محاضرات ماشيين من بعد الميد

The remaining Course Contents:
• Starting of Induction Motors (Methods of Starting 3-Phase Induction

Motors)
•Double Squirrel Cage Motor
•Speed Control of Induction Motor
•Standard types of Squirrel cage Motors
•Induction Generators
Electric Machines (4) 1

Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
References:
1- B.L. Theraja, “Electrical Technology”, text book.
2- Fitzgerald, “Electric Machinery”, text book.
3- S. B. DEWAN , “Power Semiconductor Drives” text book.
4- V. K. Mehta, “Principles of Electrical Machines” text book.
Electric Machines (4)

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Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
Relation Between Torque and Rotor Power Factor
In case of a d.c. motor, the torque Ta is proportional to the product of
armature current and flux per pole i.e. Ta ∝ φ Ia.
Similarly, in the case of an induction motor, the torque is also
proportional to the product of flux per stator pole and the rotor current.
However, there is one more factor that has to be taken into account i.e.
the power factor of the rotor.

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Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
The effect of rotor power factor on rotor torque is illustrated in Fig. 1
and Fig. 2 for various values of φ2. From the above expression for
torque, it is clear that as φ2 increases (and hence, cos φ2 decreases) the
torque decreases and vice versa.
Fig. 1
Fig. 1

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Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
Starting Torque
The torque developed by the motor at the instant of starting is called
starting torque.

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Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
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Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
Effect of Change in Supply Voltage on Starting Torque
We have seen that:
Clearly, the torque is very sensitive to any changes in the supply voltage.
A change of 5 per cent in supply voltage, for example, will produce a
change of approximately 10% in the rotor torque.

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Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
Condition for Maximum Starting Torque
It can be proved that starting torque is maximum when rotor resistance
equals rotor reactance.

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Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
Starting Current of Three-Phase Induction Motors
At starting, the voltage induced in the induction motor rotor is
maximum (s = 1). Since the rotor impedance is low, the rotor current is
excessively large. This large rotor current is reflected in the stator
because of transformer action. This results in high starting current (4 to
10 times the full-load current) in the stator at low power factor and
consequently the value of starting torque is low.
Because of the short duration, this value of large current does not harm
the motor if the motor accelerates normally. However, this large starting
current will produce large line-voltage drop. This will adversely affect
the operation of other electrical equipment connected to the same
lines. Therefore, it is desirable and necessary to reduce the magnitude
of stator current at starting and several methods are available for this
purpose.

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Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
Methods of Starting three-Phase Induction Motors
The method to be employed in starting a given induction motor
depends upon the size of the motor and the type of the motor. The
common methods used to start induction motors are:
(1) Direct-on-line starting (2) Primary resistors starting
(3) Autotransformer starting (4) Star-delta starting
(5) Rotor resistance starting (6) Soft starter
Methods (1) to (4) and (6) are applicable to both squirrel-cage and
wound rotor motors. However, method (5) is applicable only to wound
rotor motors.

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Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
1-Direct-on-line starting
In this method of starting, the motor is started by connecting it directly
to three-phase supply. The impedance of the motor at standstill is
relatively low and when it is directly connected to the supply
system, the starting current will be high (4 to 10 times the full-load
current) and at a low power factor. Consequently, this method of
starting is suitable for relatively small (up to 7.5 kW) machines.

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Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
When motor is direct-switched onto normal voltage, then starting
current is the short-circuit current Isc.
Let us illustrate the above relation with a numerical example.

Suppose Isc = 5 If and full-load slip sf =0.04. Then,
Note that starting current is as large as five times the full-load current
but starting torque is just equal to the full-load torque. Therefore,
starting current is very high and the starting torque is comparatively low.
If this large starting current flows for a long time, it may overheat the
motor and damage the insulation
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Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
2- Primary Resistors Starting
In this method, external resistances are connected in series with each
phase of stator winding during starting. This causes voltage drop across
the resistances so that voltage available across motor terminals is
reduced and hence the starting current. The starting resistances are
gradually cut out in steps (two or more steps) from the stator circuit as
the motor picks up speed. When the motor attains rated speed, the
resistances are completely cut out and full line voltage is applied to the
rotor.

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Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
This method suffers from two drawbacks. First, the reduced voltage
applied to the motor during the starting period lowers the starting
torque and hence increases the accelerating time. Secondly, a lot of
power is wasted in the starting resistances.
Relation between starting and F.L. torques:
Let V be the rated voltage/phase. If the voltage is reduced by a fraction x
by the insertion of resistors in the line, then voltage applied to the
motor per phase will be xV.

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Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
3- Autotransformer starting
This method also aims at connecting the induction motor to a reduced
supply at starting and then connecting it to the full voltage as the motor
picks up sufficient speed. The following figure shows the circuit
arrangement for autotransformer starting.
The tapping on the autotransformer is so set that when it is in the
circuit, 65% to 80% of line voltage is applied to the motor.

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Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
At the instant of starting, the change-over switch is thrown to “start”
position. This puts the autotransformer in the circuit and thus reduced
voltage is applied to the circuit. Consequently, starting current is limited
to safe value. When the motor attains about 80% of normal speed, the
changeover switch is thrown to “run” position. This takes out the
autotransformer from the circuit and puts the motor to full line voltage.
Advantages of autotransformer starting:
low power loss, low starting current and less radiated heat.
This method is used for starting large machines (over 25 H.P).
This method can be used for both star and delta connected motors.

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Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
Relation between starting And F.L. torques.
Consider a star-connected squirrel-cage induction motor. If V is the line
voltage, then voltage across motor phase on direct switching is V 3 and
starting current is Ist = Isc. In case of autotransformer, if a tapping of
transformation ratio K (a fraction) is used, then phase voltage across
motor is KV and Ist = K Isc,
The starting torque is K2 times the value it would have been on direct-
on-line starting. Electric Machines (4)
Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
3
4-Star-Delta Starting
This method is used in the case of
motors which are built to run
normally with a delta-connected
stator winding. It requires three-
contactors which connects the
motor in star for starting
and then in delta for normal
running. The usual connections
are shown in the following figure.

Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
When star-connected, the applied voltage over each motor phase is
reduced by a factor of 1/ 3 and hence the torque developed
becomes 1/3 of that which would have been developed if motor were
directly connected in delta. The line current is reduced to 1/3. Hence,
during starting period when motor is Y -connected, it takes 1/3rd
as much starting current and develops 1/3rd as much torque as would
have been developed were it directly connected in delta.
The main disadvantage of this method is that with star-connection
during starting, stator phase voltage is times the line voltage.
Consequently, starting torque is or 1/3 times the value it would
have with Delta-connection. This is rather a large reduction in starting
torque.
This method of starting is used for medium-size machines (up to about
25 H.P.)
This method is cheap but limited to applications where high starting
torque is not necessary e.g., pumps etc.

Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
5-Rotor Resistance Starting
This method is used with wound rotor motors. In this method, a variable
star-connected rheostat is connected in the rotor circuit through slip
rings and full voltage is applied to the stator winding as shown in the
following figure.

Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
At starting, the handle of rheostat is set in the OFF position so that
maximum resistance is placed in each phase of the rotor circuit. This
reduces the starting current and at the same time starting torque is
increased. As the motor picks up speed, the handle of rheostat is
gradually moved in clockwise direction and cuts out the external
resistance in each phase of the rotor circuit. When the motor attains
normal speed, the change-over switch is in the ON position and the
whole external resistance is cut out from the rotor circuit.
The wound rotor motors can be started under load .

Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
5-Rotor Resistance Starting
This method is used with wound rotor motors. In this method, a variable
star-connected rheostat is connected in the rotor circuit through slip
rings and full voltage is applied to the stator winding as shown in the
following figure.

Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
At starting, the handle of rheostat is set in the OFF position so that
maximum resistance is placed in each phase of the rotor circuit. This
reduces the starting current and at the same time starting torque is
increased. As the motor picks up speed, the handle of rheostat is
gradually moved in clockwise direction and cuts out the external
resistance in each phase of the rotor circuit. When the motor attains
normal speed, the change-over switch is in the ON position and the
whole external resistance is cut out from the rotor circuit.
The wound rotor motors can be started under load .

Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
Starter Steps
Let it be assumed that:
(i) The motor starts against a constant torque.
(ii) The rotor current fluctuates between fixed maximum and minimum
values of I2max and I2min respectively.
The following figure shows one phase of the 3-phase rheostat AB having
n steps and the rotor circuit.

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Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
Let R1, R2 ....etc. be the total resistances of the rotor circuit on the first,
second step...etc. respectively.
The resistances R1, R2 ..., etc. consist of rotor resistance per phase r2 and
the external resistances ρ1, ρ2 .... etc. Let the corresponding values of
slips be s1, s2 ...etc. at stud No.1, 2...etc. At the commencement of each
step, the current is I2max and at the instant of leaving it, the current is
I2min. Let E2 be the standstill e.m.f. induced in each phase of the rotor.
When the handle touches first stud, the current rises to a maximum
value I2max, so that
Then, before moving to stud No. 2, the current is reduced to I2min and
slip changes to s2 such that

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Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
As we now move to stud No. 2, the speed momentarily remains the
same, but current rises to I2max because some resistance is cut out.
After some time, the current is again reduced to I2min and the slip
changes to s3 such that
As we next move over to stud No.3, again current rises to I2max although
speed remains momentarily the same.

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Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
At the last stud i.e. nth stud,
where smax = slip under normal running conditions, when external

resistance is completely cut out.
It is found from above that:
(1)
Similarly,

Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
(2)
From equations (1) and (2) we get,
(3)
From equation (1) it is seen that
From equation (3), we obtain

Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
The resistances of various sections can be found as given below :

Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
6- Soft Starter
The soft starter uses the voltage reduction technique to reduce the
voltage during the starting of the motor. The soft starter offers a gradual
increase in the voltage during the motor startup. This results in
reduction of starting current.

Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
A two SCRs are connected in an anti-parallel configuration along each
phase of the motor making it a total of 6 SCRs. These SCRs are
controlled using a separate logic circuitry that can be a microcontroller.
The logic circuitry is powered from the mains using a rectifier circuit as
shown in the figure. The three pairs of thyristors, each pair for individual
phase, are used for controlling the voltage to start and stop the motor.
The thyristor conduction period depends on the firing angle controlled
by the logic circuitry.
Once the motor attains its
full rated speed (at 0° firing
angle), the thyristors are
completely bypassed using a
bypass contactor under
normal operation.
This type of starters is used
for large power motors
greater than 50 hp.
Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
Advantages of Soft Starter
1. Smooth Startup: Unlike conventional motor starter, it provides very
gradual increase of voltage thus speed that results in a very smooth
startup. There is no mechanical stress that can damage the motor.
2. Acceleration & Deceleration Control: It offers a fully adjustable
acceleration & deceleration of the motor. Varying the firing angle slowly
or quickly can control the acceleration during startup & deceleration
during stopping of motor. This is used in application where startup
acceleration needs to be adjusted.

Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
3. Increased Life Span: The soft starter as compared to a conventional
starter improves the life time of the motor. it is due to the smooth
operation & absence of electrical & mechanical stress on the motor.
4. Less Maintenance: Due to its smooth operation, the induction motor
is less likely to have any mechanical faults, which is why it require less
maintenance as opposed to conventional motor starter.

Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
5. High overall efficiency: A conventional motor starter supply full
voltage (very high inrush current) to the motor that consumes too much
energy. A soft starter significantly reduces it & allows a gradual increase
in energy consumption. Also the power switches are controlled using
very low voltage level. It improves the overall efficiency of the motor.
6. Compact & Small Size: The soft starter has a very compact design
that takes up very small space. Unlike other motor starters, it has very
small size.

Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
Disadvantages of Soft Motor Starter
1. Heat dissipation: The semiconductor switches inside the soft starter
dissipates some energy in the form of heat. Therefore, it also requires
heat sinks for cooling the power switches.
2. Reduced starting Torque: Since it reduces the input voltage that
corresponds to the input current which is directly proportional to the
starting torque of the induction motor, it significantly reduces the
starting torque. This is why Soft starters are used for low or medium
starting torque application.

Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
Double Squirrel Cage Motor
The main disadvantage of a squirrel-cage motor is its poor starting
torque, because of its low rotor resistance. The starting torque could be
increased by having a cage of high resistance, but then the motor will
have poor efficiency under normal running conditions (because there
will be more rotor Cu losses). The difficulty with a cage motor is that its
cage is permanently short-circuited, so no external resistance can be
introduced temporarily in its rotor circuit during starting period.

Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
Many efforts have been made to build a squirrel-cage motor which
should have a high starting torque without reducing efficiency, under
normal running conditions. The result is a motor which has two
independent cages on the same rotor, one inside the other.
A section for such a double cage rotor is shown in the following figure.

Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
The main disadvantage of a squirrel-cage motor is its poor starting
torque, because of its low rotor resistance. The starting torque could be
increased by having a cage of high resistance, but then the motor will
have poor efficiency under normal running conditions (because there
will be more rotor Cu losses). The difficulty with a cage motor is that its
cage is permanently short-circuited, so no external resistance can be
introduced temporarily in its rotor circuit during starting period.

Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
Many efforts have been made to build a squirrel-cage motor which
should have a high starting torque without reducing efficiency, under
normal running conditions. The result is a motor which has two
independent cages on the same rotor, one inside the other.
A section for such a double cage rotor is shown in the following figure.

Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
The outer cage consists of bars of a high-resistance metal, whereas the
inner cage has low-resistance copper bars. Hence, outer cage has high
resistance and low ratio of reactance-to-resistance, whereas the inner
cage has low resistance but, being situated deep in the rotor, has
a large ratio of reactance-to-resistance. Hence, the outer cage develops
maximum torque at starting, while the inner cage does so at about 15%
slip.
As said earlier, at starting and at large slip values, frequency of induced
e.m.f in the rotor is high. So the reactance of the inner cage (= 2π f L)
and therefore, its impedance are both high. Hence, very little current
flows in it.
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Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
Most of the starting current is confined to outer cage, despite its high
resistance. Hence, the motor develops a high starting torque due to
high-resistance outer cage.
As the speed increases, the frequency of the rotor e.m.f. decreases, so
that the reactance and hence the impedance of inner cage decreases
and becomes very small, under normal running conditions. Most of the
current then flows through it and hence it develops the greater part of
the motor torque. In fact, when speed is normal, frequency of rotor
e.m.f. is so small that the reactance of both cages is practically
negligible. The current is carried by two cages in parallel, giving a low
combined resistance.
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Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
Hence, it has been made possible to construct a single machine, which
has a good starting torque with reasonable starting current and which
maintains high efficiency and good speed regulation, under normal
operating conditions.
The torque-speed
characteristic of a double
cage motor may be
approximately taken to be
the sum of two motors, one
having a high-resistance
rotor and the other a low-
resistance one as shown in
the following figure.
Such motors are particularly
useful where frequent
starting under heavy loads is
required.
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Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
Double Squirrel Cage Motor Equivalent Circuit
The two rotor cages can be considered in parallel, if it is assumed that
both cages completely link the main flux. The simplified per-phase
equivalent circuit referred to stator ,the magnetising current is
neglected, is shown in the following figure .
Where R0′/s and Ri′/s are
resistances of outer and inner
rotors as referred to stator
respectively and X0′ and Xi′ their
reactances.
Total impedance as referred to
stator is given by:

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Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
Speed Control of three-phase Induction Motors
There are different methods used to control the speed of three-phase
induction motors. Some of these methods are:
1. Speed control by changing the applied voltage
2. Speed control by changing the applied frequency
3. Speed control by changing the number of stator poles
4. Speed control by rotor rheostat control
5. Variation the frequency with constant air gap flux (E/f control
method).
6. Variation the frequency with constant supply voltage to frequency
ratio (V/f control method)

Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
1- Speed control by changing the applied voltage
The torque developed by an induction motor is proportional to the
square of the applied voltage. If a load has a torque-speed characteristic
such as the one shown in the following figure, then the speed of the
motor may be controlled
over a limited range by
varying the line voltage. This
method of speed control is
sometimes used on small
motors driving fans.
This is because of reduced
motor torque at low speeds.

Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
The motor terminal voltage can be varied by using a three-phase
autotransformer or a solid-state voltage controller, as shown in figures
(a) and (b) respectively. The auto-transformer provides a sinusoidal
voltage for the induction motor, whereas the motor terminal voltage
with a solid-state controller is nonsinusoidal. Speed control with a solid-
state controller is commonly used with small squirrel cage motors
driving fan loads. In large power applications, an input filter is required;
otherwise, large harmonic currents will flow in the supply line.

Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
2- Speed control by changing the applied frequency (Line Frequency
Control)
We have seen that the synchronous speed of an induction motor is
given by Ns = 60 f/p. Clearly, the synchronous speed (and hence the
running speed) of an induction motor can be changed by changing the
supply frequency f. It should be noted that this method is rarely used.
This is because when the frequency is reduced to decrease the speed,
the air gap flux increase and thus the machine may operate in saturation
region. While increasing frequency greater than rated frequency to
increase the speed, the motor will be operated in filed weakening
mode.
E

f

Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
3- Speed control by changing the number of stator poles
The synchronous (and hence the running)speed of an induction motor
can be changed by changing the number of stator poles (Ns = 60 f/p).
This change of umber of poles is achieved by having two or more
entirely independent stator windings in the same slots. Each winding
gives a different number of poles and hence different synchronous
speed. For example, a 36-slot stator may have two 3-φ windings, one
with 4 poles and the other with 6-poles. With a supply frequency of 50-
Hz, 4-pole winding will give Ns = 60× 50/2 = 1500 r.p.m. and the 6-pole
winding will give Ns = 60 × 50/3 = 1000 r.p.m.
The main disadvantage of this method is that it requires large motor size
and limited number of speeds that can be obtained.

Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
4- Speed control by rotor rheostat control
In this method (shown in the following figure), which is applicable to
slip-ring motors only, the motor speed is reduced by introducing an
external resistance in the rotor circuit. For this purpose, the rotor starter
may be used, provided it is continuously rated.

Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
The relationship between the rotor resistance and slip explained as
follows:
Pg
Tm  , sm  s / p (1)
sm
Pm
or , Tm  (2)
m
Pg  3I 2'2 R2' / s (3)
I 2'  Em / ( R2' / s ) 2  (s L'l 2 ) 2 (4)

3 pEm2 R2' / s
T (5)
s [( R2' / s )2  (s L'l 2 )2 ]
From equation (5) for small slip, the torque can be expressed as:
R2 / s  s L'l 2
s
T  k
R2
 s  (T R2 ) Electric Machines (4)
(6)
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Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
It is obvious from equation (6) that for a given torque, slip can be
increased i.e. speed can be decreased by increasing the rotor resistance
R2.
One serious disadvantage of this method is that with increase in rotor
resistance, I2R losses also increase which decrease the operating
efficiency of the motor. In fact, the loss is directly proportional to the
reduction in the speed.
The second disadvantage is the double dependence of speed, not only
on R2 but on load as well.

Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
5- Variation the frequency with constant air gap flux (E/f control
method).
In this method the ratio (Em/ωs) remains constant to obtain constant air-
gap flux, i.e:
Em
K (7)
s
3 pEm2 Rr'
Tmax  , sm  (8)
2s Llr
2 '
s L'lr
usually the ratio is taken to be constant at rated condition, i.e:
Emr
K (9)
sr

Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
Application of this speed control method requires a voltage source
inverter. The following figure shows a block diagram of an open-loop
speed control system in which the supply frequency and the voltage of
the induction motor can be varied.

Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
The torque–speed characteristics for E/f=constant operation are shown
in the following figure. At the base frequency fbase the machine terminal
voltage is the maximum that can be obtained from the inverter. Below
this frequency, the air gap flux is maintained constant by changing V1
with f1; hence, the same maximum torques are available. Beyond fbase,
since V1 cannot be further increased with frequency, the air gap flux
decreases, and so does the maximum available torque. This represents
the field-weakening mode of operation.

Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
Method of Determination of IM Frequency for a given Load Torque
and Operating Speed
Neglecting the friction and windage torque, thus:
3 pEm2 R2' / s
TL  T  (10)
s [( R2' / s ) 2  (s L'l 2 ) 2 ]
sl
sin ce sl  s  pm , s  , Em  K s
s
thus :
3 pK 2 R2' sl
TL  (11)
[( R2' ) 2  (sl L'l 2 ) 2 ]

Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
Eqn. (11) can be rewritten as:
3 pK 2 R2' R2' 2
sl2  '2
sl  ' 2  0 (12)
TL Ll 2 Ll 2
Thus :
2
3 pK 2 R2'  3 pK 2 R2'  R2' 2
sl    '2 
 '2 (13)
2TL L'l22  2TL Ll 2  Ll 2
Thus :
2
3 pK 2 R2'  3 pK 2 R2'  R2' 2
s  pm    '2 
 '2 (14)
2TL L'l22  2TL Ll 2  Ll 2

Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
Fundamental frequency analysis (constant air gap flux control)
The fundamental frequency performance can be obtained using the
fundamental frequency per-phase IM equivalent circuit shown in the
following figure.

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Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
The steps of obtaining the performance are as follows:
1. Calculate the constant K from rated conditions, K=Erated/ωsrated .
2. For certain motor speed and load torque, calculate the inverter
operating frequency from:
2
3 pK 2 R2'  3 pK R2 
2 '
R2' 2
s  pm    '2 
 '2 (15)
2TL L'l22  2TL l2 
L Ll 2
3. Calculate the fundamental air-gab voltage from:

Em  Ks 0 (16)
4. Calculate the fundamental magnetizing current from:

Em
Im  (17)
js Lm
2
Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
5. Calculate the fundamental rotor current from:
Em
I 2'  (18)
R2' / s  js L'l 2
where
s  pm
s (19)
s
6. Calculate the fundamental stator current from:
I1  I 2'  I m (20)
7. Calculate the fundamental stator voltage from:

V1  Em  I1 ( R1  js Ll1 ) (21)

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Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
6- Variation the frequency with constant supply voltage to frequency
ratio (V/f control method)
This method is used only for frequencies near rated frequency. In this
method the approximate equivalent circuit is used. This circuit is shown
in the following figure.

Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
Method of Determination of IM Frequency for a given Load Torque
and Operating Speed for V/f control Method
I 2'  V1 / ( R1  R2' / s ) 2  (s L1  s L'l 2 ) 2 (22)

Thus :
3 pV12 R2' / s
T (23)
s [( R1  R2' / s ) 2  (s L1  s L'l 2 ) 2 ]
Neglecting the friction and windage torque, thus:

3 pV12 R2' / s
TL  T  (24)
s [( R1  R2' / s ) 2  (s L1  s L'l 2 ) 2 ]
sin ce, s  sl / s , K  V1 / s , R1  R2' / s, R1 canbe neglected

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Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
Thus :
3 pK 2 R2' sl
TL  ' 2 (25)
[ R2  sl2 ( Ll1  L'l 2 ) 2 ]
TL R2' 2  TL ( Ll1  L'l 2 )2 sl2  3 pK 2 R2' sl  0 (26)
3 pK 2 R2' sl R2' 2
sl2  ' 2 sl
  0 (27)
TL ( Ll1  Ll 2 ) ( Ll1  Ll 2 )
' 2
2
3 pK 2 R2' sl  3 pK 2 R2' sl  R2' 2
sl    ' 2
 (28)
2TL ( Ll1  L'l 2 ) 2 L 
 L l1 l 2 
2T ( L ) ( Ll1  L ' 2
l2)
s  sl  pm (29)

6
Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
Standard Types of Squirrel-cage Motors
Different types of 3-phase squirrel-cage motors have been standardized,
according to their electric characteristics, into six types, designated as
design A, B, C, D, E and F respectively. The original commercial squirrel-
cage induction motors which were of shallow slot type are designated as
class A. For this reason, Class A motors are used as a reference and are
referred to as ‘normal starting-torque, normal starting-current, normal
slip’ motors.

Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
(i) Class A - Normal starting torque, normal starting current, normal
slip
(ii) Class B - Normal starting torque, low starting current, normal slip
(iii) Class C - High starting torque, low starting current, normal slip
(iv) Class D - High starting torque, low starting current, high slip
(v) Class E - Low starting torque, normal starting current, low slip
(vi) Class F - Low starting torque, low starting current, normal slip
CLASS# Tst Ist slip
Normal Normal
Class A Normal <5%
(2Tfl) (6-8) Ifl
Class B Normal Low Normal
Class C High Low Normal
Class D High Low High
Class E Low Normal Low
Class F Low Low Normal
Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
Class A Motors
It is the most popular type and employs squirrel cage having relatively
low resistance and reactance. Its locked-rotor current with full voltage is
generally more than 6 times the rated full-load current. For smaller sizes
and number of poles, the starting torque with full voltage is nearly twice
the full-load torque whereas for larger sizes and number of poles, the
corresponding figure is 1.1 times the full-load torque. The full-load slip is
less than 5 per cent. CLASS# Tst Ist slip
Normal Normal
Class A Normal <5%
(2Tfl) (6-8) Ifl
Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
The general configuration of slot construction of such motors is shown
in the following figure. As seen, the rotor bars are placed close to the
surface so as to reduce rotor reactance. Such motors are used for fans,
pumps, compressors and conveyors etc. which are started and stopped
in frequently and have low inertia loads so that the motor can
accelerate in a few seconds.

Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
Class B Motors
These motors are so built that they can be started at full-load while
developing normal starting torque with relatively low starting current.
Their locked-rotor current with full voltage applied is generally 5 times
the full-load current. Their cages are of high reactance. The rotor is
constructed with deep and narrow bars, as shown in the following figure
as shown in the following figure, so as to obtain high reactance during
starting. CLASS# Tst Ist slip
Normal Normal
Class A Normal <5%
(2Tfl) (6-8) Ifl
Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
Such motors are well-suited for those applications where there
is limitation on the starting current or if the starting current is still in
excess of what can be permitted, then reduced voltage starting is
employed. One of the common applications of such motors is
large fans most of which have high moment of inertia. It also finds
wide use in many machine tool applications and for pumps of
centrifugal type.

Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
Class C Motors
Such motors are usually of double squirrel-cage type as shown in the
following figure and combine high starting torque with low starting
current. Their locked-rotor currents and slip with full voltage applied are
nearly the same as for class B motors. Their starting torque with full
voltage applied is usually 2.75 times the full-load torque.
CLASS# Tst Ist slip
Normal Normal
Class A Normal <5%
(2Tfl) (6-8) Ifl

Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
For those applications where reduced voltage starting does not give
sufficient torque to start the load with either class A or B motor, class C
motor, with its high inherent starting torque along with reduced starting
current supplied by reduced-voltage starting may be used. Hence, it is
frequently used for crushers, compression pumps, large refrigerators,
conveyor equipment, etc.

Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
Class D Motors
Such motors are provided with a high-resistance squirrel cage giving the
motor a high starting torque with low starting current. Their locked-
rotor currents with full voltage applied are of the same order as for class
C motors. Their full-load slip varies from 5% to 20 per cent depending on
the application. Their slot structure is shown in the following figure. For
obtaining high starting torque with low starting current, thin rotor bars
are used which make the leakage flux of the rotor low and the useful
CLASS# Tst Ist slip
flux high. Normal Normal
Class A Normal <5%
(2Tfl) (6-8) Ifl
Electric Machines (4) Class F Low Low 15
Normal
Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
Since these motors are used where extremely high starting torque is
essential, they are usually used for bulldozers, shearing machines,
hoists, etc.

Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
Class E Motors
These motors have a relatively low slip at rated load and low starting
torque because of low rotor resistance. For motors above 5 kW rating,
the starting current may be sufficiently high as to require a compensator
or resistance starter. Their slot structure is shown in the following figure.
CLASS# Tst Ist slip

Normal Normal
Class A Normal <5%
(2Tfl) (6-8) Ifl

Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
Class F Motors
Such motors combine a low starting current with a low starting torque
and may be started on full voltage. Their low starting current is due to
the design of rotor which has high reactance during starting. The
following figure shows the construction of rotor for this class. The locked
rotor currents with full voltage applied and the full-load slip are in the
same range as those for class B and C motors. The starting torque with
full voltage applied is nearly 1.25 times the full-torque.
CLASS# Tst Ist slip
Normal Normal
Class A Normal <5%
(2Tfl) (6-8) Ifl
Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
Methods of Starting Three-phase Induction Motors Solved Problems:
1- A 3-phase, 400-V, star-connected induction motor has a star-connected
rotor with a stator to rotor turn ratio of 6.5. The rotor resistance and standstill
reactance per phase are 0.05 Ω and 0.25 Ω respectively. What should be the
value of external resistance per phase to be inserted in the rotor circuit to
obtain maximum torque at starting and what will be rotor starting current with
this resistance?
Solution
N1
VL  400V ,  6.5, R2  0.05 , X 2  0.25 , Rext  ? to giveTst max
N2
I 2 st  ? at Tst max
at Tst max  ( R2  Rext )  X 2
Rext  0.25  0.05  0.2 
V1  400 / 3  231 V
E1  V1
E2  E1 ( N 2 / N1 )  231(1 / 6.5)  35.5 V
I 2 st  E2 / ( R2  Rex ) 2  X 2 2  100.5 A
1
Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
2- A 150-kw, 3000-V, 50-Hz, 6-pole star-connected induction motor has a star
connected slip-ring rotor with a transformation ratio of 3.6 (stator/rotor). The
rotor resistance is 0.1 Ω/phase and its per phase leakage inductance is
3.61mH. The stator impedance may be neglected. Find the starting current and
starting torque on rated voltage with short-circuited slip rings.
N1
VL  3000V , Y  con, f  50 Hz , p  3,  3.6, R2  0.1,
N2
Ll 2  3.61mH , neglect Z1, I1st  ?, Tst  ?,V1  3000 / 3V
Solution
V1  3000 / 3  1732 V
E1  V1
E2  E1 ( N 2 / N1 )  231(1 / 3.6)  481.12 V
I 2 st  E2 / ( R2 2  X 2 2
X 2  2 fLl 2  1.13 
 I 2 st  424.11 A
2
Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
I1st  I 2 st ( N 2 / N1 )  424.11 / 3.6  117.8 A
Pg Pcu 2
Tst   , s 1
s ss
3I 22st R2
Tst   515.2 Nm
2 f / p

3
Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
3- Find the percentage tapping required on an auto-transformer
required for a squirrel-cage motor to start the motor against 1/4 of full-
load torque. The short-circuit current on normal voltage is 4 times the
full-load current and the full-load slip is 3%.
1
K  ?, Tst  T f , I sc  4 I f , s f  3%
4
Solution
Tst I
 K 2 ( sc ) 2 s f
Tf If
 K  0.72  72%

Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
4- Determine the suitable auto-transformation ratio for starting a 3-phase
induction motor with line current not exceeding three times the full-load
current. The short-circuit current is 5 times the full-load current and full-load
slip is 5%. Estimate also the starting torque in terms of the full-load torque.
Tst
K  ?, I Lst  3I f , I sc  5 I f , s f  5%, ?
Tf
Solution
I Lst  K 2 I sc  3I f
 K 2 (5 I f )  3I f
K  0.775
Tst 2 I sc 2 2 5I f
 K ( ) s f  (0.775) ( )  0.05  0.75
Tf If If

Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
5- The full-load efficiency and power factor of a 12-kW, 440-V, 3-phase
induction motor are 85% and 0.8 lag respectively. The blocked rotor line
current is 45 A at 220 V. Calculate the ratio of starting to full-load current, if the
motor is provided with a star-delta starter. Neglect magnetising current.
 f  85%, Pout  12 kW ,VL  440V , pf  0.8 lag ,
I st
I sc  45 A at Vsc  220V ,  ? for Y /  starter
I f
Solution
Vsc 220
Z sc    4.9 
I sc 45
VL 440
I st    52 A
3Z sc 3  4.9
Pout Pout
f  
Pin 3VL I f pf
I f  23.1
I st
  2.6
If Electric Machines (4) 6
Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
6-Determine approximately the starting torque of an induction motor in terms
of full-load torque when started by means of (a) a star-delta switch (b) an auto-
transformer with 70.7 % tapping. The short-circuit current of the motor at
normal voltage is 6 times the full-load current and the full-load slip is 4%.
Neglect the magnetising current.
Tst
 ? for ( a ) Y /  starter , (b) auto  tra. K  70.7%,
T f
I sc  6 I f , s f  4%
Solution
Tst 1 I
(a)  ( sc ) 2 s f
T f 3 If
Tst 1 6I f 2
  ( )  0.04  0.48
T f 3 If
Tst I
(b)  K 2 ( sc ) 2 s f
T f If
Tst 2 6I f 2
  (0.707) ( )  0.04  0.72
T f If
Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
7-Calculate the steps in a 5-step rotor resistance starter for a 3 phase
induction motor. The slip at the maximum starting current is 2% with
slip-ring short-circuited and the resistance per rotor phase is 0.02 Ω.
n  6, smax  2%, r2  0.02 , 1  ?,  2  ?, 3  ?,  4  ?, 5  ?
Solution
r2
R 1 1 
smax
K  smax1/( n 1)  0.46
R2  K R1  0.46 
R3  K R2  0.21 
R4  K R3  0.096 
R5  K R4  0.044 
1  R1  R2  0.54 ,  2  R2  R3  0.25 
3  R3  R4  0.114  ,  4  R4  R5  0.052 
5  R5  r2  0.024 
Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
1- A 50 Hz, 4-pole, double-cage induction motor has the following equivalent
circuit parameters, all of which are phase values referred to the stator:
stator R1 = 1 Ω X1 = 3 Ω
Outer cage R0′ = 3 Ω X 0′ = 1 Ω
Inner cage Ri′ = 0.6 Ω Xi′ = 5 Ω
The primary is delta-connected and supplied from 440 V. Calculate the starting
torque and the torque when running at a slip of 4%. The magnetising current
may be neglected.
R1  1, X 1  3 , Ro  3 , X o  1, Ri  0.6, X i  5 

  con, VL  400V , Tst  ?, T  ? at s  4%

9
Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
R1  1, X 1  3 , Ro  3 , X o  1, Ri  0.6, X i  5 
  con, VL  400V , Tst  ?, T  ? at s  4%
Solution
At starting , s  1
( Ri  jX i)( Ro  jX o )
Z eq  R1  JX 1 
( Ri  jX i)  ( Ro  jX o )
Z eq  2.68  j 4.54 
V1 440
I1    83.4 A
Z eq 2.68  4.54
2 2
Pg 3I 22R2eq
T   , I 2  I1, R2 eq  Req  R1
s s
3  83.42  (2.68  1)
Tst   35056 synch watt
s
10
Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
R1  1, X 1  3 , Ro  3 , X o  1, Ri  0.6, X i  5 
  con, VL  400V , Tst  ?, T  ? at s  4%
Solution
At starting , s  0.04
( Ri / s  jX i)( Ro / s  jX o )
Z eq  R1  jX 1 
( Ri / s  jX i)  ( Ro / s  jX o )
Z eq  13.68  j 6.49 
V1 440
I1    29.1 A
Z eq 13.482  6.49 2
Pg 3I 22R2eq
T   , I 2  I1, R2 eq  Req  R1
s s
3  29.12  (13.68  1)
T   32130 synch watt
s
11
Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
2- In a double-cage induction motor, if the outer cage has an impedance
at standstill of (2 + j 1.2) ohm, determine the slip at which the two
cages develop equal torques if the inner cage has an impedance of (0.5
+ j 3.5) ohm at standstill.
Z o  2  j1.2, Z i  0.5  j 3.5, s  ?  Ti  To
Solution
3io2 Ro / s E1
To  , io 
s Zo
3E12 Ro / s
To  (1)
( Ro2 / s 2  X o2 )
3E12 Ri / s
Semilarly , Ti  (2)
( Ri2 / s 2  X i2 )
Thus equating equations (1) & (2) gives
3E12 Ro / s 3E12 Ri / s
 (3)
( Ro / s  X o ) ( Ri2 / s 2  X i2 )
2 2 2
from equation (3), s  0.25 Electric Machines (4)

12
Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
3- The full-load slip of a 3-phase double-cage induction motor is 6% and
the two cages have impedances of (3.5 + j 1.5) Ω and (0.6 + j 7.0) Ω
respectively. Neglecting stator impedances and magnetising current,
calculate the starting torque in terms of full-load torque.
s f  0.06, Z o  3.5  j1.5, Z i  0.6  j 7, Tst / T f  ?
Solution
At starting , s  1
Z o Zi (3.5  j1.5)(0.6  j 7)
Z eq  
Z o  Z i (3.5  j1.5)  (0.6  j 7)
Z eq  2.0375 + j1.971 
V1 E1 E1
I1  , Z1 is neglected , Thus E1  V1 , I1  
Z eq 2.03752  1.9712 2.8349
Pg 3I 22R2eq
Tst   , I 2  I1, R2eq  Req
s s
3  E12  (2.0375)
Tst 
(2.8349) 2s Electric Machines (4)
13
Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
At s f  0.06
Z o Zi (3.5 / 0.06  j1.5)(0.6 / 0.06  j 7)
Z eq  
Z o  Z i (3.5 / 0.06  j1.5)  (0.6 / 0.06  j 7)
Z eq  9.0141 + j5.0739 
V1 E1 E1
I1  , Z1 is neglected , Thus E1  V1 , I1  
Z eq 9.01412  5.0739 2 10.344
Pg 3I 22R2eq
Tf   , I 2  I1, R2eq  Req
s s
3  E12  (9.0141)
T f  (2)
(10.344) s
2
Thus from equations (1) &(2)

Tst
  3.01
Tf

14
Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
Speed Control of Three-Phase Induction Motors
1- The rotor of a 4-pole, 50-Hz slip-ring induction motor has a resistance
of 0.30 Ω per phase and runs at 1440 rpm at full load. Calculate the
external resistance per phase which must be added to lower the speed
to 1320 rpm, the torque being the same as before.
p  2, f  50 Hz , R2  0.3 , n1  1440 rpm, R ext  ?, n2  1320 rpm, T  const.
Solution
ns  n1 n  n2
ns  60 f / p  1500 rpm, s1   0.04, s2  s  0.12
ns ns
k s
T
R2
k  0.04
at s1  0.04  T1  (1)
0.3
k  0.12
at s2  0.12  T2  (2)
(0.3  Rext )
T1  T2 , from equations (1) & (2)
 Rext  0.6  Electric Machines (4)
15
Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
2- A 460 V, 250 hp, 60 Hz, 3550 rpm, delta connected, three-phase induction
motor has the following equivalent circuit parameters referred to stator:
R1=0.0203 Ω, R2=0.0127 Ω, Ll1=0.089 mH, Ll2=0.166 mH and Lm=5.7 mH.
The motor is supplied from a voltage source inverter and drives a mechanical
load. The speed-torque characteristic of the mechanical load is represented by:
TL=425-0.225ωm Nm.
The motor is operated at constant air-gap flux which corresponds to rated
condition. Determine the values of the motor input voltage, motor input
current and frequency when the motor is running at (a) 3500 rpm and (b) 1500
rpm. Neglect the friction and windage losses, core losses and the harmonics.
VLr  460V , f r  60 Hz , nr  3550 rpm, R1  0.0203 , R2  0.0127 
Ll1  0.089 mH , Ll 2  0.166 mH , Lm  5.7 mH , TL  425  0.22m Nm
V1  ?, I1, f  ? at n1  1500 rpm,
E / s  K

16
Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
Solution
from rated conditions :
sr  2 f r  378 rad / s
nsr  3600 rpm
nsr  nr
sr   0.0139
nsr
Z mr  jsr Lm  j 2.15 
Z 2 r  R2 / sr  jsr Ll 2  0.9144 + j0.0626 
Z1r  R1  jsr Ll1  0.0203 + j0.0336 
Z mr Z 2 r
Z eqr  Z1r   0.0919 + j2.1284 
Z mr  Z 2 r
V 1r 460
I 1r    9.3126-j215.73 A
Z eqr 0.0919 + j2.1284
E mr  V 1r  I 1r Z1r  452.590.515 V
Emr
K=  1.2005 V / rad / s
sr Electric Machines (4)
17
Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan
at speed n1  1500 rpm :
m1  2 n1 / 60  157.0796 rad / s
TL  425  0.22 m1  390.44 Nm
2
3 pK R2'
2  3 pK R2' 2  R2' 2
s1  pm      ' 2  158.23 rad/s
2TL L'l22  2T L'2
L l2  Ll 2
f1  25.2 Hz
Em  K s10  189.960 V
Em
Im   - j2.10.62 A
js1Lm
s1  pm1
s1   0.0072
s1
Em
I 2'  '  108.41 - j1.6254 A
R2 / s1  js1Ll 2
'
I1  I 2'  I m  108.41 - j22.25 A

V1  Em  I1 ( R1  js1Ll1 )  195.17-0.82 V
18
Dr. Ahmed M. Hassan

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The remaining Course Contents:

• Starting of Induction Motors (Methods of Starting 3-Phase Induction

Electric Machines (4) 1

1- B.L. Theraja, “Electrical Technology”, text book.

2- Fitzgerald, “Electric Machinery”, text book.

3- S. B. DEWAN , “Power Semiconductor Drives” text book.

4- V. K. Mehta, “Principles of Electrical Machines” text book.

Electric Machines (4)

Electric Machines (4)

Electric Machines (4)

Electric Machines (4)

Electric Machines (4)

equals rotor reactance.

Electric Machines (4)

Electric Machines (4)

Electric Machines (4)

Electric Machines (4)

Let us illustrate the above relation with a numerical example.

Electric Machines (4)

Electric Machines (4)

Electric Machines (4)

Electric Machines (4)

Electric Machines (4) 4

Electric Machines (4) 5

Electric Machines (4) 7

Electric Machines (4) 8

Electric Machines (4) 1

Electric Machines (4) 2

Electric Machines (4)

Electric Machines (4)

Electric Machines (4)

where smax = slip under normal running conditions, when external

Electric Machines (4) 6

From equations (1) and (2) we get,

From equation (1) it is seen that

From equation (3), we obtain

Electric Machines (4) 7

Electric Machines (4) 8

Electric Machines (4) 9

Electric Machines (4) 11

Electric Machines (4) 12

Electric Machines (4) 13

Electric Machines (4) 14

Electric Machines (4) 15

Electric Machines (4) 16

Electric Machines (4) 1

Electric Machines (4) 2

Electric Machines (4)

Electric Machines (4) 7

Electric Machines (4) 8

Electric Machines (4) 9

Electric Machines (4) 10

Electric Machines (4) 11

Electric Machines (4) 12

I 2'  Em / ( R2' / s ) 2  (s L'l 2 ) 2 (4)

Electric Machines (4) 14

usually the ratio is taken to be constant at rated condition, i.e:

Electric Machines (4) 15

Electric Machines (4) 16

Electric Machines (4) 17

Electric Machines (4) 18

Electric Machines (4) 19

Electric Machines (4)

3. Calculate the fundamental air-gab voltage from: