Civil Engineering Materials

CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT
LECTURE NOTES
ON
CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIALS
CVL 618
PGD CLASS
BY
ENGR. ULOKO JOSIAH ONU
FEBRUARY, 2020
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Rheology of Concrete – Rheological Parameters of Fresh Concrete
The study of rheology of concrete provides information on properties of fresh concrete
such as deformation, behavior of mix, and placement of mixed concrete.
Rheology is a term that is mainly used for fluids whose flow properties are complicated
in nature, other than fluids like liquids or gases. The term rheology may be defined as the
study of the science of the flow and deformation of materials.
In the concrete study, the concept of rheology may be applied to analyze the hardened
concrete deformation, the behavior of cement paste and slurries, handling and placing of
mixed concrete in its fresh state. Hence rheology is applied in all states of concrete (fresh
to hardened).
Rheology of Fresh Concrete
When we deal with the rheology of fresh concrete, parameters that are to be considered
are stability, mobility and compactability. These are the main factors which measure the
suitability of a concrete mix. Now when dealing with rheology, the measurement is more
based on stress, strain or rate of strain and the time factors.
The stability, mobility and the compactability factors are expressed in terms of the forces
or stresses dealing with the concrete mix. These are caused due to the transmission of
mechanical stresses within it.
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The rheology of fresh concrete can be expressed by means of following flow chart in
fig.1.
Fig.1. The Rheological Parameters of Fresh Concrete
Stability Parameter in Fresh Concrete Rheology
Stability is the property of a concrete mix when the aggregate particles within the mix
possess a homogeneous dispersion and resemble a sampling in a random manner. This
property is shown during its conveyance, placement as well as during compaction. Now
there are two factors that measure the stability of the mixture. They are
 Segregation
 Bleeding
The segregation can be defined as the phenomenon of the settlement of aggregate mixture
in the homogeneous dispersion due to the weak concrete mix. The weak concrete mix is
termed to be an unstable mix.
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Now how to extend the mix can resist the failure through segregation depends upon the
cohesion between the individual particles. Segregation is not limited to wet consistencies
alone. It can appear in the dry mix too.
Now in wet mix, the segregation mainly occurs when the water content level in the mix is
such a way that throughout the course of transportation, placing and compaction, the
paste cannot hold the aggregate in a well-distributed manner.
A lower water-cement ratio results in a crumbly mix that results in dry segregation. This
mainly appears during its handling. Now the dry segregation cope up slowly during
compaction. During compaction with vibration, they gain fluidity and cohesion with time
as well as resistance to shear.
Bleeding is a phenomenon of water release when the concrete mix has an unstable
mortar. The bleeding has to be under controlled or its chances of occurrence have to
reduced.
Mobility Parameter in Rheology of Concrete
The ability of the concrete fluid mix to flow is defined as its mobility. This mobility is
happening by the action of mechanical stresses, which is also called as moment transfer.
There are many factors that restrict the concrete flow like:
 Cohesive forces
 Frictional forces
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 Viscous forces
The adhesive forces between the aggregates and whole matrix result in increasing
cohesiveness, which in turn restricts the flow of concrete mix. The cohesiveness is a
factor that results in increasing tensile strength of the concrete mix. This parameter as
discussed above is a factor that avoids the possibilities of segregation.
The viscosity is defined as the resistance to flow. Now this parameter would measure
how to extend the concrete mix are movable. This also shows the capability of the
concrete mix to arrange them within the matrix (Mostly during the placement of mix in
the mould).
There won’t be any flow under lower stresses with the mixing behavior like a solid. This
means it will be having a higher viscosity. With the increase in stress, the strength that
binds the matrix together would decrease.
This decrease will be insufficient to resist the flow, thereby decreasing the viscous forces
within the fluid. Hence the solid behavior is converted into liquid form.
The frictional force internally within the mix occurs when the mixture gets displaced.
This situation will make the aggregates to translate and rotate. The main governing
factors that would help the concrete mix to have resistance against deformation are:
 Shape and Texture of the aggregates used in the concrete mix
 The extent to which the mixture is rich
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 Water – cement ratio
 The type of cement
Another factor that governs the mobility of concrete mix is the angle of friction. The
triaxial compression test is performed to find the mobility of the concrete mix. Vee – Bee
test along with compacting factor test to find the relative mobility of the mix at the site.
Compactability Parameter in Rheology of Concrete
The ease with which the concrete is compacted can be represented by the parameter
compactability. The compaction process involves the expulsion of air bubbles within the
concrete mix and repositioning the aggregates so that a dense mass is obtained. Care is
taken to avoid segregation.
Compactability is measured by means of compacting factor test. The method has certain
limitations as it sticks to the hopper test apparatus. This test show variation in the result
when the mix is high or low workable in nature.
The proper measurement of the compaction can be determined by two stages. The first
stage of measurement determines the density of the mix in its loose or un-compacted
state. Here the mix is simply placed on the hopper without any kind of compaction.
The next stage involves the measurement of compacted mix. The mix is placed in three
layers, each compacted with a 25mm diameter internal vibrator.
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The above two values compared with the standard compaction factor test, would give us
transmission of the mixture from its loose stage to compacted state. This gives the
measure of void content present tin the concrete. The extent of void content will help to
give an indication of durability, permeability and the strength of concrete.
The concrete mixture is best chosen by knowing the rheological properties of concrete.
The test like workability, Vee – Bee and compaction factor tests are found to have limited
scope as they measure only a single parameter and are called single point tests.
Concrete
The word concrete comes from the Latin word "concretus" (meaning compact or
condensed
Concrete is a composite material composed of fine and coarse aggregate bonded together
with a fluid cement (cement paste) that hardens (cures) over time. In the
past limebased cement binders were often used, such as lime putty, but sometimes with
other hydraulic cements, such as a calcium aluminate cement or with Portland cement to
form Portland cement concrete (for its visual resemblance to Portland stone). Many
other non-cementitious types of concrete exist with different methods of binding
aggregate together, including asphalt concrete with a bitumen binder, which is frequently
used for road surfaces, and polymer concretes that use polymers as a binder.
When aggregate is mixed with dry Portland cement and water, the mixture forms a
fluid slurry that is easily poured and molded into shape. The cement reacts with the water
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and other ingredients to form a hard matrix that binds the materials together into a
durable stone-like material that has many uses. Often, additives (such
as pozzolans or superplasticizers) are included in the mixture to improve the physical
properties of the wet mix or the finished material. Most concrete is poured with
reinforcing materials (such as rebar) embedded to provide tensile strength,
yielding reinforced concrete.
Because concrete cures (which is not the same as drying such as with paint) how concrete
is handled after it is poured is just as important as before. Concrete is one of the most
frequently used building materials. Its usage worldwide, ton for ton, is twice that of steel,
wood, plastics, and aluminum combined.
Ancient times
Small-scale production of concrete-like materials was pioneered by the Nabatean traders
who occupied and controlled a series of oases and developed a small empire in the
regions of southern Syria and northern Jordan from the 4th century BC. They discovered
the advantages of hydraulic lime, with some self-cementing properties, by 700 BC. They
built kilns to supply mortar for the construction of rubble masonry houses, concrete
floors, and underground waterproof cisterns. They kept the cisterns secret as these
enabled the Nabataeans to thrive in the desert. Some of these structures survive to this
day.
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Classical era
In the Ancient Egyptian and later Roman eras, builders discovered that adding volcanic
ash to the mix allowed it to set underwater.
Concrete floors were found in the royal palace of Tiryns, Greece, which dates roughly to
1400–1200 BC. Lime mortars were used in Greece, Crete, and Cyprus in 800 BC.
The Assyrian Jerwan Aqueduct (688 BC) made use of waterproof concrete. Concrete was
used for construction in many ancient structures.
The Romans used concrete extensively from 300 BC to 476 AD. During the Roman
Empire, Roman concrete (or opus caementicium) was made
from quicklime, pozzolana and an aggregate of pumice. Its widespread use in
many Roman structures, a key event in the history of architecture termed the Roman
architectural revolution, freed Roman construction from the restrictions of stone and
brick materials. It enabled revolutionary new designs in terms of both structural
complexity and dimension. The Colosseum in Rome was built largely of concrete, and
the concrete dome of the Pantheon is the world's largest unreinforced concrete dome.
Concrete, as the Romans knew it, was a new and revolutionary material. Laid in the
shape of arches, vaults and domes, it quickly hardened into a rigid mass, free from many
of the internal thrusts and strains that troubled the builders of similar structures in stone
or brick.
Modern tests show that opus caementicium had as much compressive strength as modern
Portland-cement concrete (ca. 200 kg/cm2 [20 MPa; 2,800 psi]). However, due to the
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absence of reinforcement, its tensile strength was far lower than modern reinforced
concrete, and its mode of application was also different:
Modern structural concrete differs from Roman concrete in two important details.
First, its mix consistency is fluid and homogeneous, allowing it to be poured into
forms rather than requiring hand-layering together with the placement of aggregate,
which, in Roman practice, often consisted of rubble.
Second, integral reinforcing steel gives modern concrete assemblies great strength
in tension, whereas Roman concrete could depend only upon the strength of the concrete
bonding to resist tension.
The long-term durability of Roman concrete structures has been found to be due to its use
of pyroclastic (volcanic) rock and ash, whereby crystallization of strätlingite (a specific
and complex calcium aluminosilicate hydrate) and the coalescence of this and similar
calcium–aluminum-silicate–hydrate cementing binders helped give the concrete a greater
degree of fracture resistance even in seismically active environments. Roman concrete is
significantly more resistant to erosion by seawater than modern concrete; it used
pyroclastic materials which react with seawater to form Al-tobermorite crystals over
time.
The widespread use of concrete in many Roman structures ensured that many survive to
the present day. The Baths of Caracalla in Rome are just one example. Many Roman
aqueducts and bridges, such as the magnificent Pont du Gard in southern France, have
masonry cladding on a concrete core, as does the dome of the Pantheon.
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After the Roman Empire collapsed, use of concrete became rare until the technology was
redeveloped in the mid-18th century. Worldwide, concrete has overtaken steel in tonnage
of material used.
Middle Ages
After the Roman Empire, the use of burned lime and pozzolana was greatly reduced. Low
kiln temperatures in the burning of lime, lack of pozzolana and poor mixing all
contributed to a decline in the quality of concrete and mortar. From the 11th century, the
increased use of stone in church and castle construction led to an increased demand for
mortar. Quality began to improve in the 12th century through better grinding and sieving.
Medieval lime mortars and concretes were non-hydraulic and were used for binding
masonry, "hearting" (binding rubble masonry cores) and foundations. Bartholomaeus
Anglicus in his De proprietatibus rerum (1240) describes the making of mortar. In an
English translation of 1397, it reads "lyme ... is a stone brent; by medlynge thereof with
sonde and water sement is made". From the 14th century the quality of mortar is again
excellent, but only from the 17th century is pozzolana commonly added.
The Canal du Midi was built using concrete in 1670.
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Industrial era
Smeaton's Tower
Perhaps the greatest step forward in the modern use of concrete was Smeaton's Tower,
built by British engineer John Smeaton in Devon, England, between 1756 and 1759. This
third Eddystone Lighthouse pioneered the use of hydraulic lime in concrete, using
pebbles and powdered brick as aggregate.
A method for producing Portland cement was developed in England and patented
by Joseph Aspdin in 1824. Aspdin chose the name for its similarity to Portland stone,
which was quarried on the Isle of Portland in Dorset, England. His son William continued
developments into the 1840s, earning him recognition for the development of "modern"
Portland cement.
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Reinforced concrete was invented in 1849 by Joseph Monier and the first house was
built by François Coignet in 1853. The first concrete reinforced bridge was designed and
built by Joseph Monier in 1875.
Composition of Concrete:
Concrete is a composite material, comprising a matrix of aggregate (typically a rocky
material) and a binder (typically Portland cement or asphalt), which holds the matrix
together. Many types of concrete are available, determined by the formulations of binders
and the types of aggregate used to suit the application for the material. These variables
determine strength, density, as well as chemical and thermal resistance of the finished
product.
Aggregate consists of large chunks of material in a concrete mix, generally a
coarse gravel or crushed rocks such as limestone, or granite, along with finer materials
such as sand.
A cement, most commonly Portland cement, is the most prevalent kind of concrete
binder. For cementitious binders, water is mixed with the dry powder and aggregate,
which produces a semi-liquid slurry that can be shaped, typically by pouring it into a
form. The concrete solidifies and hardens through a chemical process called hydration.
The water reacts with the cement, which bonds the other components together, creating a
robust stone-like material. Other cementitious materials, such as fly ash and slag cement,
are sometimes added—either pre-blended with the cement or directly as a concrete
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component—and become a part of the binder for the aggregate. Admixtures are added to
modify the cure rate or properties of the material.
Mineral admixtures use recycled materials as concrete ingredients. Conspicuous materials
include fly ash, a by-product of coal-fired power plants; ground granulated blast furnace
slag, a byproduct of steelmaking; and silica fume, a byproduct of industrial electric arc
furnaces.
Structures employing Portland cement concrete usually include steel
reinforcement because this type of concrete can be formulated with high compressive
strength, but always has lower tensile strength. Therefore, it is usually reinforced with
materials that are strong in tension, typically steel rebar.
Other materials can also be used as a concrete binder, the most prevalent alternative
is asphalt, which is used as the binder in asphalt concrete.
The mix design depends on the type of structure being built, how the concrete is mixed
and delivered, and how it is placed to form the structure.
Cement
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Several tons of bagged cement, about two minutes of output from a 10,000 ton per
day cement kiln
Portland cement is the most common type of cement in general usage. It is a basic
ingredient of concrete, mortar and many plasters. British masonry worker Joseph
Aspdin patented Portland cement in 1824. It was named because of the similarity of its
color to Portland limestone, quarried from the English Isle of Portland and used
extensively in London architecture. It consists of a mixture of calcium silicates
(alite, belite), aluminates and ferrites—compounds which combine calcium, silicon,
aluminum and iron in forms which will react with water. Portland cement and similar
materials are made by heating limestone (a source of calcium) with clay or shale (a
source of silicon, aluminum and iron) and grinding this product (called clinker) with a
source of sulfate (most commonly gypsum).
In modern cement kilns many advanced features are used to lower the fuel consumption
per ton of clinker produced. Cement kilns are extremely large, complex, and inherently
dusty industrial installations, and have emissions which must be controlled. Of the
various ingredients used to produce a given quantity of concrete, the cement is the most
energetically expensive. Even complex and efficient kilns require 3.3 to 3.6 gigajoules of
energy to produce a ton of clinker and then grind it into cement. Many kilns can be fueled
with difficult-to-dispose-of wastes, the most common being used tires. The extremely
high temperatures and long periods of time at those temperatures allows cement kilns to
efficiently and completely burn even difficult-to-use fuels.
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Water
Combining water with a cementitious material forms a cement paste by the process of
hydration. The cement paste glues the aggregate together, fills voids within it, and makes
it flow more freely.
As stated by Abrams' law, a lower water-to-cement ratio yields a stronger,
more durable concrete, whereas more water gives a freer-flowing concrete with a
higher slump. Impure water used to make concrete can cause problems when setting or in
causing premature failure of the structure.
Hydration involves many different reactions, often occurring at the same time. As the
reactions proceed, the products of the cement hydration process gradually bond together
the individual sand and gravel particles and other components of the concrete to form a
solid mass.
Reaction:
Cement chemist notation: C3S + H → C-S-H + CH
Standard notation: Ca3SiO5 + H2O → (CaO)·(SiO2)·(H2O)(gel) + Ca(OH)2
Balanced: 2Ca3SiO5 + 7H2O → 3(CaO)·2(SiO2)·4(H2O)(gel) +
3Ca(OH)2 (approximately; the exact ratios of the CaO, SiO2and H2O in C-S-H can
vary)
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Aggregates
Crushed stone aggregate
Fine and coarse aggregates make up the bulk of a concrete mixture. Sand, natural gravel,
and crushed stone are used mainly for this purpose. Recycled aggregates (from
construction, demolition, and excavation waste) are increasingly used as partial
replacements for natural aggregates, while a number of manufactured aggregates,
including air-cooled blast furnace slag and bottom ash are also permitted.
The size distribution of the aggregate determines how much binder is required. Aggregate
with a very even size distribution has the biggest gaps whereas adding aggregate with
smaller particles tends to fill these gaps. The binder must fill the gaps between the
aggregate as well as paste the surfaces of the aggregate together, and is typically the most
expensive component. Thus, variation in sizes of the aggregate reduces the cost of
concrete.
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The aggregate is nearly always stronger than the binder, so its use does not negatively
affect the strength of the concrete. Redistribution of aggregates after compaction often
creates inhomogeneity due to the influence of vibration. This can lead to strength
gradients.
Decorative stones such as quartzite, small river stones or crushed glass are sometimes
added to the surface of concrete for a decorative "exposed aggregate" finish, popular
among landscape designers.
Reinforcement
Constructing a rebar cage that will be permanently embedded in a finished reinforced
concrete structure
Concrete is strong in compression, as the aggregate efficiently carries the compression
load. However, it is weak in tension as the cement holding the aggregate in place can
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crack, allowing the structure to fail. Reinforced concrete adds either steel reinforcing
bars, steel fibers, aramid fibers, carbon fibers, glass fibers, or plastic fibers to
carry tensile loads.
Admixtures
Admixtures are materials in the form of powder or fluids that are added to the concrete to
give it certain characteristics not obtainable with plain concrete mixes. Admixtures are
defined as additions "made as the concrete mix is being prepared". The most common
admixtures are retarders and accelerators. In normal use, admixture dosages are less than
5% by mass of cement and are added to the concrete at the time of batching/mixing.
The common types of admixtures are as follows:
 Accelerators speed up the hydration (hardening) of the concrete. Typical
materials used are calcium chloride, calcium nitrate and sodium nitrate.
However, use of chlorides may cause corrosion in steel reinforcing and is
prohibited in some countries, so that nitrates may be favored, even though
they are less effective than the chloride salt. Accelerating admixtures are
especially useful for modifying the properties of concrete in cold weather.
 Air entraining agents add and entrain tiny air bubbles in the concrete,
which reduces damage during freeze-thaw cycles, increasing durability.
However, entrained air entails a trade off with strength, as each 1% of air
may decrease compressive strength by 5%. If too much air becomes
trapped in the concrete as a result of the mixing process, Defoamers can be

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used to encourage the air bubble to agglomerate, rise to the surface of the
wet concrete and then disperse.
 Bonding agents are used to create a bond between old and new concrete
(typically a type of polymer) with wide temperature tolerance and
corrosion resistance.
 Corrosion inhibitors are used to minimize the corrosion of steel and steel
bars in concrete.
 Crystalline admixtures are typically added during batching of the concrete
to lower permeability. The reaction takes place when exposed to water and
un-hydrated cement particles to form insoluble needle-shaped crystals,
which fill capillary pores and micro-cracks in the concrete to block
pathways for water and waterborne contaminates. Concrete with
crystalline admixture can expect to self-seal as constant exposure to water
will continuously initiate crystallization to ensure permanent waterproof
protection.
 Pigments can be used to change the color of concrete, for aesthetics.
 Plasticizers increase the workability of plastic, or "fresh", concrete,
allowing it to be placed more easily, with less consolidating effort. A
typical plasticizer is lignosulfonate. Plasticizers can be used to reduce the
water content of a concrete while maintaining workability and are
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sometimes called water-reducers due to this use. Such treatment improves
its strength and durability characteristics.
 Superplasticizers (also called high-range water-reducers) are a class of
plasticizers that have fewer deleterious effects and can be used to increase
workability more than is practical with traditional plasticizers.
Superplasticizers are used to increase compressive strength. It increases
the workability of the concrete and lowers the need for water content by
15–30%. Superplasticizers lead to retarding effects.
 Pumping aids improve pumpability, thicken the paste and reduce
separation and bleeding.
 Retarders slow the hydration of concrete and are used in large or difficult
pours where partial setting before the pour is complete is undesirable.
Typical polyol retarders are sugar, sucrose, sodium
gluconate, glucose, citric acid, and tartaric acid.
Mineral admixtures and blended cements

Components of Cement:
Comparison of Chemical and Physical Characteristics
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Portla Calcareo
Siliceous s Slag Silica
Property nd
fly ash cement fume
cement fly ash
SiO2 21.9 52 35 35 85–97
Al2O
6.9 23 18 12 —
3
Fe2
3 11 6 1 —
Conte O3
nt (%)
CaO 63 5 21 40 <1
Mg
2.5 — — — —
O
SO3 1.7 — — — —
Specific 15,000
surface[d] 370 420 420 400 –
(m2/kg) 30,000
Specific
3.15 2.38 2.65 2.94 2.22
gravity
Propert
Primar Cement Cement Cement
General use y
y replaceme replaceme replaceme
in concrete enhanc
binder nt nt nt
er
1. ^ Values shown are approximate: those of a specific material

may vary.
2. ^ ASTM C618 Class F
3. ^ ASTM C618 Class C
4. ^ Specific surface measurements for silica fume by nitrogen
adsorption (BET) method, others by air permeability method
(Blaine).
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Inorganic materials that have pozzolanic or latent hydraulic properties, these
very fine-grained materials are added to the concrete mix to improve the properties of
concrete (mineral admixtures), or as a replacement for Portland cement (blended
cements). Products which incorporate limestone, fly ash, blast furnace slag, and other
useful materials with pozzolanic properties into the mix, are being tested and used. This
development is due to cement production being one of the largest producers (at about 5 to
10%) of global greenhouse gas emissions, as well as lowering costs, improving concrete
properties, and recycling wastes.
 Fly ash: A by-product of coal-fired electric generating plants, it is used to
partially replace Portland cement (by up to 60% by mass). The properties
of fly ash depend on the type of coal burnt. In general, siliceous fly ash is
pozzolanic, while calcareous fly ash has latent hydraulic properties.
 Ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS or GGBS): A by-product of
steel production is used to partially replace Portland cement (by up to 80%
by mass). It has latent hydraulic properties.
 Silica fume: A byproduct of the production of silicon
and ferrosilicon alloys. Silica fume is similar to fly ash, but has a particle
size 100 times smaller. This results in a higher surface-to-volume ratio and
a much faster pozzolanic reaction. Silica fume is used to increase strength
and durability of concrete, but generally requires the use of
superplasticizers for workability.
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 High reactivity Metakaolin (HRM): Metakaolin produces concrete with
strength and durability similar to concrete made with silica fume. While
silica fume is usually dark gray or black in color, high-reactivity
metakaolin is usually bright white in color, making it the preferred choice
for architectural concrete where appearance is important.
 Carbon nanofibers can be added to concrete to enhance compressive
strength and gain a higher Young’s modulus, and also to improve the
electrical properties required for strain monitoring, damage evaluation and
self-health monitoring of concrete. Carbon fiber has many advantages in
terms of mechanical and electrical properties (e.g., higher strength) and
self-monitoring behavior due to the high tensile strength and high
conductivity.
 Carbon products have been added to make concrete electrically
conductive, for deicing purposes.
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Production
Concrete plant showing a concrete mixer being filled from ingredient silos
Concrete production is the process of mixing together the various ingredients—water,
aggregate, cement, and any additives—to produce concrete. Concrete production is time-
sensitive. Once the ingredients are mixed, workers must put the concrete in place before
it hardens. In modern usage, most concrete production takes place in a large type of
industrial facility called a concrete plant, or often a batch plant.
In general usage, concrete plants come in two main types, ready mix plants and central
mix plants. A ready-mix plant mixes all the ingredients except water, while a central mix
plant mixes all the ingredients including water. A central-mix plant offers more accurate
control of the concrete quality through better measurements of the amount of water
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added, but must be placed closer to the work site where the concrete will be used, since
hydration begins at the plant.
A concrete plant consists of large storage hoppers for various reactive ingredients like
cement, storage for bulk ingredients like aggregate and water, mechanisms for the
addition of various additives and amendments, machinery to accurately weigh, move, and
mix some or all of those ingredients, and facilities to dispense the mixed concrete, often
to a concrete mixer truck.
Modern concrete is usually prepared as a viscous fluid, so that it may be poured into
forms, which are containers erected in the field to give the concrete its desired shape.
Concrete formwork can be prepared in several ways, such as slip forming and steel plate
construction. Alternatively, concrete can be mixed into dryer, non-fluid forms and used in
factory settings to manufacture precast concrete products.
A wide variety of equipment is used for processing concrete, from hand tools to heavy
industrial machinery. Whichever equipment builders use, however, the objective is to
produce the desired building material; ingredients must be properly mixed, placed,
shaped, and retained within time constraints. Any interruption in pouring the concrete can
cause the initially placed material to begin to set before the next batch is added on top.
This creates a horizontal plane of weakness called a cold joint between the two
batches. Once the mix is where it should be, the curing process must be controlled to
ensure that the concrete attains the desired attributes. During concrete preparation,
various technical details may affect the quality and nature of the product.
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Mixing
Thorough mixing is essential to produce uniform, high-quality concrete.
Separate paste mixing has shown that the mixing of cement and water into a paste before
combining these materials with aggregates can increase the compressive strength of the
resulting concrete. The paste is generally mixed in a high-speed, shear-type mixer at
a w/cm (water to cement ratio) of 0.30 to 0.45 by mass. The cement paste premix may
include admixtures such as accelerators or retarders, superplasticizers, pigments, or silica
fume. The premixed paste is then blended with aggregates and any remaining batch water
and final mixing is completed in conventional concrete mixing equipment.
Mix Ratios
Concrete Mixes are primarily divided into two types, nominal mix and design mix:
Nominal Mix ratios are given in volume of Nominal mixes are a simple, fast way of
getting a basic idea of the properties of the finished concrete without having to perform
testing in advance.
Various governing bodies (such as British Standards) define nominal mix ratios into a
number of grades, usually ranging from lower compressive strength to higher
compressive strength. The grades usually indicate the 28-day cube strength. For
example, in Indian standards, the mixes of grades M10, M15, M20 and M25 correspond
approximately to the mix proportions (1:3:6), (1:2:4), (1:1.5:3) and (1:1:2) respectively.
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Design mix ratios are decided by an engineer after analyzing the properties of the
specific ingredients being used. Instead of using a 'nominal mix' of 1 part cement, 2 parts
sand, and 4 parts aggregate (the second example from above), a civil engineer will
custom-design a concrete mix to exactly meet the requirements of the site and conditions,
setting material ratios and often designing an admixture package to fine-tune the
properties or increase the performance envelope of the mix. Design-mix concrete can
have very broad specifications that cannot be met with more basic nominal mixes, but the
involvement of the engineer often increases the cost of the concrete mix.
Workability
Concrete floor of a parking garage being placed
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Pouring and smoothing out concrete at Palisades Park in Washington, DC
Workability is the ability of a fresh (plastic) concrete mix to fill the form/mold properly
with the desired work (pouring, pumping, spreading, tamping, vibration) and without
reducing the concrete's quality. Workability depends on water content, aggregate (shape
and size distribution), cementitious content and age (level of hydration) and can be
modified by adding chemical admixtures, like superplasticizer. Raising the water content
or adding chemical admixtures increases concrete workability.
Excessive water leads to increased bleeding or segregation of aggregates (when the
cement and aggregates start to separate), with the resulting concrete having reduced
quality. The use of an aggregate blend with an undesirable gradation[60] can result in a
very harsh mix design with a very low slump, which cannot readily be made more
workable by addition of reasonable amounts of water. An undesirable gradation can mean
using a large aggregate that is too large for the size of the formwork, or which has too
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few smaller aggregate grades to serve to fill the gaps between the larger grades, or using
too little or too much sand for the same reason, or using too little water, or too much
cement, or even using jagged crushed stone instead of smoother round aggregate such as
pebbles.
Any combination of these factors and others may result in a mix which is too harsh, i.e.,
which does not flow or spread out smoothly, is difficult to get into the formwork, and
which is difficult to surface finish.
Workability can be measured by the concrete slump test, a simple measure of the
plasticity of a fresh batch of concrete following the ASTM C 143 or EN 12350-2 test
standards. Slump is normally measured by filling an "Abrams cone" with a sample from a
fresh batch of concrete. The cone is placed with the wide end down onto a level, non-
absorptive surface. It is then filled in three layers of equal volume, with each layer being
tamped with a steel rod to consolidate the layer.
When the cone is carefully lifted off, the enclosed material slumps a certain amount,
owing to gravity. A relatively dry sample slumps very little, having a slump value of one
or two inches (25 or 50 mm) out of one foot (305 mm). A relatively wet concrete sample
may slump as much as eight inches. Workability can also be measured by the flow table
test.
Slump can be increased by addition of chemical admixtures such as plasticizer
or superplasticizer without changing the water-cement ratio. Some other admixtures,
especially air-entraining admixture, can increase the slump of a mix.
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High-flow concrete, like self-consolidating concrete, is tested by other flow-measuring
methods. One of these methods includes placing the cone on the narrow end and
observing how the mix flows through the cone while it is gradually lifted.
After mixing, concrete is a fluid and can be pumped to the location where needed.
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Curing
A concrete slab being kept hydrated during water curing by submersion (ponding)
Concrete must be kept moist during curing in order to achieve optimal strength
and durability. During curing hydration occurs, allowing calcium-silicate hydrate (C-S-
H) to form. Over 90% of a mix's final strength is typically reached within four weeks,
with the remaining 10% achieved over years or even decades.
The conversion of calcium hydroxide in the concrete into calcium carbonate from
absorption of CO2 over several decades further strengthens the concrete and makes it
more resistant to damage. This carbonation reaction, however, lowers the pH of the
cement pore solution and can corrode the reinforcement bars.
Hydration and hardening of concrete during the first three days is critical. Abnormally
fast drying and shrinkage due to factors such as evaporation from wind during placement
may lead to increased tensile stresses at a time when it has not yet gained sufficient
strength, resulting in greater shrinkage cracking. The early strength of the concrete can be
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increased if it is kept damp during the curing process. Minimizing stress prior to curing
minimizes cracking. High-early-strength concrete is designed to hydrate faster, often by
increased use of cement that increases shrinkage and cracking.
The strength of concrete changes (increases) for up to three years. It depends on cross-
section dimension of elements and conditions of structure exploitation. Addition of short-
cut polymer fibers can improve (reduce) shrinkage-induced stresses during curing and
increase early and ultimate compression strength.
Properly curing concrete leads to increased strength and lower permeability and avoids
cracking where the surface dries out prematurely. Care must also be taken to avoid
freezing or overheating due to the exothermic setting of cement. Improper curing can
cause scaling, reduced strength, poor abrasion resistance and cracking.
Techniques
During the curing period, concrete is ideally maintained at controlled temperature and
humidity. To ensure full hydration during curing, concrete slabs are often sprayed with
"curing compounds" that create a water-retaining film over the concrete. Typical films
are made of wax or related hydrophobic compounds. After the concrete is sufficiently
cured, the film is allowed to abrade from the concrete through normal use.
Traditional conditions for curing involve by spraying or ponding the concrete surface
with water. The adjacent picture shows one of many ways to achieve this, ponding—
submerging setting concrete in water and wrapping in plastic to prevent dehydration.
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Additional common curing methods include wet burlap and plastic sheeting covering the
fresh concrete.
For higher-strength applications, accelerated curing techniques may be applied to the
concrete. A common technique involves heating the poured concrete with steam, which
serves to both keep it damp and raise the temperature, so that the hydration process
proceeds more quickly and more thoroughly.
Concrete Mix Design Calculation for M20, M25, M30 Concrete with Procedure &
Example
Concrete mix design is the process of finding right proportions of cement, sand and
aggregates for concrete to achieve target strength in structures. So, concrete mix design
can be stated as Concrete Mix = Cement:Sand:Aggregates.
The concrete mix design involves various steps, calculations and laboratory testing to
find right mix proportions. This process is usually adopted for structures which requires
higher grades of concrete such as M25 and above and large construction projects where
quantity of concrete consumption is huge.
Benefits of concrete mix design is that it provides the right proportions of materials, thus
making the concrete construction economical in achieving required strength of structural
members. As, the quantity of concrete required for large constructions are huge, economy
in quantity of materials such as cement makes the project construction economical.
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Concrete Mix design of M20, M25, M30 and higher grade of concrete can be calculated
from example below.
Concrete Mix Design
Data Required for Concrete Mix Design
(i) Concrete Mix Design Stipulation
(a) Characteristic compressive strength required in the field at 28 days grade designation
— M 25
(b) Nominal maximum size of aggregate — 20 mm
(c) Shape of CA — Angular
(d) Degree of workability required at site — 50-75 mm (slump)
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(e) Degree of quality control available at site — As per IS:456
(f) Type of exposure the structure will be subjected to (as defined in IS: 456) — Mild
(g) Type of cement: PSC conforming IS:455
(h) Method of concrete placing: pump able concrete
(ii) Test data of material (to be determined in the laboratory)
(a) Specific gravity of cement — 3.15
(b) Specific gravity of FA — 2.64
(c) Specific gravity of CA — 2.84
(d) Aggregate are assumed to be in saturated surface dry condition.
(e) Fine aggregates confirm to Zone II of IS – 383
Procedure for Concrete Mix Design of M25 Concrete
Step 1 — Determination Of Target Strength
Himsworth constant for 5% risk factor is 1.65. In this case standard deviation is taken
from IS:456 against M 20 is 4.0.
ftarget = fck + 1.65 x S
= 25 + 1.65 x 4.0 = 31.6 N/mm2
Where,
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S = standard deviation in N/mm2 = 4 (as per table -1 of IS 10262- 2009)
Step 2 — Selection of water / cement ratio:-
From Table 5 of IS 456, (page no 20)
Maximum water-cement ratio for Mild exposure condition = 0.55
Based on experience, adopt water-cement ratio as 0.5.
0.5<0.55, hence OK.
Step 3 — Selection of Water Content
From Table 2 of IS 10262- 2009,
Maximum water content = 186 Kg (for Nominal maximum size of aggregate — 20 mm)
Table for Correction in water content
Values as per Values as per Correction in

Parameters Standard reference Present Departure Water
condition Problem Content
(+3/25) x 25 =
Slump 25-50 mm 50-75 25
+3
Shape of
Angular Angular Nil –
Aggregate
Total +3
Estimated water content = 186+ (3/100) x 186 = 191.6 kg /m3
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Step 4 — Selection of Cement Content
Water-cement ratio = 0.5
Corrected water content = 191.6 kg /m3
Cement content =
From Table 5 of IS 456,
Minimum cement Content for mild exposure condition = 300 kg/m3
383.2 kg/m3 > 300 kg/m3, hence, OK.
This value is to be checked for durability requirement from IS: 456.
In the present example against mild exposure and for the case of reinforced concrete the
minimum cement content is 300 kg/m3 which is less than 383.2 kg/m3. Hence cement
content adopted = 383.2 kg/m3.
As per clause 8.2.4.2 of IS: 456
Maximum cement content = 450 kg/m3.
Step 5: Estimation of Coarse Aggregate proportion:-
From Table 3 of IS 10262- 2009,
For Nominal maximum size of aggregate = 20 mm,
Zone of fine aggregate = Zone II
And For w/c = 0.5
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Volume of coarse aggregate per unit volume of total aggregate = 0.62
Table for correction in estimation of coarse aggregate proportion
Values as
Correction
per Values as per
in Coarse
Parameter Standard present Departure Remarks
Aggregate
reference problem
proportion
condition
W/c 0.5 0.5 Nil – See Note 1
pump able
Workability – – -10% See Note 2
concrete
Total -10%
Note 1: For every ±0.05 change in w/c, the coarse aggregate proportion is to be changed
by 0.01. If the w/c is less than 0.5 (standard value), volume of coarse aggregate is
required to be increased to reduce the fine aggregate content. If the w/c is more than 0.5,
volume of coarse aggregate is to be reduced to increase the fine aggregate content. If
coarse aggregate is not angular, volume of coarse aggregate may be required to be
increased suitably, based on experience.
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Note 2: For pump able concrete or congested reinforcement the coarse aggregate
proportion may be reduced up to 10%.
Hence,
Volume of coarse aggregate per unit volume of total aggregate = 0.62 x 90% = 0.558
Volume of fine aggregate = 1 – 0.558 = 0.442
Step 6: Estimation of the mix ingredients
a) Volume of concrete = 1 m3
b) Volume of cement = (Mass of cement / Specific gravity of cement) x (1/100)
= (383.2/3.15) x (1/1000) = 0.122 m3
c) Volume of water = (Mass of water / Specific gravity of water) x (1/1000)
= (191.6/1) x (1/1000) = 0.1916 m3
d) Volume of total aggregates = a – (b + c ) = 1 – (0.122 + 0.1916) = 0.6864 m3
e) Mass of coarse aggregates = 0.6864 x 0.558 x 2.84 x 1000 = 1087.75 kg/m3
f) Mass of fine aggregates = 0.6864 x 0.442 x 2.64 x 1000 = 800.94 kg/m3
Concrete Mix proportions for Trial Mix 1
Cement = 383.2 kg/m3
Water = 191.6 kg/m3
Fine aggregates = 800.94 kg/m3
Coarse aggregate = 1087.75 kg/m3
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W/c = 0.5
For trial -1 casting of concrete in lab, to check its properties.
It will satisfy durability & economy.
For casting trial -1, mass of ingredients required will be calculated for 4 no’s cube
assuming 25% wastage.
Volume of concrete required for 4 cubes = 4 x (0.153 x1.25) = 0.016878 m3
Cement = (383.2 x 0.016878) kg/m3 = 6.47 kg
Water = (191.6 x 0.016878) kg/m3 =3.23 kg
Coarse aggregate = (1087.75 x 0.016878) kg/m3 =18.36 kg
Fine aggregates = (800.94 x 0.016878) kg/m3 = 13.52 kg
Step 7: Correction due to absorbing / moist aggregate:-
Since the aggregate is saturated surface dry condition hence no correction is required.
Step 8: Concrete Trial Mixes:-
Concrete Trial Mix 1:
The mix proportion as calculated in Step 6 forms trial mix1. With this proportion,
concrete is manufactured and tested for fresh concrete properties requirement i.e.
workability, bleeding and finishing qualities.
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In this case,
Slump value = 25 mm
Compaction Factor = 0.844
So, from slump test we can say,
Mix is cohesive, workable and had a true slump of about 25 mm and it is free from
segregation and bleeding.
Desired slump = 50-75 mm
So modifications are needed in trial mix 1 to arrive at the desired workability.
To increase the workability from 25 mm to 50-75 mm an increase in water content by
+3% is to be made.
The corrected water content = 191.6 x 1.03 = 197.4 kg.
As mentioned earlier to adjust fresh concrete properties the water cement ratio will not be
changed. Hence
Cement Content = (197.4/0.5) = 394.8 kg/m3
Which also satisfies durability requirement.
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Volume of all in aggregate = 1 – [{394.8/(3.15×1000)} + {197.4/(1 x 1000)}] = 0.6773
m3
Mass of coarse aggregate = 0.6773 x 0.558 x 2.84 x 1000 = 1073.33 kg/m 3
Mass of fine aggregate = 0.6773 x 0.442 x 2.64 x 1000 = 790.3 kg/m3
Concrete Mix Proportions for Trial Mix 2
Water = 197.4 kg/m3
Fine aggregate =790.3 kg/m3
Coarse aggregate = 1073.33 kg/m3
Cement = (384.8 x 0.016878) kg/m3 = 6.66 kg
Water = (197.4 x 0.016878) kg/m3 =3.33 kg
In this case,
Slump value = 60 mm
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Mix is very cohesive, workable and had a true slump of about 60 mm.
It virtually flowed during vibration but did not exhibit any segregation and bleeding.
So , it has achieved desired workability by satisfying the requirement of 50-75 mm slump
value .
Now , we need to go for trial mix-3 .
In case of trial mix 3 water cement ratio is varied by +10% keeping water content
constant. In the present example water cement ratio is raised to 0.55 from 0.5.
An increase of 0.05 in the w/c will entail a reduction in the coarse aggregate fraction by
0.01.
Hence the coarse aggregate as percentage of total aggregate = 0.558 – 0.01 = 0.548
W/c = 0.55
Water content will be kept constant.
Cement content = (197.4/0.55) = 358.9 kg/m3
Hence, volume of all in aggregate
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= 1 – [{(358.9/(3.15 x 1000)} + (197.4/1000)] =0.688 m3
Mass of fine aggregate = 0.688 x 0.452 x 2.64 x 1000 = 821 kg/m3
Concrete Mix Proportions of Trial Mix 3
Water = 197.4 kg/m3
FA = 821 kg/m3
CA = 1070.75 kg/m3
Cement = (358.9 x 0.016878) kg/m3 = 6.06 kg
Water = (197.4 x 0.016878) kg/m3 =3.33 kg
Fine aggregates = (821 x 0.016878) kg/m3 = 13.85 kg
In this case,
Slump value = 75 mm
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Mix is stable, cohesive, and workable and had a true slump of about 75 mm.
So , it has achieved desired workability by satisfying the requirement of 50-75 mm slump
value .
Now , we need to go for trial mix-4.
In this case water / cement ratio is decreased by 10% keeping water content constant.
W/c = 0.45
A reduction of 0.05 in w/c will entail and increase of coarse aggregate fraction by 0.01.
Coarse aggregate fraction = 0.558 +.01 =.568
W/c = 0.45 and water content = 197.4 kg/m3
Volume of all in aggregate
= 1 – [{438.7/(3.15 x 1000)} + (197.4/1000)] = 0.664 m3
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Concrete Mix Proportions of Trial Mix 4
Water = 197.4 kg/m3
FA = 757.28 kg/m3
CA = 1071.11 kg/m3
Cement = (438.7 x 0.016878) kg/m3 = 7.4 kg
Water = (197.4 x 0.016878) kg/m3 =3.33 kg
A local correction due to moisture condition of aggregate is again applied on this
proportions. With corrected proportions three concrete cubes are cast and tested for 28
days compressive strength.
A summary of all the trial mixes is given in the following Table.
Recommended mix proportion of ingredients for grade of concrete M25:
From Compressive Strength vs. c/w graph for target strength 31.6 MPa we get,
W/c = 0.44
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water content = 197.4 kg/m3
Volume of all in aggregate
= 1 – [{448.6/(3.15 x 1000)} + (197.4/1000)] = 0.660 m3
A reduction of 0.05 in w/c will entail and increase of coarse aggregate fraction by 0.01.
Coarse aggregate fraction = 0.558 +.01 =.568
Volume of fine aggregate = 1 – 0.568 = 0.432
ASPHALT
How Is Asphalt Made?
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Asphalt is just about everywhere. It is used to build roads, parking lots, airport runways,
sidewalks, tennis courts, playgrounds and bike paths. Asphalt, in liquid form, is used to
coat roofing, pipes and the undercarriages of vehicles. However, even though it is part of
their daily lives, most people never give a thought as to what asphalt is or how it is
made.
Asphalt is actually the material that binds the crushed stone and gravel, referred to as
aggregate, together to create a strong hard surface. Asphalt is a bitumen-class
hydrocarbon mixture, typically having a dark-brown to black color. Bitumen is the
geological term for naturally-occurring deposits of petroleum in a solid or semi-solid
form.
Asphalt is one of the oldest engineering materials known to man, dating as far back as
2600 B.C. when the ancient Egyptians used it as a waterproofing agent and preservative
for the wrappings of mummies. Other ancient civilizations used asphalt for building
everything from irrigation systems to roads.
While natural asphalts were widely used until the early 20th century, today most asphalt
is refined from crude oil. Today’s asphalt has the same long-lasting characteristics as
naturally-occurring asphalt, but with the added benefit of being produced to a uniform
state that is free of impurities.
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Asphalt Manufacturing Process
There are several steps involved in making asphalt. Crude oil, or petroleum, is put
through a distillation process that separates the various components of the oil into several
byproducts, one of which is asphalt. Asphalt, in its basic form, is just the heavy deposits
left over from the oil-refining process.
Distillation:
The process of refining asphalt is initiated by rapidly heating crude oil for initial
distillation. Once heated, the crude is moved into a distillation container where the more
volatile and lighter-weight components, called fractions, are removed by a series of
condensing and cooling mechanisms.
The crude is then separated for producing products like gasoline, diesel fuel, kerosene
and other petroleum products. The heavy deposit left over from distillation process is
referred to “topped” crude that is used to make heating oil or made into other products
like asphalt.
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Cutting Back:
Asphalt may be blended, known as "cutting back," with a volatile substance that produces
a product that is more malleable at a reduced temperature than chaste asphalt. When the
blended asphalt is exposed to heat or air, such as when used for paving or in construction,
the volatile elements evaporate, leaving just the solid asphalt. The speed of evaporation
of the cutting agent determines the curing rate of the asphalt.
Emulsifying:
Asphalt may also be emulsified to create a product that is easier to mix with aggregate,
pumped through pipes or use in spray-on applications. During emulsification the asphalt
is ground into globules smaller than five microns and mixed with water. The emulsifying
agent is then added to reduce the capacity of the asphalt and water to separate.
Emulsifying agents used to produce asphalt may include clay, silicates, soap or vegetable
oils.
Pulverizing:
Hardened asphalt is sometimes crushed to produce a powdered form. The asphalt is
pulverized and then passed through a sequence of sieves to produce uniform-sized
granules. Powered asphalt is usually mixed with oil and aggregate for the construction of
pavement. Heat and pressure work to slowly amalgamate the powder, aggregate and oil,
hardening the mixture to a cement-like consistency.
Air Blowing:
Asphalt may have air injected into it if it is to be used for coating purposes. Asphalt is
heated to 500° Fahrenheit during the air-blowing process and then air bubbles are forced
51 | P a g e
into the liquid for several hours. This results in the asphalt remaining in a liquid state
when cooled.
Paving Mixtures
There are two categories of asphalt-paving mixtures, known as hot and cold mix. The
name "hot-mix" comes from the procedure of heating the asphalt and aggregate before
amalgamation to remove any moisture and obtain adequate fluidity for proper
amalgamation and spreading. Hot-mix asphalt, abbreviated HMA, is normally used for
high-traffic areas, such as main roads and highways, whereas cold-mix asphalt, or CMA,
is typically used for paving secondary roads.
For HMA, asphalt and aggregate are mixed at a facility where it is first heated and then
mixed to the desired consistency. Hot-mix plants may be set up at a permanent location
or may be mobile, moving from job site to job site. Another process called drum mixing
heats and blends the asphalt and aggregate at the same time. The properly measured
amounts of aggregate and asphalt are put into a chamber called a pugmill, mixed and then
placed into trucks, or storage containers.
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The hot-mix asphalt is then trucked to the jobsite and poured out and spread to a uniform
thickness by a paving machine. The mixture is then compacted by heavy rolling machine
while still hot to produce a even surface.
Quality Control
The properties of asphalt are affected by the innate properties of the petroleum that it is
made from. This is due to the fact that different oil fields and refining methods can result
in crude oils with very diverse characteristics. There are three essential factors that must
be considered when asphalt is being used for construction purposes.
Consistency:
Asphalt is graded based on the ranges of viscosity, or consistency, at a given temperature.
Careless mixing- and temperature-control procedures can cause more damage to paving
asphalt during the hardening phase than many years of vehicle traffic. A standardized
penetration test is generally specified when determining paving asphalt consistency.
Purity:
The purity of asphalt is easily tested, as it is made up almost completely of carbon-
disulfide soluble bitumen. Refined asphalts are typically more than 99.5 percent soluble
in carbon disulfide, with the remaining impurities being inert.
Safety:
While asphalt is free of moisture after production, a transport vehicle may have trace
amounts water present in its holding tank. The moisture may cause asphalt to foam when
heated above 212° Fahrenheit, creating a safety hazard. This is because the foam will
release fumes that can flash, meaning completely ignite at once, in the occurrence of a
53 | P a g e
spark or flame. The 212-degree safety threshold is well above temperatures typically seen in
paving operations.
Asphalt, Bitumen and Tar – Types, Difference and Comparison
Difference between Asphalt, bitumen and tar, their types and comparisons of their properties is
discussed. Asphalt, bitumen and tar have similar properties generally used for pavements
Construction.
What is Asphalt?
The asphalt is a mixture which consists alumina, lime, silica and asphaltic bitumen. At low
temperatures, it is in solid state and at high temperatures it is in liquid state.
Asphalt is produced in two different ways as follows.
 Natural asphalt
 Residual asphalt
Natural Asphalt
Natural asphalt is obtained directly from the nature especially from the two resources lakes and
rocks.
The lake asphalt contains 40 to 70 % of pure bitumen which is boiled in tank and water content
evaporates and impurities are separated. The final product is called as asphalt which a=can be
used for laying roads etc.
Rock asphalt contains 10 to 15% of pure bitumen and calcareous matter. These rocks are crushed
and heated and consolidates by sudden cooling. This asphalt is used for paving tiles etc.
54 | P a g e
Residual Asphalt
Residual asphalt is obtained artificially by the distillation of crude petroleum oil with asphaltic
base.
Forms of Asphalt
The available forms of asphalt are:
 Cutback asphalt
 Asphalt emulsion
 Asphalt cement
 Mastic asphalt
Cutback Asphalt
Cutback asphalt is in liquid state. Asphalt is dissolved in a volatile solvent to get this cutback
asphalt. It is used for manufacturing bituminous paint, repairing roofs etc.
Asphalt Emulsion
Asphaltic emulsion is obtained by adding 50 to 60% water to the asphalt in presence of 1%
emulsifying agent. The emulsifying agent forms water proof film when water evaporates. So, it
can be used in cold conditions.
Asphalt Cement
Natural asphalt is subjected to high pressure air under high temperature to get asphalt cement.
Asphalt cement is plastic in nature and it is used for flooring, roofing, water proofing material
etc.
Mastic Asphalt
Mastic asphalt is obtained by heating natural asphalt with sand and mineral fillers. It is
impermeable matter does not contain any voids.
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Hardness and melting point of mastic asphalt can be managed during the process of heating. It is
in solid state and by heating it can be brought to liquid state. It is used for damp proofing course.
What is Bitumen?
Bitumen is obtained by the partial distillation of crude petroleum. It is also called as mineral tar
and is present in asphalt also. It contains 87% carbon, 11% hydrogen and 2% oxygen.
Forms of Bitumen
The forms of bitumen are generally 5 types as follows.
 Cutback bitumen
 Bitumen emulsion
 Plastic bitumen
 Blown bitumen
 Straight run bitumen
Cutback Bitumen
Cutback bitumen is obtained from the distillation of asphaltic bitumen with the addition of coal
tar or petroleum. Cut back bitumen can be used as paint in cold weather conditions.
Bitumen Emulsion
Bitumen emulsion is obtained by dissolving very finely divided bitumen in aqueous medium.
Suitable stabilizing agents are added to this solution.
Plastic Bitumen
Plastic bitumen majorly contains inert filler about 40 to 45% and bitumen and thinner is the other
material. It is used as sealing material for leakages, cracks in masonry structures etc.
Blown Bitumen
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Blown bitumen is special type of bitumen. It is manufactured by subjecting bitumen to air under
heavy pressure at high temperature. It can be used as damp proofing material, heat insulating
material etc.
Straight Run Bitumen

Straight run bitumen is obtained by the distillation of bitumen into definite viscosity. It is also
available as rocks.
What is Tar?
Tar is a high viscous liquid which contains high amount of carbon content. It is used for laying
surface layer for pavements, preserving wood etc..
Forms of Tar
General forms of tar are as follows.
 Coal tar
 Wood tar
 Mineral tar
Coal Tar
Coal tar is the by-product obtained during the production of coal gas. It is used for preserving
timber, laying macadam roads etc.
The process consists of coal heated in closed iron vessels and the evaporated gases are collected
in tubes. These tubes are circulated with cooling water. So, some matter is deposited in these
tubes and it is nothing but coal tar. It is dense and strong-smelling liquid. It is in black color.
Wood Tar
Wood tar is obtained by the distillation of resinous woods like pines etc. The distillation of
resinous wood provides the creosote oil which has very good preservative property. So, wood tar
is well suitable for preserving wood.
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Mineral Tar
Mineral tar is produced by the exploitation of kerogens. Kerogens are generally obtained from
bituminous shale’s which are nothing but rocks. Volatile content of mineral tar is very less.
Comparison Between Asphalt, Bitumen and Tar Properties
Property Asphalt Bitumen Tar
Dark color with slight reddish

Color Blackish brown Deep black
tinge
Solid or semi- Viscous

State Solid
solid Liquid
Carbon content Low Medium High
Water
More More Less
Resistance
Acid resistance More More Less
Adhesive power Less More High
Setting time Less Less More
Read More:
Different Types of Bitumen, their Properties and Uses
There are different types of bitumen available with different properties, specifications and uses
based on requirements of consuming industry.
The specification of bitumen also shows variation with the safety, solubility, physical properties,
and the durability.
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To understand the performance of the bitumen when it is on service, the design of physical
properties of the material is highly essential. The standard testing methods are carried out to
grade bitumen.
Types of Bitumen and their Properties and Uses

The bitumen can be classified into the following grade types:
 Penetration Grade Bitumen

 Oxidized Bitumen Grades
 Cut Back Bitumen
 Bitumen Emulsion
 Polymer Modified Bitumen
Penetration Grade Bitumen
The penetration grade bitumen is refinery bitumen that is manufactured at different viscosities.
The penetration test is carried out to characterize the bitumen, based on the hardness. Thus, it has
the name penetration bitumen.
The penetration bitumen grades range from 15 to 450 for road bitumen. But the most commonly
used range is 25 to 200. This is acquired by controlling the test carried out i.e. the distillation
process.
The partial control of fluxing the residual bitumen with the oils can help in bringing the required
hardness.
The table below shows the penetration grade bitumen’s test carried out as per BS EN 12591.
This test is for bitumen that is for road application.
Table.1. Paving Grade Bitumen Specification As per BS EN 12591
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The BS EN 1426 and BS EN 1427 provides the penetration and softening point values for the
respective grades, as from Table-1. This will help in identifying the equiviscosity and the
hardness of the bitumen grade.
The grades are represented by the penetration values i.e. For example, 40/60 as a penetration
value of 50 ± 10.
The BS EN 13303 also gives the measure of loss on heating with respective limits for all
penetration bitumen grades. This measure is to ensure that there are no volatile components
present.
So, no component whose loss will contribute to the setting and hardening of bitumen during its
preparation or lay course is undergone. The BS EN 12592 provides the solubility values to
ensure that there is less or no impurities in the bitumen material.
Oxidized Bitumen
The refinery bitumen is further treated by the introduction of processed air. This will give us
oxidized bitumen. By maintaining a controlled temperature, the air is introduced under pressure
into soft bitumen.
Compounds of higher molecular weight are formed by the reaction of this introduced oxygen and
bitumen components. Thus, the Asphaltenes and the Maltenes content increases resulting in a
harder mix. This harder mix has a lower ductility and temperature susceptibility.
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The oxidized bitumen is used in industrial applications such as roofing and coating for pipes. By
this method of processing, the bitumen that has a lower penetration can be manufactured, which
can be employed for paving roads.
Cutback Bitumen
These are a grade of bitumen that comes under penetration grade bitumen. This type of bitumen
has a temporarily reduced viscosity by the introduction of a volatile oil. Once after the
application, the volatile material is evaporated and bitumen gain its original viscosity.
The penetration grade bitumen is a thermoplastic material. It shows the different value of
viscosity for different temperature. In areas of road construction, it is necessary for the material
to be fluid in nature at the time of laying i.e. during surface dressing.
It is also essential for the material to regain back to its original hardness and property after
setting. This is ensured by cutback bitumen. The fluidity is obtained for any bitumen by raising
the temperature. But when it is necessary to have fluidity at lower temperatures during surface
dressing, cutback bitumen is employed.
The time for curing and the viscosity of cutback bitumen can be varied and controlled by the
1. dilution of volatile oil, and

2. the volatility of the oil added.
70/100 or 160/220 pen bitumen that is diluted with kerosene are the main composition of
bitumen in the construction of roads in the UK. The standard tar viscometer is used to test the
standard viscosity.
The table-2, shows the cutback specifications based on BS 3690. This provides the requirement
of the bitumen to satisfy solubility property, distillation property as well as recovery of
properties after curing.
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Table-2: The Cutback Bitumen Specification As per BS 3690: Part 1 & BS EN 12591
Bitumen Emulsion
The this type of bitumen forms a two-phase system with two immiscible liquids. One of them is
dispersed as fine globules within the other liquid. When discrete globules of bitumen are
dispersed in a continuous form of water, bitumen emulsion is formed.
This is a form of penetration grade bitumen that is mixed and used for laying purposes.
An emulsifier having a long hydrocarbon chain with either a cationic or anionic ending is used
for dispersing the bitumen globules. This emulsifier provides an electrochemical environment.
The ionic part of the chain has an affinity towards water and the bitumen is attracted by
hydrocarbon part.
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As shown in figure below, the hydrocarbon binds the bitumen globules strongly and the ionic
part is seen on the surface of the globules. Depending on the ions present, the droplets take a
charge.
The emulsions can be cationic (positive charge) or anionic (negatively charged). The globules of
the same charge hence repel each other, making the whole system stable. To facilitate adhesion
with the aggregates (that are negatively charged), cationic emulsions are more preferred.
Bitumen during Dispersion in an emulsifier

The stability of emulsions is dependent on the following factors:
 Types of bitumen emulsifier and its quantity

 Water evaporation rate
 Bitumen quantity
 Bitumen globules size
 Mechanical forces
The emulsions are applied by using sprays. For this viscosity is a primary concern. With the
increase of bitumen content, the mixture becomes more viscous. This is found to be sensitive
when the amount exceeds 60%.
The BS 434: Part 1 and BS EN 13808 gives the specification for the viscosity of road
emulsions.
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Polymer – Modified Bitumen
Polymer modified bitumen is the type of bitumen obtained by the modification of strength and
the rheological properties of the penetration graded bitumen. Here for this 2 to 8% of polymer is
added.
The polymer used can be either plastic or rubber. These polymers vary the strength and the
viscoelastic properties of the bitumen. This is achieved by:
1. Elastic response increase

2. Improvement in cohesive property
3. Improvement in Fracture strength
4. Providing ductility
Some of the examples of rubber polymers used are styrene block copolymers, synthetic rubbers,
natural and recycled rubbers. Plastics that are thermoplastic polymers are also used.
Different Types of Industrial Timber – Uses and Properties
What is Industrial Timber?
Industrial timber is nothing but timber product manufactured scientifically in factories. Because
of its scientific nature, it is stronger and durable than ordinary timber materials. It also contains
desired shape and size.
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Different Types of Industrial Timber
Following are the different form of industrial timber:
 Veneers  Hard boards

 Plywood  Glulam
 Fiber boards  Chip board
 Impreg timbers  Block board
 Compreg timbers  Flush door shutters
Veneers
Veneers are nothing but thin layers of wood which are obtained by cutting the wood with sharp
knife in rotary cutter.
In rotary cutter, the wood log is rotated against the sharp knife or saw and cuts it into thin sheets.
These thin sheets are dried in kilns and finally veneers are obtained.
Veneers are used to manufacture different wood products like plywood, block boards etc.
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Plywood
Ply means thin. Plywood is a board obtained by adding thin layers of wood or veneers on one
above each other. The joining of successive layers is done by suitable adhesives.
The layers are glued and pressed with some pressure either in hot or cold condition. In hot
conditions 150 to 200oC temperature is marinated and hydraulic press is used to press the layers.
In cold conditions, room temperature is maintained and 0.7 to 1.4 N/mm2 pressure is applied.
Plywood has so many uses. It is used for doors, partition walls, ceilings, paneling walls,
formwork for concrete etc.
Due to its decorative appearance, it is used for buildings like theaters, auditoriums, temples,
churches, restaurants etc. in architectural purpose.
Fiber Boards
Fiber boards are made of wood fibers, vegetable fibers etc. They are rigid boards and called as
reconstructed wood.
The collected fibers are boiled in hot water and then transferred into closed vessel. Steam with
low pressure is pumped into the vessel and pressure increased suddenly.
Due to sudden increment of pressure, the wood fibers explode and natural adhesive gets
separated from the fibers. Then they are cleaned and spread on wire screen in the form of loose
sheets. This matter is pressed in between steel plates and finally fiber boards are obtained.
Fiber boards are used for several purposes in construction industry such as for wall paneling,
ceilings, partitions, flush doors, flooring material etc. They are also used as sound insulating
material.
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Impreg Timbers
Impreg timber is a timber covered fully or partly with resin. Thin layers of wood or veneers are
taken and dipped in resin solution. Generally used resin is phenol formaldehyde.
The resin solution fills up the voids in the wood and consolidated mass occurs. Then it is heated
at 150 to 160oC and finally impreg timber develops. This is available in market with different
names such as sungloss, sunmica, Formica etc.
Impreg timber has good resistance against moisture, weathering, acids and electricity. It is
strong, durable and provides beautiful appearance. It is used form making wood molds, furniture,
decorative products etc.
Compreg Timbers
It is similar to impreg timber but in this case, the timber is cured under pressure conditions. So, it
is more strengthened than impreg timber. Its specific gravity lies from 1.30 to 1.35.
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Hard Boards
Hard board is usually 3 mm thick and made from wood pulp. Wood pulp is compressed with
some pressure and made into solid boards. The top surface of board is smooth and hard while the
bottom surface is rough. Hard boards are generally classified as three types as follows:
Types Density (kg/m3) Available thickness (mm)
Medium 480 – 800 6,8,10,12
Normal 800-1200 3.4.5.6.9.12
Tempered >1200 3,4,5,6,9,12
Glulam
Glulam means glued and laminated wood. Solid wood veneers are glued to form sheets and then
laminated with suitable resins.
This type of sheet is very much suitable in the construction of chemical factories, long span roofs
in sports stadium, indoor swimming pools etc. Curved wood structures can also be constructed
using glulam sheets.
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Chip Board
Chip boards are another type of industrial timber which are made of wood particles or rice husk
ash or bagasse. These are dissolved in resins for some time and heated. After then it is pressed
with some pressure and boards are made. These are also called particle boards.
Block Board
Block board is a board containing core made of wood strips. The wood strips are generally
obtained from the leftovers from solid timber conversion etc. These strips are glued and made
into solid form.
Veneers are used as faces to cover this solid core. The width of core should not exceed 25mm. If
the width of core is less than 7mm then it is called as lamin board.
Block boards are generally used for partitions, paneling, marine and river crafts, railway
carriages etc.
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Flush Door Shutters
Flush door shutters made in factories are widely using nowadays. They are generally available
with 25mm, 30mm or 35mm thicknesses. Factory made flush board shutters are of different
types such as cellular core, hollow core, block board core etc.
Types of Glass and its Engineering Properties for Use in Construction
There are various types of glass used in construction for different purposes. Engineering
properties and uses of these glass is discussed in this article.
Glass is a hard substance which may be transparent or translucent and brittle in nature. It is
manufactured by fusion process. In this process sand is fused with lime, soda and some other
admixtures and then cooled rapidly. Glass is used in construction purpose and architectural
purpose in engineering.
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Engineering Properties of Glass
1. Transparency 4. Transmittance
2. Strength 5. U value
3. Workability 6. Recycle property
1. Transparency of Glass
Transparency is the main property of glass which allows the vision of outside world through it.
The transparency of glass can be from both sides or from one side only. In one side transparency,
glass behaves like mirror from the other side.
2. Strength of Glass
Strength of glass depends on modulus of rupture value of glass. In general glass is a brittle
material but by adding admixtures and laminates we can make it as more strong.
3. Workability of Glass
A glass can be molded into any shape or it can be blown during melting. So, workability of glass
is superior property of glass.
4. Transmittance
The visible fraction of light that passing through glass is the property of visible transmittance.
5. U value of Glass
U value represents the amount of heat transferred through glass. If a glass is said to be insulated
unit then it should have lower u value.
6. Recycle Property of Glass

Any glass can be 100% recyclable. It can also be used as raw material in construction industry.
Types of Glass and their Uses

The types of glass used in construction are:
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1. Float glass 6. Tinted glass
2. Shatterproof glass 7. Toughened glass
3. Laminated glass 8. Glass blocks
4. Extra clean glass 9. Glass wool
5. Chromatic glass 10. Insulated glazed units
1. Float Glass
Float glass is made of sodium silicate and calcium silicate so, it is also called as soda lime glass.
It is clear and flat so, it causes glare. These glasses are available from 2mm to 20mm thickness
ranges. They have a weight range of 6 to 36 kg/m2. These are used as shop fronts, public places
etc.
2. Shatterproof Glass
Shatterproof glass is used for windows, skylights, floors etc. Some type of plastic polyvinyl
butyral is added in its making process. So, it cannot form sharp edged pieces when it breaks.
3. Laminated Glass
Laminated glass is the combination of layers of normal glass. So, it has more weight than normal
glass. It has more thickness and is UV proof and soundproof. These are used for aquariums,
bridges etc.
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4. Extra Clean Glass
Extra clean glass has two special properties, photocatalytic and hydrophilic. Because of these
properties, it acts as stain proof and gives beautiful appearance. Maintenance is also easy.
5. Chromatic Glass
Chromatic glass is used in ICU’s, meeting rooms etc. it can control the transparent efficiency of
glass and protects the interior from daylight. The chromatic glass may be photochromic which
has light sensitive lamination, thermos-chromatic which has heat sensitive lamination and
electrochromic which has electric lamination over it.
6. Tinted Glass
Tinted glass is nothing but colored glass. A color producing ingredients is mixed to the normal
glass mix to produce colored glass which does not affect other properties of glass. Different color
producing ingredients are tabulated below:
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Coloring ion Color
Iron oxide Green
Sulphur Blue
Manganese dioxide Black
Cobalt Blue
Chromium Dark green
Titanium Yellowish brown
Uranium Yellow
7. Toughened Glass
Toughened glass is strong glass which has low visibility. It is available in all thicknesses and
when it is broken it forms small granular chunks which are dangerous. This is also called as
tempered glass. This type of glass is used for fire resistant doors, mobile screen protectors etc.
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8. Glass Blocks
Glass block or glass bricks are manufactured from two different halves and they are pressed and
annealed together while melting process of glass. These are used as architectural purpose in the
construction of walls, skylights etc. They provide aesthetic appearance when light is passed
through it.
9. Glass Wool
Glass wool is made of fibers of glass and acts as good insulating filler. It is fire resistant glass.
10. Insulated Glazed Units

Insulated glazed glass units contains a glass is separated into two or three layers by air or
vacuum. They cannot allow heat through it because of air between the layers and acts as good
insulators. These are also called as double glazed units.
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Properties of Plastics as a Construction Material
Each plastic material has its own peculiar properties to suit its particular uses. The success of
plastic as an engineering material will depends up on the selection of variety of plastic.
Following are the general properties of plastic.
1. Appearance 6. Electric insulation 13. Optical property

2. Chemical 7. Finishing 14. Recycling
resistance 8. Fire resistance 15. Sound absorption
3. Dimensional 9. Fixing 16. Strength
stability
10. Humidity 17. Thermal property
4. Ductility
11. Maintenance 18. Weather resistance
5. Durability
12. Melting point 19. Weight
1. Appearance of Plastics
In the market there are so many types of models of plastics are available such as transparent,
colored etc. suitable pigments are added in the process of manufacturing of plastic material to get
these different properties. So, these will give good appearance to the structure and makes it
attractive.
2. Chemical Resistance of Plastics

Plastics offer great resistance against chemicals and solvents. Chemical composition of plastics
during manufacturing will decide the degree of chemical resistance. Most of the plastics
available in the market offer great corrosion resistance. So, corrosive metals are replaced by
plastic in the case of water carrying pipes, etc.
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3. Dimensional Stability
Thermo-plastic types of plastics can be easily reshaped and reused. But in the case of thermo-
setting type plastics, it is not possible to reshape or remold the material.
4. Ductility of Plastics
Ductile nature of plastic is very low. When tensile stress are acting on plastic member they may
fail without any prior indication.
5. Durability of Plastics
Plastics with sufficient surface hardness are having good durability. Sometimes, plastics may
affected by termites and rodents especially in the case of thermo-plastic types, however it is not a
serious problem because of no nutrition values in plastic.
6. Electric Insulation
Plastics are good electric insulators. So they are used as linings for electric cables and for
electronics tools.
7. Finishing
Any type of finishing treatment van be given to the plastics. Mass production of plastic particles
with uniformity of surface finish is done by having technical control during manufacturing.
8. Fire Resistance
The resistance to temperature or fire for varieties of plastics considerably varies depending upon
the structure. Plastics made of cellulose acetate are burnt slowly. PVC made plastics do not catch
fire easily. Plastics made of phenol formaldehyde and urea formaldehyde are fire proof materials.
9. Fixing
Fixing of plastic materials is so easy. We can bolt, drill or glued to fix plastic material position.
10. Humidity
The plastics made up of cellulosic materials are affected by the presence of moisture. The
plastics made of poly vinyl chloride (PVC pipes) offers great resistance against moisture.
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11. Maintenance
Maintaining of plastics are so simple. Because they do not need any surface finishing coats or
paints etc.
12. Melting Point

Generally plastics have very low melting point. Some plastics may melt at just 50oC. So, they
cannot be used in the positions of high temperature. Thermo setting type of plastics are having
high melting point than thermo plastic type plastics. However, thermo setting types are cannot
used for recycling. To improve the heat resistance of the plastics, glass fiber reinforcement is
provided in its structure.
13. Optical Property
There are so many types of plastics. Some plastics are transparent which allows light in its
original direction and some are translucent nothing but semi-transparent which allows light but
changes light rays direction.
14. Recycling of Plastics

Disposal of plastics in the environment causes severe pollution. But it is not a serious problem
because of its recycling property. We can use plastic waste disposal conveniently to produce
drainage pipes, fencing, hand rails, carpets, benches etc.
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15. Sound Absorption
By the saturation of phenolic resins we can produce acoustic boards. These acoustic boards are
sound absorbents and provide sound insulation. Generally for theatres, seminar halls this type of
acoustic ceilings are used.
16. Strength
Practically we can say that plastic is strong material but ideal section of plastic which is useful
for structural component is not designed yet. Generally by reinforcing fibrous material into
plastic improves its strength. If the strength to weight ratio of plastic is same as metals, then also
we cannot give preference to plastics because of various reasons like, heavy cost, creep failure
may occur, poor stiffness and sensitive against temperature.
17. Thermal Property

The thermal conductivity of plastics is very low and is similar to wood. So, foamed and
expanded plastics are used as thermal insulators.
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18. Weather Resistance
Most of the plastics except some limited varieties are capable of resistance against weathering.
But, major problem is plastics when the plastics are exposed to sunlight, they are seriously
affected by ultra violet rays and gets brittle. To prevent this, plastics are incorporated by fillers
and pigments which helps to absorb or reflect the UV rays to surface.
19. Weight of Plastics

The Plastics have low specific gravity generally ranges from 1.3 to 1.4. So they are light in
weight and easily transportable to any place in a large quantity.
Uses of Plastics in Building Construction

Plastics are manufactured in different forms such as moulding pipes, sheets and films. They are
formed or expanded to produce materials of low density. Dissolved in solvents or dispersed as
emulsions, they are used in paints, varnishes and adhesives.
At present, plastics find use in buildings mainly in thin coverings, panels, sheets, foams, pipes
etc. skilful use of plastics will expand the usefulness and life of conventional building materials
and help them to function more efficiently and economically.
Other Uses of Plastics in Buildings

Some noteworthy trends in use of plastics are given below:
1. Concrete and mortar with thermosetting resin bending agents
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2. Thermoplastic and thermosetting resin covering applicable to facades and concrete
epidermis
3. New roof covering and roof tightening materials (accessory covering materials, tightness
network), easy to place and standing up well to normal to wear
4. Large foam component units and new shaping techniques
5. Developing techniques for quick shaping of plastic into large components
6. Assembling and fixing processes more suitable for plastics
7. vii. New developments in sanitary equipment and piping, applying thermoplastic and
thermosetting resins.
8. New developments in the way of shuttering and of elements in permanent shuttering
Table: Uses of Plastics in Building Construction
Form in which it is Normal

No. Plastic Material Uses
commonly used colour
Expanded Thin sheets in slabs

1 Thermal insulation White
polystyrene 12mm thick
Expanded polyvinyl Boards 20 to 50 mm

2 Thermal insulation Yellow brown
chloride (PVC) thick
Foamed urea
3 Thermal insulation Foamed in situ White
formaldehyde
Foamed phenol
4 Thermal insulation Sheets and blocks Deep red
formaldehyde
Foamed Sheets and blocks or

5 Thermal insulation Brown
polyurethane foamed in situ
Brown or
6 Expanded ebonite Thermal insulation Sheets
black
Damp-proofing, Thin sheets, pipes, Transparent

7 Polythene
plumbing cisterns to black
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Domestic drainage,
8 Polypropylene but water overflow
tanks
Rainwater goods,
9 Unplasticised PVC ventilation, ducts,
pipes of water mains
10 Acrylic resins Sinks and baths Various
Cold water fittings,

11 Nylon Various
window furniture
Adhesives for
12 Phenolic resins Dark
laminates
13 Melamine Laminates Sheets Many
Asbestos in Cement Concrete – Properties, Uses and Benefits
Asbestos is a naturally occurring thin crystalline long fiber which when used for the preparation
of concrete improves the fresh and hardened properties of concrete such as compressive and
flexural strength. In the construction industry, it finds its application in heat and acoustic
insulation, fireproofing, roofing and flooring jobs.
Fig 1: Asbestos Concrete
In this article, we discuss the characteristics, effect on concrete properties, advantages,

disadvantages and uses of asbestos.
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Characteristics of Asbestos
Asbestos was first discovered by the Greeks and Romans in the 18th century where they referred
to it as a Miracle Mineral.
Asbestos is obtained by extraction of asbestos-containing rock which is crushed and milled to

produce a thread like fibrous material known as asbestos. The asbestos thus obtained contains
thousand of fibers which can be further divided into microscopic fibrils.
Asbestos is majorly divided into two types based on the crystalline structure :
1. Serpentine – Sheet or a layered structure.

2. Amphibole – Chain like crystal structure.
Chrysotile, the only mineral in the serpentine group, is the most commonly used type of asbestos
and accounts for approximately 95% of the asbestos that finds use in different purposes.
Chrysotile is commonly known as “white asbestos”.
Asbestos in Concrete
Asbestos is added to the concrete in two ways :
1. Addition of asbestos fiber in cement

2. Addition of asbestos fiber in concrete.
1. Asbestos in Cement
Most of the asbestos concrete components are made up of using asbestos cement due to the high
risk of consumption of asbestos fibers through inhalation. Generally, 10-15% of the cementitious
material is replaced with asbestos in the production process of cement.
Fig 2; Asbestos cement sheet
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The long asbestos fibers or higher percentages of fibers produce higher strength properties. With
the help of high curing pressure or forming pressures, increased density can be achieved which in
turn produces higher strength properties. The higher density products are less porous and
sometimes give the effect of improving chemical resistance properties.
2. Asbestos in Concrete
As asbestos is a very hazardous material, use of raw asbestos fiber for the concrete mix at the site
is not recommended. But under a controlled environment, the use of asbestos fiber in concrete is
permissible.
Effect of Asbestos on Concrete’s properties
1. Compressive Strength
Tests conducted on concrete with varying percentage of asbestos fiber show that the compressive
strength of the concrete is most when 0.75% of cement is replaced with asbestos fibers. The
strength of 0.75% fiber reinforced concrete is 40.89MPa whereas that of conventional concrete is
30 MPa.
From the results, it can be clearly seen that there is an increase of 33% in compressive strength
with the introduction of asbestos fiber in concrete to that of conventional concrete.
2. Flexural Strength
Test conducted on concrete with varying percentage of asbestos fiber also show that the flexural
strength of the concrete is most when 0.75% of cement is replaced with asbestos fibers. The
strength of 0.75% fiber reinforced concrete is 6.27 MPa whereas that of conventional concrete is
5.13 MPa.
By comparing the two, it can be clearly seen that there is an increase of 23% of flexural strength
with the introduction of asbestos fiber in concrete to that of conventional concrete.
Test Paper : Experimental Analysis of Asbestos Fibre Reinforced Concrete Composite

Advantages of Asbestos Concrete
1. Asbestos is a very good thermal insulator and increases the energy efficiency of the
building.
2. It is highly resistant to fire and does not burn easily.
3. It forms a very strong material when mixed with cement and used as an additive to form a
composite material called asbestos cement.
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4. It is a very inexpensive and a very cost effective material, hence widely used.
5. It is extensively used as a protective roofing material in corrugated form.
6. It is highly durable and weatherproof.
7. It is resistant to damage from termites.
8. Asbestos is very easy to clean and maintain but difficult to repair.
Fig 3: Asbestos Concrete Pipe
Disadvantages of Asbestos Concrete
1. The major disadvantage of using asbestos is that it is seriously hazardous to health.

Asbestos comprises of invisible microparticles which when released in the air can cause
life-threatening diseases if inhaled for a continuous span of time.
2. Due to this major disadvantage, new materials are being manufactured as a replacement
for asbestos.
Uses of Asbestos Concrete
1. Pipe and duct insulation.

2. Wall and ceiling panels.
3. Roofing materials.
4. Artificial fireplaces and materials.
5. Concrete Floor Tiles.
6. Asbestos concrete pipes.
Fire Bricks – Properties, Types and Uses
A fire brick is a special type of brick made using fire clay and has a good resistance against high
temperatures which are used in kilns, lining furnaces, fireplaces and fireboxes. These bricks are
manufactured in a way similar to that of normal bricks, except during the burning process- Fire
bricks are exposed to very high temperatures.
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Fire clay composition for making fire bricks, properties, types and uses of fire bricks are
explained in this article.
Fire clay for Making Fire Bricks
Fire clay is used to make fire bricks and is generally found under the coal seams. Fire clay
contains two major constituents- silica and alumina, of which, the silica percentage varies from
60 to 70% and alumina varies from 25 to 35%.
Some other constituents such as oxides of calcium, magnesium, iron, potassium and titanium are
also present in fireclay. However, the percentage of constituents other than silica and alumina
does not exceed 5% in the case of good fire clay.
Fig 1: Fire-clay
Fire clay can be classified into three types based on its fire resisting capacity :
1. High-grade fire clays

2. Medium-grade fire clays
3. Low-grade fire clays
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Fire resistance capacities of different fire clays are tabulated below.
Grade of Fire clay Temperature resistance range ( oC)
High 1482 – 1648
Medium 1315 – 1482
Low Up to 870
Properties of Fire Bricks
 They are yellowish white or white in color.

 They are available in different sizes ranging from 9 X 4.5 X 2.5 inches to 9 X 2.75 X
2.25 inches.
 One general fire brick weighs about 30 to 35 N.
 The compressive strength of fire bricks ranges from 200 to 220 N/mm2.
 The percentage of water absorption varies from 5 to 10%.
 They have good chemical resistance.
Fig 2: Fire bricks
Types of Fire Bricks
Fire bricks are classified majorly into three types :
1. Acidic fire bricks

2. Basic fire bricks
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3. Neutral fire bricks
1. Acidic Fire Bricks
Acidic Fire brick, also called as acid resistant brick is used especially to resist acidic actions of
chemicals or weather.
Generally, normal fire brick made of natural fire clay is as good as acid brick, but if more acid
resistance is needed then an additional amount of silica is added to fire clay which may range up
to 97% of its composition. For binding purposes, 1 to 2% lime may be added. Acid bricks are
burnt at heavy temperatures for long periods.
Fig 3: Acid Resistant Brick Lining
2. Basic Fire Bricks
These are good at corrosion resistance and chemical resistance. They contain high amount of
magnesia and here also lime is used as a binding material. Different basic fire bricks available
are Magnesite bricks, Magnesia-carbon, magnesia-chrome bricks etc.
Fig 4: Magnesia/Base Fire Bricks
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3. Neutral Fire Bricks
These are good for both acidic and basic lining purposes. They offer good resistance against
acidic fumes as well as corrosive actions. Neutral bricks are of two types namely- high alumina
bricks and chromite bricks.
High alumina bricks contain alumina in large amounts while chromite bricks contain chromium,
iron oxide, silica, bauxite, and iron ore in various proportions.
Fig 5: High Alumina Neutral Fire Bricks
Uses of Fire Bricks
Fire bricks are used for the following purposes.
 These are used for Inner surface lining of kilns, furnaces, chimneys etc.
 To build fire-resistant structures thereby reducing the damage of the structure against fire
accidents.
 For inner lining of wood-fired ovens.
 As an insulating material for furnaces, ovens because of their lower thermal conductivity.
Fig 6: Inner Lining of Furnace using
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Properties of Structural Steel for Design and Construction of Steel Structures
Design and construction of steel structures depends on the properties of structural structures.
Different properties of steel and their importance in design and construction of steel structures
are discussed.
Fig.1: Structural Steel Design and Construction

Properties of Structural Steel for Design and Construction of Steel Structures
Properties of structural steel include:
 Tensile properties
 Shear properties
 Hardness
 Creep
 Relaxation
 Fatigue
Tensile Properties of Structural Steel
There are different categories of steel structures which can be used in the construction of steel
buildings. Typical stress strain curves for various classes of structural steel, which are derived
from steel tensile test, are shown in Figure 2.
The initial part of the curve represents steel elastic limit. In this range, steel structure
deformation is not permanent, and the steel regain its original shape upon the removal of the
load.
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Fig.2: Typical Stress Strain Curve Different Classes of Structural Steel
The elastic modulus of all steel classes is same and equal to 200000MPa or 2×106MPa. As the
load on the steel is increased, it would yield at a certain point after which plastic range will be
reached.
The yield point is the point at which steel specimen reach 0.002 strain under the effect of specific
stress (yield stress).
Ductility of steel structure as shown in Figure-3 is crucial properties that allow redistribution of
stress in continuous steel elements. Ductility is expressed by percentage of steel cross sectional
reduction.
Fig.3: Stress Strain Curve of Structural Steel

As far as poisons ratio is concerned, it is the ratio of transverse strain to axial strain and it is
about 0.30 and 0.50 in elastic and plastic range, respectively.
Regarding cold working of structural steel, it is the process in which different shapes of steel
structure are produced at room temperature.
Consequently, steel structure ductility is increased but its ductility is reduced. Residual stress is
a stress that stays in steel element after it has been fabricated.
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It is necessary to consider strain rate while tensile test is conducted because it modifies steel
tensile properties.
If steel structure is used for dynamic loads, then high strain rate would be considered. However,
normal strain rate is adopted for steel used in the construction of structure designed for static
loads.
The ability of steel structure to accommodate energy is called steel toughness.

Shear Properties of Structural Steel
Shear strength of steel structure is specified at the failure under shear stress and it is about 0.57
times yield stress of structural steel.
Regarding elastic shear modulus, it is expressed as the ratio of shear stress to shear strain in
elastic range of steel structure.
Commonly, elastic shear modulus of steel structure can be taken as 75.84Gpa or the following
formula can be used to compute elastic shear modulus.
Where:
G: Steel structure shear elastic modulus
E: Modulus of elasticity of steel structure
: Position’s ratio
Hardness of Structural Steel

Hardness is the measure of ability of steel structure to withstand inelastic deformation. Standard
test methods and definitions for mechanical testing of steel products (A370-05) specify three
different tests to evaluate steel hardness namely: Brinell, Rockwell and portable.
Any of these tests can be used to estimate steel structure hardness. Not only is the steel structure
hardness used to examine the uniformity of different products but also to evaluate steel tensile
strength.
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Fig.4: Rockwell Test for Structural Steel Hardness Evaluation
Creep of Structural Steel Relaxation
Creep is gradual variation of strain of steel structure under constant stress. It occurs due to the
influence of constant stress and the effect of fire.
Creep property is insignificant for structural steel frame design and construction apart from the
case in which the effect of fire should be taken into consideration.
Structural Steel Relaxation

It is a step by step reduction of structural steel under a constant stress. Usually, yield strength of
steel structure increases around 5% over stress relieved strain and the steel structure would suffer
from plastic elongation which around 0.01.
Fatigue of Structural Steel

Fatigue is the failure of steel structure due to crack initiation and development under the
influence of cyclic loading. Various tests are available to evaluate structural steel fatigue such as
flexure test, rotating beam test and axial load test.
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Fig.5: Fatigue Test of Structural Steel
What is Steel Reinforcement? Types and Properties of Steel Rebars
What is Steel Reinforcement?

Steel reinforcement are steel bars that are provided in combination with plain cement concrete to
make it reinforced concrete. Hence these structures form steel reinforced cement concrete
structure (R.C.C). Steel reinforcement is commonly called as ‘rebars’.
Need for Steel Reinforcement

Plain concrete is weak in tension and strong in compression. Tensile property for concrete
structures is obtained by incorporating steel reinforcement. The steel reinforcement is strong in
both tension and compression. The tensile property provided by the steel reinforcement will
prevent and minimize concrete cracks under tension loads.
The coefficient of thermal expansion of steel reinforcement and concrete are similar in that they
undergo similar expansions during temperature changes. This property will ensure that the
concrete is subjected to minimal stress during temperature variations.
The surface of the steel reinforcement bars is patterned to have a proper bond with the
surrounding concrete material.
The two main factors that provide strength to the concrete structures are steel and concrete. The
design engineer will combine both the elements and design the structural element such a way
that the steel resists the induced tensile and shear force, while the concrete takes up the
compressive forces.
Types of Steel Reinforcement

The steel reinforcement used in concrete construction is mainly of 4 types. They are:
1. Hot Rolled Deformed Steel Bars

2. Cold Worked Steel Bars
3. Mild Steel Plain Bars
4. Prestressing Steel Bars
1. Hot Rolled Deformed Bars
Hot rolled deformed bars are most commonly used steel reinforcement for R.C.C structures. As
the name says, the hot rolling of the reinforcement is undergone leaving certain deformations on
its surface in the form of ribs. These ribs help to form a bond with the concrete. The typical yield
strength of hot-rolled deformed bars is 60000psi.
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Fig.1: Hot Rolled Steel Bars; Image Courtesy-RIVA Stahl Gmbh
2. Cold Worked Steel Bars
A cold worked reinforcement bar is obtained by letting the hot rolled steel bars to undergo cold
working. In the cold working process, the bars will undergo twisting and drawing. The process is
performed at room temperature. The cold worked steel bars do not undergo a plastic yield thus
have less ductility when compared with hot rolled bars.
3. Mild Steel Plain Bars

The mild steel plain reinforcement bars do not have ribs on their surface. They have a plain
surface. These bars are used for small projects where the major concern is the economy. The
tensile yield strength of these bars has a value of 40000psi.
Fig.2: Mild Steel Bars; Image Courtesy: Vision Alloys

4. Prestressing Steel Bars
The prestressing steel reinforcement are steel bars used in the form of strands or tendons.
Multiple strands are employed in concrete in order to perform the prestressing action. The
strands are made of multiple wires either 2 or 3 or 7 wire strands.
The wires used here are cold formed and have a high tensile strength ranging from 250000 –
270000 psi. This high strength helps to effectively prestress the concrete.
Read More: Prestressing Steel Specifications
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Advantages of Steel Reinforcement
Steel reinforcement is a reinforcing choice compared to other reinforcing materials due to its
unique advantages. They are:
1. Compatibility with Concrete: The fresh concrete is placed on the formwork mold
already prepared with reinforcement. The steel reinforcement won’t float in concrete
during the concrete placing procedure. Hence, steel reinforcement does not demand
special tying up with formworks.
2. Robustness of Steel Reinforcement: The steel bars are robust in nature that they have
the ability to withstand the rigors, the wear and tear during the construction activities.
3. Bent Property of Steel Reinforcement: The steel bars once manufactured to standard
size, it can be bent to the required specifications. Hence fabricated steel bars are delivered
easily at the site.
4. Recycling Property: The steel reinforced left over after the service life of a structure is
recycled again and used for new construction.
5. Easily Available: Every region of a country will have a steel supplier or manufacturer.
Hence steel reinforcement is easily available.
Disadvantages of Steel Reinforcement
The main disadvantages of steel reinforcement are mentioned below:
1. Reactive Nature of Steel Reinforcement: In concrete structures where the cover is small
and subjected to external moisture and salt action, the reinforcement undergoes reaction
and starts to corrode. These can lessen the strength of concrete and finally to failure.
2. Expensive: The cost of steel reinforcement in high. This will increase the cost of
construction
3. Melts at high temperature: At higher temperatures, the steel reinforcement may melt.
This is the reason why the steel reinforcement are tied up and not welded.
Properties of Construction Materials
Several materials are required for construction. The materials used in the construction of
Engineering Structures such as buildings, bridges and roads are called Engineering Materials or
Building Materials. They include Bricks, Timber, Cement, Steel and Plastics. The materials used
in Civil Engineering constructions can be studied under the following headings.
1. Traditional materials
2. Alternate building materials
3. Composite materials
4. Smart materials
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It is necessary for an engineer to be conversant with the properties of engineering materials.
Right selection of materials can be made for a construction activity only when material
properties are fully understood.
Some of the most important properties of building materials are grouped as follows.
Group Properties
Physical Shape, Size, Density, Specific Gravity etc.,
Strength, Elasticity, Plasticity, Hardness, Toughness, Ductility,

Mechanical
Brittleness, Creep, Stiffness, Fatigue, Impact Strength etc.,
Thermal Thermal conductivity, Thermal resistivity, Thermal capacity etc.,
Chemical Corrosion resistance, Chemical composition, Acidity, Alkalinity etc.,
Optical Colour, Light reflection, Light transmission etc.,
Acoustical Sound absorption, Transmission and Reflection.
Physiochemical Hygroscopicity, Shrinkage and Swell due to moisture changes
Ground Improvement Techniques for Stabilization of Soil for Various Purposes
The ground can be improved by adapting certain ground improvement techniques. Vibro-
compaction increases the density of the soil by using powerful depth vibrators. Vacuum
consolidation is used for improving soft soils by using a vacuum pump.
Preloading method is used to remove pore water over time. Heating is used to form a crystalline
or glass product by electric current. Ground freezing converts pore water to ice to increase their
combined strength and make them impervious. Vibro-replacement stone columns improve the
bearing capacity of soil whereas Vibro displacement method displaces the soil. Electro osmosis
makes water flow through fine grained soils.
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Electro kinetic stabilization is the application of electro osmosis. Reinforced soil steel is used for
retaining structures, sloping walls, dams etc. seismic loading is suited for construction in
seismically active regions. Mechanically stabilized earth structures create a reinforced soil mass.
The geo methods like Geosynthetics, Geogrid etc. are discussed. Soil nailing increases the shear
strength of the in-situ soil and restrains its displacement. Micro pile gives the structural support
and used for repair/replacement of existing foundations.
Grouting is injection of pumpable materials to increase its rigidity. The jet grouting is quite
advanced in speed as well as techniques when compared with the general grouting.
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Rapid urban and industrial growth demands more land for further development. In order to meet
this demand land reclamation and utilization of unsuitable and environmentally affected lands
have been taken up. These, hitherto useless lands for construction have been converted to be
useful ones by adopting one or more ground improvement techniques. The field of ground
improvement techniques has been recognized as an important and rapidly expanding one.
Latest Ground Improvement Techniques
Following are the recent methods of ground improvement Techniques used for stabilization of
soil:
 Vibro Compaction
 Vacuum Consolidation
 Preloading of soil
 Soil stabilization by heating or vitrification
 Ground freezing
 Vibro-replacement stone columns
 Mechanically stabilized earth structures
 Soil nailing
 Micro-piles
 Grouting
Ground Type Relative Effectiveness
Sands Excellent
Silty sands Excellent
Silts Good
Clays Marginal to good
Minespoils Excellent (depending on gradation)
Dumped fill Good
Garbage Not applicable
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Mechanically Stabilized Earth Structures
A segmental, precast facing mechanically stabilized earth wall employs metallic (strip or bar
mat) or geosynthetic (geogrid or geotextile) reinforcement that is connected to a precast concrete
or prefabricated metal facing panel to create a reinforced soil mass.
Principles of Mechanically Stabilized Earth Structures:
 The reinforcement is placed in horizontal layers between successive layers of granular

soil backfill. Each layer of backfill consists of one or more compacted lifts.
 A free draining, non plastic backfill soil is required to ensure adequate performance of
the wall system.
 For walls reinforced with metallic strips, load is transferred from the backfill soil to the
strip reinforcement by shear along the interface.
 For walls with ribbed strips, bar mats, or grid reinforcement, load is similarly transferred
but an additional component of strength is obtained through the passive resistance on the
transverse members of the reinforcement.
 Facing panels are typically square, rectangular, hexagonal or cruciform in shape and are
up to 4.5m ^2 in area.
 MSEW- Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls, when the face batter is generally steeper
than 70 degrees.
 RSS- Reinforced Soil Slopes, when the face batter is shallower.
Applications of Mechanically Stabilized Earth Structures:
 RSS structures are cost effective alternatives for new construction where the cost of
embankment fill, right-of-way, and other consideration may make a steeper slope
desirable.
 Another use of reinforcement in engineered slopes is to improve compaction at the edges
of a slope to decrease the tendency for surface sloughing.
Design:
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Current practice consists of determining the geometric reinforcement to prevent internal and
external failure using limit equilibrium of analysis.
Soil Nailing Technique for Ground Improvement
The fundamental concept of soil nailing consists of reinforcing the ground by passive inclusions,
closely spaced, to create in-situ soil and restrain its displacements. The basic design consists of
transferring the resisting tensile forces generated in the inclusions into the ground through the
friction mobilized at the interfaces.
Applications of Soil Nailing Technique:
 Stabilization of railroad and highway cut slopes

 Excavation retaining structures in urban areas for high-rise building and underground
facilities
 Tunnel portals in steep and unstable stratified slopes
 Construction and retrofitting of bridge abutments with complex boundaries involving
wall support under piled foundations
Micropiles for Ground Improvement
Micropiles are small diameter piles (up to 300 mm), with the capability of sustaining high loads
(compressive loads of over 5000 KN).The drilling equipment and methods allows micropiles to
be drilled through virtually every ground conditions, natural and artificial, with minimal
vibration, disturbances and noise, at any angle below horizontal. The equipment can be further
adapted to operate in locations with low headroom and severely restricted access.
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Applications of Micropiles for Ground Improvement
 For Structural Support and stability

 Foundation for new structures
 Repair / Replacement of existing foundations
 Arresting / Prevention of movement
 Embankment, slope and landslide stabilization
 Soil strengthening and protection
Example of Micro Piles for Ground Improvement:
In India, in some circumstances steel pipes, coated wooden piles are used as cost-effective
Options in improving the bearing capacity of foundation or restrict Displacements to tolerable
levels and similar uses in stabilization of slopes, strengthening of foundations are common.
Sridharan and Murthy (1993) described a Case study in which a ten-storeyed building, originally
in a precarious condition due To differential settlement, was restored to safety using micropiles.
Galvanized steel Pipes of 100 mm diameter and 10 m long with bottom end closed with shoe,
driven at An angle of 60o with the horizontal were used and the friction between the pile and the
soil was used as the design basis in evolving the remedial measures.
General Grouting for Ground Improvement

Grouting is the injection of pumpable materials into a soil or rock formation to change the
physical characteristics of the formation. Grouting selection considerations are Site specific
requirement, Soil type, Soil groutability, Porosity. Grouting can be prevented by Collapse of
granular soils, Settlement under adjacent foundations, Utilities damage, Day lighting. Grouting
can provide Increased soil strength and rigidity, reduced ground movement, Predictable degree
of improvement.
Steps for General Grouting Technique for Soil Stabilization
 Identify underground construction problem.

 Establish objectives of grouting program.
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 Perform special geotechnical study.
 Develop initial grouting program.
 Develop performance prediction.
 Compare with other solutions.
 Refine design and prepare specifications.
Grouting Techniques
The various injection grouting techniques used by grouting contractors for ground improvement /
ground modification can be summarized as follows:
 Permeation
 Compaction Grouting
 Claquage
 Jet Grouting
Jet Grouting Technique for Ground Improvement
Jet grouting is a general term used by grouting contractors to describe various construction
techniques used for ground modification or ground improvement. Grouting contractors use ultra
high-pressure fluids or binders that are injected into the soils at high velocities. These binders
break up the soil structure completely and mix the soil particles in-situ to create a homogeneous
mass, which in turn solidifies.
This ground modification / ground improvement of the soil plays an important role in the fields
of foundation stability, particularly in the treatment of load bearing soils under new and existing
buildings; in the in-depth impermeabilization of water bearing soils; in tunnel construction; and
to mitigate the movement of impacted soils and groundwater.
Alternate Building Materials Used in Construction Industry
Alternate building materials are those which can be used economically by replacing the
conventional building materials. Alternate building materials are made from waste products and
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thus it even minimizes environmental pollutions.
These alternate building materials can be used when it meets the respective specifications in the
code of practice. Here some new materials and technology is discussed as well and a list many
alternate materials for foundation, roof and walls are presented with details of each.
New Alternate Building Materials and Technology

Following are the new and alternate building materials used in construction works:
 Aluminum  Fiber Reinforced Polymer

 Bitumen Materials  Glass Fiber Reinforced Plastics
 Soil Conditioning Agents  Bamboo reinforced plastics
 Tempered Glass  Ferro-cement
 Crumb Rubber  Polyester Fibers
1. ALUMINIUM
 More than 3000 commercialized  High durability and low

applications. maintenance.
 35 percent aluminum produced is  Can be alloyed.
used in construction.  Ductile and malleable.
 Non-Corrosive.  Aesthetically attractive.
Applications of Aluminum In Construction
 Windows, doors, facades  As a support structure for solar

 Roofs, walls, building superstructure  Panels, solar collectors and light
 Door handles, catches, staircases Shelves.
 HVAC and waterproofing  Wall cladding.

2. Bitumen Materials
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 Super pave system
 Superior performing asphalt pavements systems
Advantages
 Reduces Permanent deformation

 Fatigue cracking
 Low temperature cracking in hot asphalt mixtures
 Soil Conditioning Agents
 Bentonite Slurry
 Polymer Liquids
 Foams
Applications
 Tunneling
 Pipe Jacking
3. Tempered Glass
 Thermally tempered glazing – automobile windows

 Polycarbonate glazing – bullet proof glazing
4. Crumb Rubber
 Crumb – scrap tires are shredded

 Crumb rubber is added to asphalt is called CRMA (crumb rubber modified asphalt.)
Advantage
 helps in noise reduction

 reduces skid
105 | P a g e
By Daniel Loeschen on June 25, 2019 | No Comments
Gopal Mishra is a Civil Engineer from NIT Calicut and has more than 10 years of experience
in Civil Engineering and Construction. He is the founder of The Constructor.
106 | P a g e

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CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIALS

ENGR. ULOKO JOSIAH ONU

The study of rheology of concrete provides information on properties of fresh concrete

such as deformation, behavior of mix, and placement of mixed concrete.

study of the science of the flow and deformation of materials.

Rheology of Fresh Concrete

based on stress, strain or rate of strain and the time factors.

mechanical stresses within it.

Fig.1. The Rheological Parameters of Fresh Concrete

Stability Parameter in Fresh Concrete Rheology

possess a homogeneous dispersion and resemble a sampling in a random manner. This

termed to be an unstable mix.

alone. It can appear in the dry mix too.

paste cannot hold the aggregate in a well-distributed manner.

as well as resistance to shear.

Mobility Parameter in Rheology of Concrete

discussed above is a factor that avoids the possibilities of segregation.

binds the matrix together would decrease.

 Shape and Texture of the aggregates used in the concrete mix

 The extent to which the mixture is rich

 The type of cement

Compactability Parameter in Rheology of Concrete

taken to avoid segregation.

when the mix is high or low workable in nature.

layers, each compacted with a 25mm diameter internal vibrator.

give an indication of durability, permeability and the strength of concrete.

Concrete is a composite material composed of fine and coarse aggregate bonded together

with a fluid cement (cement paste) that hardens (cures) over time. In the

other hydraulic cements, such as a calcium aluminate cement or with Portland cement to

form Portland cement concrete (for its visual resemblance to Portland stone). Many

other non-cementitious types of concrete exist with different methods of binding

aggregate together, including asphalt concrete with a bitumen binder, which is frequently

used for road surfaces, and polymer concretes that use polymers as a binder.

durable stone-like material that has many uses. Often, additives (such

as pozzolans or superplasticizers) are included in the mixture to improve the physical

reinforcing materials (such as rebar) embedded to provide tensile strength,

is handled after it is poured is just as important as before. Concrete is one of the most

wood, plastics, and aluminum combined.

Small-scale production of concrete-like materials was pioneered by the Nabatean traders

built kilns to supply mortar for the construction of rubble masonry houses, concrete

In the Ancient Egyptian and later Roman eras, builders discovered that adding volcanic

ash to the mix allowed it to set underwater.

The Assyrian Jerwan Aqueduct (688 BC) made use of waterproof concrete. Concrete was

used for construction in many ancient structures.

Empire, Roman concrete (or opus caementicium) was made

from quicklime, pozzolana and an aggregate of pumice. Its widespread use in

many Roman structures, a key event in the history of architecture termed the Roman

architectural revolution, freed Roman construction from the restrictions of stone and

brick materials. It enabled revolutionary new designs in terms of both structural

complexity and dimension. The Colosseum in Rome was built largely of concrete, and

Modern tests show that opus caementicium had as much compressive strength as modern

Portland-cement concrete (ca. 200 kg/cm2 [20 MPa; 2,800 psi]). However, due to the

concrete, and its mode of application was also different:

which, in Roman practice, often consisted of rubble.

bonding to resist tension.

of pyroclastic (volcanic) rock and ash, whereby crystallization of strätlingite (a specific

calcium–aluminum-silicate–hydrate cementing binders helped give the concrete a greater

degree of fracture resistance even in seismically active environments. Roman concrete is

significantly more resistant to erosion by seawater than modern concrete; it used

pyroclastic materials which react with seawater to form Al-tobermorite crystals over

aqueducts and bridges, such as the magnificent Pont du Gard in southern France, have