moksha are related to tenets of karma and samsara. Karma
is a word used for all activity or work. Samsara is the term used for the arena where the cycle of
birth and rebirth continues to operate until one attains liberation. This is also called the theory of
reincarnation or punarjanma. Actions are divided into good or bad on the basis of their intrinsic
worth. Good deeds bring fame, merit and are the path to heaven. Bad deeds bring notoriety and
lead to punishment and life in hell. It is recognised that an individual’s overall position in a
future life depends on the way he or she lives the present one. This belief, which gave a positive
or negative value to certain actions, developed into a general theory of actions and is called the
karma theory. The concept of karma is fully developed and woven into the belief in re-birth,
which in turn is related to the belief concerning heaven, hell, and moksha. An individual’s fate
after death is determined by the sum total of grades and attributes of his or her actions or deeds
(karma) during his or her life. Better birth and status is obtained if there is a surplus of many
good deeds in a person’s life. Otherwise one’s status falls in the next life. Another related belief-
is that the world moves in a cyclical process (birth and death follow one another). By following
one’s karma prescribed within the fourfold scheme of dharma, artha, kama, moksha an individual
strives to get out of this otherwise infinite cyclical process of birth and death. Depending on
one’s previous and present karma, one prospers or suffers in this world. Later after death he
either gains heaven or is punished with life in hell. Thus a human being after death may become
a denizen or inhabitant of heaven or hell, may be reborn as an animal, or even be reborn as a tree.
All this depends on one’s karma. An individual usually wanders through many births till he or
she finds final release or moksha.

Hindu Social Organisation and It’s Characteristics

The Hindus believe in a number of characteristics of Hindu social organisation. The social

structure of Hinduism rests on two fundamental institutions — the caste and the joint family.

Anything and everything concerned with Hindus outside their religion is related to these two

institutions. Normative principles of Hinduism are based on beliefs, ideas and logic of

permissiveness, liberalism, being and becoming, creation and destruction, utilitarianism and

spiritual transcendence.

Broadly speaking the bases of Hindu social organisation may be viewed as follows:

1. The Life Cycle:

Traditionally the Hindus believe in ‘Punarjanma’ or rebirth, immortality of soul, Pap (Sin) Punya

(Merit) Karma (deeds) Dharma (morality) and Moksha (Salvation). The Hindu undergoes the

process of the life cycle. His status, comfort and discomforts depend on the nature of his actions.

The concept of ‘Karma’ implies that a Hindu is born into a particular social group or caste or

family on the basis of his actions in the previous life.

2. Harmony:

It is believed in Hinduism that as there is harmony between the various parts of the body,

harmony is also evinced among various aspects of social life. Religion and rituals have

interconnections and likewise every aspect of social life and action are interrelated. It is also said

that a man performs action mentally or through spoken word or through body reactions known as

‘manas’, ‘bachha’ and ‘karmaya’ respectively. The whole of action springs out of these three

interrelated aspects of the personality system.

3. Hierarchy:

Hierarchy is also another base of the Hindu social organisation. In Hinduism hierarchy tends to

persist in terms of the caste system as well as in the charismatic quality or gunas such as ‘Sattva’,
‘Rajas’ and ‘Tamas’, ‘Sattva’ refers to brightness and virtues and is possessed by the sages and

Brahmins. It is of the highest type and the most virtuous among all the three gunas. The ‘Rajas’

come next to the ‘Sattva’. It refers to passionate commitment to action. The kings and Khatriya

Varna possess this ‘Rajas’ guna. ‘Tamas’ or the lowest type of guna is possessed by the Sudras.

It is associated with dullness and impels profane inclinations.

The Hindu value system is also not free from the principle of hierarchy. Hierarchical

arrangements are also noticed in respect of the ‘Purusarthas’ or goals of life such as, ‘Kama’

comprising of pursuit of sex and material goals or sensory enjoyment, ‘Artha’ indicating

accumulation of wealth, ‘Dharma’ referring to moral obligation in the realm of social, religious

and cultural sphere. The utmost value is attached to ‘Moksha’, the pursuit of salvation from the

chain of birth and rebirth. In the hierarchy of purusarthas ‘Kama’ is given the least importance.

4. Segmental Division of Society:

The entire Hindu society is divided into different segments on the basis of division of labour and

differential privileges and disabilities of various groups. The division of labour is based on the

charismatic qualities (gunas) of individuals, ‘Sattva’ is considered the highest and the most

virtuous among the gunas’. It is associated with the sages and Brahmins, ‘Sattva’ is followed by

‘Rajas’ which represent passionate commitment to action and power. The kings and Kshatriyas

are endowed with such qualities. ‘Tama’ comes at the lowest level. It is associated with dullness

and profane inclinations.

5. The concept of purity and pollution:

The idea of purity and pollution has sufficiently influenced the Hindu social life. Of course

regional variations are marked in respect of the concept of purity and pollution. These concepts

are considered important in matters of commensal relation, in touching or maintaining physical

distance, in inter-caste marriages and in personal life of the Hindus. Purity and pollution are
considered important on occasions like birth, marriage, menstruation, death, offering of prayer

etc.

The concept of purity has got wider implications. It is not only confined to the action of men, but

also extends to their level of thinking. Thinking ill of others is also considered impure and sinful.

Violation of the rules necessitates purificatory rites. The rigorousness of the rites depend upon

the seriousness of the act of violation.

6. Idol worship:
Idol worship is the most noticeable common feature of the Hindu religion. The Hindus are

divided into different sects. Therefore uniformity is not maintained in worshipping a particular

idol. Idols vary along with variations in sects, the most common idols being Rama, Krishna,

Shiva, Ganesh, Hanuman etc. The idols may be worshipped regularly in the temples or on

specific occasions. The temples are protected from pollution through prohibition of entry of

followers of other religions.

7. Monolithic Character:

Hinduism is not a uniform monolithic religion which believes in single God. It derives its

strength from flexibility and gives place to non-caste, anti-Vedic groups.

8. Transcendentalism:

Another striking feature of Hindu social life is the belief that life transcends the existence of the

earth. The Hindus believe that the soul and life hereafter represent higher level of existence

whereas ‘maya’ or illusion represents the earth as a thing.

9. Intellectualism:

From the Vedic age the Hindu attitude has always been directed towards the tradition of

intellectualism. The Hindu has always endeavored to cognize the problem of life and existence
from detached point of view. His thinking has always been rationally conditioned. This

rationalization of scheme of life has also been reflected in the Ashram system.

10. Non-violence:

Non-violence or Ahimsha is the pivot around which moves entire social life of Hindus. The

concept of Dharma is based on the conception of non-violence which presupposes that man

should not do harm to any living being whether man or animal or tree. An essential attribute of

non-violence is the charity to all and malice towards none.

11. Male ascendancy:

The Hindu society has always accorded emphasis on male. Indian society, from the very

beginning, has been patriarchal and the male ascendancy has been unquestionably accepted by

all throughout the ages. This is not to say that women are not respected among the Hindus but it

only indicates that males had dominated the social and religious life of the Hindus throughout the

ages.

12. Marriage and Family:

Manage and family are very old institutions and are universal. Among the Hindus there are

certain rules and regulations which govern the family life and also conditions of married life.

Prescriptions are also there relating to the selection of life partner. Marriages among such near

relatives as the father and daughter or sister and brother are forbidden in almost every society.

Whereas in other societies particularly in western society, marriage is considered more a

friendship rather than a bond with a religious sanction, vice-versa is the case in Hindu society.

13. Attitude towards women:

During the Vedic age the women were respected in society. However, gradually they lost respect

in society. From the status of equality they began to be considered inferior and unequal. Due to

frequent foreign invasions and conditions prevailing in those times, education and other facilities
extended to women were denied to them, for centuries then in the Hindu society women did not

enjoy the same equal social status which they once enjoyed.

Bases of Hindu Social Organization:

Hindu social organization means organization of Hindu society. Hindu society is both very old

and complex. With the passage of time many traditions and ideas have got roots in Hindu social

organisations which have become a part of its whole social system.

The bases of our social organisations are the outcome of hard realities of life and are thus sound

and practical. Not only this, but these are outcome of necessities of life and are beautifully

planned and well balanced to suit the needs of day to day life. These consider human conduct

and behaviour as paramount and supreme.

In the organization stress has also been laid on ideals to be achieved. In the words of P.H.

Prabhu, “We should like to point out here that most of these basic ideas have been very widely

held up by all Hindus-the rich as well as poor, the learned as well as the lay, the city men as well

as the village folk.” Some important bases on which Hindu social organisation have been

founded may be briefly discussed as under.

1. The Life Cycle:

Traditionally it is believed that a person has to go through the process of life cycle in many lives.

The nature of his action determines the status, comforts and discomforts of his life and the lives

to come. Traditionally, Hindu belief is that there are 84 lakhs levels of lives through which a

person has to pass before he can attain salvation. In this manner the conception of life and birth

are important to the Hindus.

Classification on the Basis of the Socio-economic level of Development:

Varies Elvin has classified Indian tribes into four classes on the basis of their levels of cultural

development and contact with the plains.

Class – I:

The tribes of Class-I are the most isolated ones. The members of these tribes are primitive and

simple. They lead communal life.

Class – II:

The members of Class-II are more exposed to outside influence than those of the Class- I tribes.
They are less simple and less honest.

Class – III:

The tribes of Class-Ill are most exposed to outside influences. They represent a large section of

the Indian tribal population. As a result of their exposure to outside influences they are now on

the way of losing their tribal organization, culture and language.

Class – IV:

The Bhils and the Nagas are the members of this class of tribes. Elvin believes that these are the

tribes which have succeeded in the battle of culture contact. According to Elvin, this class of

tribes has acquired “aristocratic traditions, economic stability, affluence, outside encouragement,

a certain arrogance and self-confidence characteristic alike of ancient families and modern

enterprise:”

The tribal welfare committee has suggested a classification of Indian tribes into four class.

i. Tribal Communities:

These communities are, by and large, confined to their forest habitat and still lead a primitive

way of life.
ii. Semi-Tribal Communities:

These communities have come out of their forest habitat to settle in the rural areas and have

taken up agricultural and other occupations.

iii. Acculturated Tribal Communities:

These are the communities which have migrated to urban and semi-urban centres and have taken

up occupations in modern industries. They have also adopted many cultural traits of modern

society.

iv. Totally Assimilated Tribal Communities:

These are the tribes which have totally got assimilated into the modern way of life.

Madan and Majumdar have made an attempt to bring a classification of Indian tribes on the basis

of their level of economic development.

The first category includes all those tribes which are mainly dependent on forests for their

livelihood and their economy is of food gathering type. Cultivation is of shifting nature. The

Kadar and the Paliyan are some such tribes.

The tribes of the second category are those whose economy falls midway between food gathering

and primitive agriculture. The Kamar, the Baiga and the Reddi of the Bison hills are some of the

tribes of this category.

The third category includes a large number of North-Easter and central India tribes. Their

economy is mainly agriculture, but is supplemented by forest products whenever and wherever

possible.

The fourth category is coming up in India as a result of growth of industry. This new economy

category includes those tribesmen who have been driven out from traditional occupations and
habitat and are employed in modern industry. The Santhal, the Ho,’ and the Munda are examples

of some of the tribes of this category.

2. Harmony:

According to this point of view, as there is harmony between the various parts of the body; so we

find a similar harmony between the various aspects of social life. Religion and rituals are

interconnected and every aspect of social life and actions too is similarly interconnected and

interrelated. It is said that a man performs actions mentally (Manas) or through the spoken word

(Vachana) or through body reactions (Karmaya). Together these three interrelated aspects of

personality determine the whole of the action.

3. Hierarchy:

A system of stratification and hierarchy is found in Indian society which is based on the

principles of birth and ascription. In this manner the traditional caste system represents the

hierarchy of the status groups.

4. Segmental Division of Society:

Indian social organization is divided into many groups and these groups previously represented

the ‘Varna’ scheme and later on became the caste groups. These segmental divisions of society

were based on division of labour, and comparative privileges and disabilities of various groups.

5. Transcendentalism:

Another feature of Hindu social life is the belief that life transcends the existence on this earth.

“Jiva’ and ‘Maya’ represent the earthly things whereas the soul and the life hereafter represent a

higher level of existence. In this manner transcendentalism is the basis of Hindu social life.

6. Intellectualism:
Right from the Vedic age, the attitude to life of the Hindus pertains to the tradition of

intellectualism. Hindus have tried to understand the problems of life and existence from a

detached point of view and this thinking has been rationally done. Even the Ashram system

represented a rationalization of the scheme of life.

7. The Concept of Purity and Pollution:

Right from the earliest times to the present day, the Hindu social life has been influenced by the

conception of purity and pollution. This purity is concerned not only with the actions of man but

also with his thinking. Because even to think ill of another person is regarded as a sin. Similarly

cycle of life and birth is governed by the concept of purity and pollution.

8. Ahimsa:

Ahimsa or non-violence is the very soul of Hindu social life. The conception of Dharma is based

on the conception of Ahimsa. It is regarded as an essential attribute of man not to harm any

living being whether man, animal or tree. Thus, charity to all and malice towards none is the

basis of Ahimsa.

9. Bhakti:

Bhakti is the root of our Dharma. It is the method of pleasing the Gods and Goddesses. It is

through Bhakti that a religious person tries to control his mind and soul. It is the channel for

approaching Him. Bhakti and Dharma are so much identified with each other that it is believed

that a Bhakti must be a religious man and a religious man cannot be so unless he is Bhakti. It is

however, repeatedly made clear in our religious books that Bhakti should be used as a method

for self-purification but not for achieving personal ends or gains.

10. Male Ascendancy:
Another feature of Hindu social life has been male ascendancy. Indian society, right from the

very beginning has been patriarchal and authority of male members has been unquestioned

through the ages. This does not mean that women were not respected, but this only indicates that

the males had dominated social and religious life.

11. Attitude towards Women:

Then we come to another important aspect of Hindu social organization, namely, the attitude of

Hindus towards the women. It is clear from all accounts that during the Vedic period women

were respected in the society. However, gradually women lost respect in society, and came to be

considered as inferior and unequal. Education and other facilities were denied to the women and

she had to adopt the Purdah system.

12. Familism:

It has been said that familism is the gestalt of our rural society Since Indian society has been

predominantly an agricultural society, we find that the joint family system based on familism has

dominated all other types of social organization. Familism means the subordination of individual

interests to the interests of the family as a whole.

13. An Attitude of Synthesis:

Synthesis has been the main characteristic of Indian society. We have adopted all types of social

institutions. The impact of culture from the Vedic age to the present day can be seen in Hindu

society and culture. This is the reason why India is said to have unity in diversity. We have

synthesized various view points.

14. Ascriptive Systems:
Hindu social organization is based on the principles of birth and status. The status of a man is

determined by his birth, but birth is determined by his action. Thus, we find status groups which

are based on ascription rather than achievement.

15. The Concept of Purushartha:

The doctrine of Purushartha explains the values expressed for the guidance of man. The

Purusharthas are four in number-Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha They coordinate the earthly

and the spiritual life of man. But three Purusharthas namely Kama, Artha and Dharma combined

together are called ‘Trivarga’.

16. Dharma:

This has been regarded as the very basis of Hindu social life. Dharma involves performance of

duties. It reminds all of their duties and social responsibilities. Dharma has been equated with the

duties a person has to perform. It is the doctrine of the duties and rights of each in the ideal

society.

17. The Doctrine of Karma:

Contrary to the popular opinion that Indian society is nothing but the negation of life. Dr.

Radhakrishnan has remarked. “Karma is not mechanical principle but a spiritual necessity. It is

the embodiment of the mind and will of God. God is its superior. Justice is an attribute of God.”

18. The Ashrama System:

This doctrine ordains that the life of an individual should be divided into four parts, namely that

of a student, householder, recluse and saint. Only through these Ashramas a man can attain

salvation. The doctrine of Purushartha finds concrete expression in the Ashrama scheme of life.

19. Rinas:
There are three Rinas which a person has to repay. These are ‘Deva Rina or the debt of God who

created us, ‘Rishi Rina’ or the debt to the teacher who gave us knowledge and ‘Pitri Rina’ or the

debt to the ancestors who gave us birth. Only through paying these Rinas a man can achieve

salvation.

20. Moksha:

The whole Hindu social system and organization aims at Moksha. It is the desire and will of

every Hindu that he or she should attain Moksha, i.e., salvation, when the soul rises above all

levels of wordly life. It then rests in eternal peace and does not suffer the tortures of life and

death. This is considered to be the supreme and ultimate end of life.

Tradition and Modernity in India

Tradition refers to the the customs, beliefs and cultural practices that are past down from one
generation to the next generation. It has its origin in the past.

Modernity refers to the contemporary behavior or way of doing things. It is fresh, new and
modern.

Tradition and Modernity both prevail side-by-side in India. Indian culture is a blend of

tradition values and the modern spirit.

Modernity is not altogether new in India. It is more than a hundred years old and has during this
period been making steady headway.

The Hindu tradition itself is not homogeneous, as many of its spokesmen and critics often seem
to assume. It is true that some of the Hindu traditions are inherently incompatible with the
modern spirit. In ancient India ,  particularly during the period of Rig Vedic Society,  the Indian
society was free from most of the inhibitions of later Hinduism.

The  old age tradition that is still dominant in Hindu society, though some of the harmful
traditions are no longer prominent today such as:

 Sati is prohibited,
 Indian widows are remarrying,
 Child marriages are on the wand,
  Caste system in India is being increasingly secularized,
 Dowry system is declining,
 Girl are taking active participation in education and profession.

But the supreme values of old Indian tradition are still relevant in Modern Indian Society, such
as

 Simplicity and non- possession of material goods,

 Respect for the status and authority that go with power.

The supreme value of life is, of course, Moksha, the release from the bonds of karma and the
cycle of births. All the other values and the attitudes that Hinduism commends have to be in
harmony with this.

This Modern Indian society cannot completely break itself from the old traditions. No society
can do that, nor is it necessary for India. Her past is remarkably rich and varied, capable of
providing a starting point for modernity. Indian Tradition offers numerous instances of the spirit
of free and critical inquiry of the highest intellectual order, determination to pursue truth
regardless of where it leads a positive and secular approach to life and a tradition of abstract
thought necessary for the growth of modern knowledge.

India need to modernize herself  but she does not have to seek inspiration solely from a culture
which is not a part of her own tradition. She can partly get it from her past and establish
continuity with it. Indigenous symbols and myths are available, which can make the transition to
modernity less traumatic than if would otherwise be.

The rich tradition and culture of India past can provides a bridge for the masses between the
present and the future. Except for a handful, Indian intellectuals does not extend beyond the
narrow sphere of their own professional work. For example, when an educated person (for
instance a doctor, a lawyers) fall ill, they not only call in qualified doctor but also perform puja
to appease the gods, take talisman and consult holy men. Indians, particularly Hindus, actually
keep two opposing sets of habit patterns.

Social reforms such as, abolition of un-touchablity, the dowry system are in full motion. But if a
departure from tradition or custom, such as women taking up employment, holds promise of
easily visualizable benefits, their response, even in the countryside, is more encouraging than
metropolitan intellectuals are likely to imagine. Whenever an imaginative leadership and enough
facilities to inspire confidence have been available in recent times, people in the rural areas have
shown commendable willingness to adopt new ideas and practices. Those who have watched the
attitude of the agricultural community in western Maharashtra to programmes of work in the
fields of education, agriculture and even family planning would be inclined to believe that the
lack of leadership and facilities, not irrational attachment to tradition, is the real problem that
advocates of modernity have to solve.
Indian Society continue to live in two worlds, the traditional and the modern, at the same time.
What seems to have happened with most of us is that we have accepted modernity in our
professional work, but we continue to be traditional in our values and attitudes unless personal
gain is involved.

Consequently, the Western liberal institutions—universities, for example, or the press-introduced

in India, still function largely in an authoritarian way.

Modernity has a wider connotation than modernization. The latter refers to civilization and
mainly implies a high level of literacy and urbanization with vertical and geographical mobility,
a high per capita income and a sophisticated economy that has gone beyond the take-off stage.
Modernity, on the other hand, connotes a certain type of culture whose quality is determined by
rationality, the liberal spirit in its broadest sense, plurality of opinion and centers of decision
making, autonomy in the various fields of experience, secular ethics, and respect for the private
world of the individual.

We need to identifying and preserve the precious elements of Indian culture such as Music,
dance, handicrafts, and the like. One may also seek to preserve a great deal of the color and
variety in certain aspects of Indian life such as food, dress, and festivals. However, this is not
enough. It is also necessary to identify the elements that must go if the spirit of modernity is not
to be crushed under their weight.

This implies an inquiry into the structure and working of each of our major institutions such as
family, school, the university, etc. and an insistent demand for their reform from the standpoint
of modernization of India. Indian universities and colleges may be become a vital centers of a
modern Indian culture. The can play an active role in the blending the old Indian traditions in the
Modern society for its benefit.