NAME: OKEKE CHUKWUDI IKECHUKWU

ASSIGNMENT : CIVIL ENGINEERING MATERIALS : UTILIZATION AND

PROPERTIES

COURSE CODE : CVE 871

DATE : 25TH AUGUST 2023

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

DEFINITION OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

Construction material means an article, material, or supply brought to the construction site

by the Contractor or a subcontractor for incorporation into the building or work. The term
also includes an item brought to the site preassembled from articles, materials, or supplies.
However, emergency life safety systems, such as emergency lighting, fire alarm, and audio
evacuation systems, that are discrete systems incorporated into a public building or work
and that are produced as complete systems, are evaluated as a single and distinct
construction material regardless of when or how the individual parts or components of
those systems are delivered to the construction site. Materials purchased directly by the
Government are supplies, not construction material.

TYPES OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

Concrete

Steel

Metal

Composite material

Ceramics

Pvc

Tiles

Granite

Brick

Cement

Stone

Lime

Aggregate

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Masonry

Wood

Glass

Timber

PROPERTIES AND UTILIZATION OF CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS

Concrete in construction, structural material consisting of a hard, chemically inert

particulate substance, known as aggregate (usually sand and gravel), that is bonded
together by cement and water.

Properties of Fresh Concrete:

Concrete remains in its fresh state from the time it is mixed until it sets. During this time
the

concrete is handled, transported, placed and compacted. Properties of concrete in its fresh
state

are very important because the influence the quality of the hardened concrete.

The fresh concrete has the following procedure.

1. Consistency

2. Workability

3. Settlement & Bleeding

4. Plastic shrinkage

5. Loss of consistency

1. Consistency

Consistency of a concrete mix is a measure of the stiffness or sloppiness or fluidity of the

mix.

For effective handling, placing and compacting the concrete, consistency must be the same
for

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each batch. It is therefore necessary to measure consistency of concrete at regular

intervals. Slump test is commonly used to measure consistency of concrete.

2. Workability

The workability of a concrete mix is the relative ease with which concrete can be placed,

compacted and finished without separation or segregation of the individual materials.

Workability is not the same thing as consistency. Mixes with the same consistency can have

different workabilities, if they are made with different sizes of stone – the smaller the stone
the

more workable the concrete.

It is not possible to measure workability but the slump test, together with an assessment of

properties like stone content, cohesiveness and plasticity, gives a useful indication.

3. Settlement and Bleeding

Cement and aggregate particles have densities about three times that of water. In fresh
concrete

they consequently tend to settle and displace mixing water which migrates upward and
may

collect on the top surface of the concrete. This upward movement of mixing water is known
as

bleeding; water that separates from the rest of the concrete is called bleed water.

4. Plastic Shrinkage

If water is removed from the compacted concrete before it sets, the volume of the concrete
is

reduced by the amount of water removed. This volume reduction is called plastic
shrinkage.

Water may be removed from the plastic concrete by evaporation or by being absorbed by
dry

surfaces such as soil or old concrete or by the dry wooden form work.

5. Slump Loss

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From the time of mixing, fresh concrete gradually loses consistency. This gives rise to the

problems only if the concrete becomes too stiff to handle, place and compact properly.

Slump loss in concrete is caused due to the following reasons.

Hydration of cement (generating more heat)

Loss of water by evaporation

Absorption of water by dry aggregates

Absorption of water by surfaces in contact with the concrete.

2.4 Mechanical properties of concrete

Performance of concrete is evaluated from mechanical properties which include shrinkage

and

creep, compressive strength, tensile strength, flexural strength, and modulus of elasticity.

Shrinkage and Creep

When concrete is subjected to compressive loading it deforms instantaneously. This

immediate

deformation is called instantaneous strain. Now, if the load is maintained for a considerable

period of time, concrete undergoes additional deformations even without any increase in
the

load. This time-dependent strain is termed as creep.

Shrinkage is the reduction in the volume of hardened concrete due to loss of moisture by

evaporation.

There are several similarities and dissimilarities between creep and shrinkage. First, the
source

for both the effects are the same, which is loss of adsorbed moisture from the hydrated
cement

paste. In shrinkage, the loss is due to difference in the relative humidity of concrete and the

environment, in creep it is due to sustained applied stress. Second, the strain-time curves of
both

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the phenomenon are very similar.

The factors that affect creep also effects shrinkage. They both increase with:

higher cement content, higher water content, lower aggregate content, low relative
humidity,

high temperature, small thickness of the member, etc.

Compressive strength

Compressive strength is the maximum compressive stress that, under a gradually applied
load, a

given solid material can sustain without fracture. The formula for calculating compressive

strength is:

CS = F / A

Where in compressive strength (CS) is equal to the force (F) at the point of failure divided
by the

cross sectional area. Compressive strength tests must be performed with equal opposing
forces

on the test material. Test materials are normally in cylinders, cubes or spheres.

Tensile strength

Tensile strength, maximum load that a material can support without fracture when being

stretched, divided by the original cross-sectional area of the material. Tensile strengths
have

dimensions of force per unit area and in the English system of measurement are commonly

expressed in units of pounds per square inch, often abbreviated to psi. When stresses less
than

the tensile strength are removed, a material returns either completely or partially to its
original

shape and size. As the stress reaches the value of the tensile strength, however, a material,
if

ductile, that has already begun to flow plastically rapidly forms a constricted region called
a
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neck, where it then fractures.

Flexural strength

The flexural strength of a material is defined as the maximum bending stress that can be
applied

to that material before it yields. The most common way of obtaining the flexural strength of
a

material is by employing a transverse bending test using a three-point flexural test

technique.

Flexural strength is also known as bending strength, modulus of rupture or transverse

rupture

strength.

Modulus of elasticity

The ratio of the stress in a body to the corresponding strain.

USES OF CONCRETE

It’s an important building product. Concrete is chosen over wood as a construction

material.

It is a durable and cost-effective material which is a necessity for underground use. 

Concrete is a sustainable choice for residential and commercial projects. 

The strength of concrete increases over time. 

Concrete can hold up against weather condition and is easy to maintain. 

It is budget friendly to use everywhere. It is easy to repair & energy efficient.  

Concrete is safe for building occupants.  

Concrete is an inert material which doesn’t burn, mildew or feed rot.  

Its superior structural integrity provides added degree of protection from the severe
weather as well as an earthquake.  

Concrete walls and floors make a home quite place of rest, relaxation and rejuvenation.  

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Concrete is produced from locally available materials and leaves a small environmental
footprint while still providing high-level durability.  

It is used as aggregate in roadbeds or as granular materials while making new concrete. 

Concrete is fire resistant. It can resist extreme level of flames and heat which is a good
choice of the ceiling in a storage room. 

Concrete can be shaped in various forms when freshly mixed. 

Concrete isn’t sensitive to moisture.  

It doesn’t release any volatile organic compounds into the air which is environment-
friendly. 

Concrete gives a longer service life. 

It keeps home safe from insects. It doesn’t attract insect pest and rodents. That’s why small
animals cannot burrow through the concrete to make a home. 

Concrete has multiple design possibilities.  

Concrete can be used to achieve optimum environmental performance. 

 As it is recyclable, it is possible to use it for addition.  

High-performance concrete is used to build bridges.  

Concrete is able to accommodate steel reinforcements in gates, tunnel lines, electrical

controls.  

A concrete floor can be stamped to create an attractive surface. It can admit natural light
during the day and transmit artificial light after work.  

Concrete is used in driveways and patios

STEEL

Steels are essentially alloys of iron and carbon but they always contain other elements,

either as impurities or alloying elements. The iron, as produced from the

smelting of iron ore in a blast furnace, is impure and, in steel-making processes,

the impurities in blast furnace iron are removed by oxidation. At the end of the

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refining process, the melt will contain only small amounts of carbon, silicon, manganese,

sulphur and phosphorus, usually less than 0.05 per cent of each, but will

be in a highly oxidised state. With the exception of low carbon rimming steels,

which are not used as structural materials, the liquid steel must be deoxidised.

Silicon and manganese are generally used as deoxidisers, and sufficient is added

to give the steel a residual content of these elements as they help to give increased

strength. Frequently aluminium, an element with a very high affinity for oxygen,

is also used for deoxidation of the liquid steel and this element promotes a fine

grain structure. After deoxidation is complete, anthracite is added to bring the carbon

content up to the desired level.

Properties and utilization of steel

Density: The density of Structural Steel is 7750 to 8100 kg/m3.

Young's Modulus of Elasticity: Typical values for structural steel range from 190-210 GPa

Poisson's ratio: For structural Steel, the acceptable value ranges from 0.27 to 0.3.

Tensile strength: Structural Steel has high tensile strength, so it is preferred over other
construction materials.

Yield strength: The yield strength, also known as the yield point, is the stress at which an
object permanently deforms. When stress is removed, it does not revert to its former shape.
Carbon structural steel has a yield strength ranging from 187 to 758 MPa. The values of
structural Steel constructed of alloys range from 366 to 1793 MPa.

Shear strength: The shear strength of steel structure is specified at the failure under shear
stress, and it is about 0.57 times the yield stress of structural Steel.

Hardness: The resistance of an object to shape change when force is applied is referred to

as hardness. There are three different types of hardness tests. Scratch, indentation, and
rebound are all terms used to describe the process of scratching and indenting, and the
hardness of structural Steel manufactured with alloys ranges from 149 to 627 kg. Carbon
structural steels have a weight range of 86 to 388 kg.

Melting point: Because there are so many different types of structural Steel, there is no
standard melting point.

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Specific heat: The amount required to raise an object's temperature by a particular
quantity is known as specific heat or heat capacity. A higher specific heat value indicates
that the thing is more insulating. The units of measurement are Joules per Kilogram
Kelvin. Specific heat for carbon structural steel ranges from 450 to 2081 J/kg-K, while for
structural alloy steel, it ranges from 452 to 1499 J/kg-K.

USES

Steel is often used in construction projects due to its many beneficial properties. It can be
used as a structural frame in skyscrapers and other tall buildings or as a load-bearing
beam in bridges and overpasses. It is also frequently used to reinforce concrete foundations
and walls in order to increase their stability and prevent cracking from temperature
fluctuations or seismic activity. In addition, steel can be used as a cladding material on
exterior walls for additional protection against water penetration and external weathering
agents like wind and rain.

METALS

PROPERTIES OF METALS

Ductility

•Malleability

•Hardness

•Conductivity

•Ability to form alloys

•Qualities of appearance

USES

They are a first choice material for structures, reinforcements, cladding, roofing, window
frames, plumbing, heating equipment and many other applications.

COMPOSITE MATERIALS

If both the fibres and matrix are aligned parallel to the loading direction, the deformation
of both phases will be the same (assuming there is no delamination at the fibre-matrix

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interface). This isostrain condition provides the upper bound for composite strength, and is
determined by the rule of mixtures:

The lower bound is dictated by the isostress condition, in which the fibres and matrix are
oriented perpendicularly to the loading direction:��=��=��=�

In general, particle reinforcement is strengthening the composites less

than fiber reinforcement. It is used to enhance the stiffness of the composites while
increasing the strength and the toughness. Because of their mechanical properties, they are
used in applications in which wear resistance is required. For example, hardness
of cement can be increased by reinforcing gravel particles, drastically. Particle
reinforcement a highly advantageous method of tuning mechanical properties of materials
since it is very easy implement while being low cost.

n general, continuous fiber reinforcement is implemented by incorporating a fiber as the

strong phase into a weak phase, matrix. The reason for the popularity of fiber usage is
materials with extraordinary strength can be obtained in their fiber form. Non-metallic
fibers are usually showing a very high strength to density ratio compared to metal fibers
because of the covalent nature of their bonds. The most famous example of this is carbon
fibers that have many applications extending from sports gear to protective
equipment to space industries.[82][83]

The stress on the composite can be expressed in terms of the volume fraction of the fiber
and the matrix.

Utilization of composite materials

Composite materials are generally used for buildings, bridges, and structures such as boat
hulls, swimming pool panels, racing car bodies, shower stalls, bathtubs, storage tanks,
imitation granite, and cultured marble sinks and countertops. They are also being
increasingly used in general automotive applications.

PVC

Polyvinyl Chloride (PVC) is one of the most widely used polymers in the world. Due to its
versatile nature, PVC is used extensively across a broad range of  industrial, technical and
everyday applications including widespread use in building, transport, packaging,
electrical/electronic and healthcare applications.

PROPERTIES

TENSILE STRENGTH

Notched impact strength

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Thermal coefficient of expansion

Density

Uses

PVC is a versatile material that offers many possible applications, these include; window
frames, drainage pipe, water service pipe, medical devices, blood storage bags, cable and
wire insulation, resilient flooring, roofing membranes, stationary, automotive interiors and
seat coverings, fashion and footwear, packaging, cling film, credit cards, vinyl
records, synthetic leather and other coated fabrics. 

AGGREGATE

Properties and utilization of aggregates

Grading

Grading is the particle-size distribution of an aggregate as determined by a sieve

analysis using wire mesh sieves with square openings.

Fineness modulus

The results of aggregate sieve analysis is expressed by a number called Fineness

Modulus. Obtained by adding the sum of the cumulative percentages by mass of a

sample aggregate retained on each of a specified series of sieves and dividing the

sum by 100.

The flakiness index of aggregate is the percentage by weight of particles in it whose

least dimension (thickness) is less than three-fifths of their mean dimension.

The elongation index on an aggregate is the percentage by weight of particles whose

greatest dimension (length) is greater than 1.8 times their mean dimension.

It is defined as the resistance of aggregate to failure by impact. The impact

value of bulk aggregate can be determined as per I.S. 2386, 1963

It is defined as the resistance to wear by abrasion, and the aggregate abrasion value is

defined as the percentage loss in weight on abrasion.

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The specific gravity of a substance is the ratio of the weight of unit volume of the substance

to the unit volume of water at the stated temperature. In concrete making, aggregates
generally

contain pores both permeable and impermeable hence the term specific gravity has to be

defined carefully.

All aggregates, particles have pores with in their body. The characteristics of these pores
are

very important in the study of the properties of aggregate. The porosity, permeability, and

absorption of aggregates influence the resistance of concrete to freezing and thawing, bond

strength between aggregate and cement paste, resistance to abrasion of concrete etc.

The moisture present in fine aggregate causes increase in its volume, known as bulking of

sand. The moisture in the fine aggregate develops a film of moisture around the particles of

sand and due to surface tension pushes apart the sand particles, occupying greater volume.

The bulking of the sand affects the mix proportion, if mix is designed by volume batching.

Bulking results in smaller weight of sand occupying the fixed volume of the measuring box,

and the mix becomes deficient in sand and the resulting concrete becomes honeycombed
and

its yield is also reduced.

Bricks

Physical Properties of Bricks:

These properties of bricks include shape, size, color, and density of a brick.

(i) Shape:

The standard shape of an ideal brick is truly rectangular. It has Well defined and sharp
edges.

The surface of the bricks is regular and even.

(ii) Size:

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The size of brick used in construction varies from country to country and from place to
place

in the same country.

In India, the recommended standard size of an ideal brick is 19 x 9 x 9 cm which with

mortar

joint gives net dimensions of 20 x 10 x 10 cm.

These dimensions have been found very convenient in handling and making quantity

estimates. Five hundred such bricks will be required for completing 1 m3 brick masonry.

(iii) Color.

The most common color of building bricks falls under the class RED. It may vary from
deep

red to light red to buff and purple.

Very dark shades of red indicate over burnt bricks whereas yellow color is often indicative

of under-burning.

(iv) Density.

The density of bricks or weight per unit volume depends mostly on the type of clay used
and

the method of brick molding (soft-mud, Stiff-mud, hard-pressed etc.).

In the case of standard bricks, density varies from 1600 kg/m3 to 1900 kg/m3. A single
brick

(19 x 9 x 9 cm) will weigh between 3.2 to 3.5 kg. depending upon its density.

(2) Mechanical Brick Properties.

(i) Compressive Strength of Bricks:

It is the most important property of bricks especially when they are used in load-bearing
walls.

The compressive strength of a brick depends on the composition of the clay and degree of

burning. It may vary from 3.5 N/mm2 to more than 20 N/mm2 in India.

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It is specified under the I.S. codes that an ordinary type building brick must possess a
minimum

compressive strength of 3.5 N/mm2.

The first and 2nd class bricks shall have a compressive strength not less than 7 N/mm2 and
14

N/mm2 respectively.

(ii) Flexure Strength:

Bricks are often used in situations where bending loads are possible in a building. As such,

they should possess sufficient strength against transverse loads.

It is specified that the flexural strength of a common building brick shall not be less than 1

N/mm2. Best grade bricks often possess flexural strength over 2 N/mm2.

Similarly, it is required that a good building brick shall possess a shearing strength of 5-7

N/mm2.

Lime

Properties of Lime for Use in Construction:

The white powdered slaked lime has a wide range of applications in construction. The

properties of lime are:

1. Cementing capability- This is obtained by their carbonation with carbon dioxide. Lime

is used as lime mortar for brick masonry construction.

2. Have a higher acid resistance- due to its alkaline nature

3. Gain Pozzolanic activity- this gives cementitious products

4. Sealing of micro cracks- This is done by the precipitation made by the calcium

carbonate when carbon dioxide passes through the lime mortar mix.

Properties of Lime

 It should possess good plasticity.

 It should be flexible and easily workable.

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 When used in mortar, it should provide greater strength to the masonry.

 It should solidify in less time and become hard

Fly ash

Physical Properties of Fly Ash:

Fineness of Fly Ash

As per ASTM, the fineness of the fly ash is to be checked in both dry and wet sieving. The
fly

ash sample is sieved in 45 micron sieve and the percentage of retained on the 45 micron
sieve

is calculated. Further fineness is also measured by LeChatelier method and Blaine Specific

Surface method.

Specific Gravity of Fly Ash

The specific gravity of fly ash ranges from a low value of 1.90 for a sub-bituminous ash to a

high value of 2.96 for an iron-rich bituminous ash.

Size and Shape of Fly Ash

As the flyash is a very fine material, the particle size ranges in between 10 to 100 micron.
The

shape of the fly ash is usually spherical glassy shaped.

Color

The color of the fly ash depends upon the chemical and mineral constituents. Lime content
in

the fly ash gives tan and light colors whereas brownish color is imparted by the presence of

iron content. A dark grey to black color is typically attributed to an elevated un-burned
content.

5.2 Fly ash Bricks:

Fly Ash Bricks are manufactured using Major percentage of fly ash generated from
Thermal

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Power stations. Other raw materials used along with Fly Ash are lime and calcined
gypsum.

Fly ash is a fine, glass-like powder recovered from coal-fired electric power generation.

They consist mostly of silicon dioxide (SiO2), aluminum oxide (Al2O3) and iron oxide
(Fe2O3).

Products and Its Application

Fly ash lime bricks are chemically bonded bricks manufactured by utilizing 80- 82% of fly
ash,

which is a major waste bye-product of pulverized coal fired in Thermal Power Stations, 9-
10%

of lime, 9-10% of sand and accelerator. The process know-how has been developed by

Central Fuel Research Institute.

Physical Requirements:

a. Fineness: When tested by the air permeability method described in IS 4031 (Part 2):

1988, the specific surface of Portland-pozzolana cement shall be not less than 300

m2/kg.

b. Soundness: When tested by ‘Le Chatelier’ method and autoclave test described in IS

4031 (Part 3): 1988, unaerated Portland-pozzolana cement The average drying

shrinkage of mortar bars shall not have an expansion of more than 10 mm and 0.8

percent respectively.

c. Setting Time: The setting time of Portland-pozzolana cement, when tested by the Vicat

apparatus method described in IS 4031 (Part 5): 1988, shall be 30min (Minimum) for

initial setting time and 600min (Maximum) for final setting time

d. Compressive strength: The average compressive strength tested in the manner as

described in IS 4031 (Part 6): 1988 shall be as follows:

At 72 ±1hr 16 MPa, Min

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At 168 ± 2hrs 22 MPa, Min

At 672 ±4hrs 33 MPa, Min

e. Drying shrinkage: The average drying shrinkage of mortar bars prepared and tested in

accordance with IS 4031 (Part 10): 1988 shall not be more than 0.15 percent.

HARDNESS

It is an important property to be considered when a stone is used for flooring, pavement or

aprons of bridges, they become subjected to wearing and abrasive forces caused by
movement

of men or machine over them.

The coefficient of hardness is to be found by conducting a test on a standard specimen in

Dory’s testing machine.

For road works coefficient of hardness should be at least 17. For building works stones
with

a coefficient of hardness less than 14 should not be used.

III) DURABILITY

Building stones should be capable to resist the adverse effects of natural forces like wind,
rain

and heat.

It must be durable and should not deteriorate due to the adverse effects of the above
natural

forces.

IV) TOUGHNESS

Toughness of stones means it ability to resist impact forces. It is determined by the impact

test. Stones with toughness index more than 19 are preferred for road works.

The vibrations may be due to the machinery mounted over them or due to the loads
moving

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over them. The stone aggregates used in the road constructions should be tough. Building

stones should be tough enough to sustain stresses developed due to vibrations.

V) PERCENTAGE WEAR

It is measured by the attrition test. It is an important property to be considered in selecting

aggregate for road works and railway ballast. A good stone should not show the wear of
more

than 2%.

VI) POROSITY AND ABSORPTION

All stones have pores and hence absorb water. The reaction of water with a material of
stone

cause disintegration. The absorption test is specified as the percentage of water absorbed
by

the stone when it is immersed underwater for 24 hours.

For a good stone it should be as small as possible and in no case more than 5.

Porosity of building stones depend upon the mineral constituent and structural formation

of the parent rock.

If stones used in building construction are porous then rain water can easily enter into the

pore spaces and cause damage to the stones. Therefore, building stone should not be
porous.

Water absorption of stone is directly proportional to the porosity of rock. If a stone is more

porous then it will absorb more water and cause more damage to stone.

In higher altitudes, the freezing of water in pores takes place and it results into the

disintegration of the stone.

VII) WEATHERING

Rain and wind cause loss of the good appearance of stones. Hence stones with good weather

resistance should be used for face works.

VIII) SEASONING

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The stones obtained from the quarry contain moisture in the pores. The strength of the
stone

improves if this moisture is removed before using the stone.

The process of removing moisture from pores is called seasoning. The best way

of seasoning is to allow it to the action of nature for 6 to 12 months. This is very much

required in the case of laterite stones.

Good stones should be free from the quarry sap. Lateritic stones should not be used for 6 to
12

months after quarrying. They are allowed to get rid of quarry sap by the action of nature.
This

process of removing quarry sap is called seasoning.

IX) WORKABILITY

Stone is said to be workable when the work involved in stone working (such as cutting,
dressing

& shaping) is economical and easy to conduct.

X) FIRE RESISTANCE

Stones should be free from calcium carbonate, oxides of iron, and minerals having different

coefficients of thermal expansion.

Igneous rock show marked disintegration principally because of quartz which disintegrates

into small particles at a temperature of about 575°C.

Limestone, however, can withstand a little higher temperature; i.e. up to 800°C after which

they disintegrate.

Sand-stones resist fire better. Argillaceous materials, though poor in strength, are good in

resisting fire.

XI) DENSITY / SPECIFIC GRAVITY

Denser stones are stronger. Light-weight stones are weak. Hence stones with a specific
gravity

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less than 2.4 are considered unsuitable for buildings.

The more the specific gravity of stone, the heavier and stronger the stone.

Therefore, stones having higher specific gravity values should be used for the construction

of dams, retaining walls, docks and harbours.

The specific gravity of good building stone is between 2.4 and 2.8.

XII) STRUCTURE

The structure of the stone may be stratified (layered) or unstratified. Structured stones
should

be easily dressed and suitable for super-structure. Unstratified stones are hard and difficult

to dress. They are preferred for the foundation works.

XIII) TEXTURE

Fine grained stones with homogeneous distribution look attractive and hence they are used

for carving. Such stones are usually strong and durable.

XIV) APPEARANCE

A stone with uniform and attractive colour is durable if grains are compact. Marble and

granite get a very good appearance, when polished. Hence, they are used for face works in

buildings.

In case of the stones to be used for face works, where appearance is a primary requirement,
its

colour and ability to receive polish is an important factor.

Light colour stones are more preferred than dark colour stones as the colour are likely to

fade out with time.

XV) EASE IN DRESSING

Giving required shape to the stone is called dressing.

The cost of dressing contributes to cost of stone masonry to a great extent. The dressing is
easy

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in stones with lesser strength.

Hence an engineer should look into sufficient strength rather than high strength while
selecting

stones for building works.

XVI) COST

Cost is an important consideration in selecting a building material. The proximity of the

quarry to the building site brings down the cost of transportation and hence the cost of
stones

comes down.

Glass

Glass is an inorganic solid material that is usually transparent or translucent as well as

hard,

brittle, and impervious to the natural elements. Glass has been made into practical and

decorative objects since ancient times, and it is still very important in applications

as disparate as building construction, house wares, and telecommunications. It is made by

cooling molten ingredients such as silica sand with sufficient rapidity to prevent the
formation

of visible crystals

Glass is used for following

 Packaging (jars for food, bottles for drinks, flacon for cosmetics and pharmaceuticals)

 Tableware (drinking glasses, plate, cups, bowls)

 Housing and buildings (windows, facades, conservatory, insulation, reinforcement

structures)

 Interior design and furniture (mirrors, partitions, balustrades, tables, shelves, lighting)

 Appliances and Electronics (oven doors, cook top, TV, computer screens, smartphones)

 Automotive and transport (windscreens, backlights, light weight but reinforced

structural components of cars, aircrafts, ships, etc.)

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 Medical technology, biotechnology, life science engineering, optical glass

 Radiation protection from X-Rays (radiology) and gamma-rays (nuclear)

 Fibre optic cables (phones, TV, computer: to carry information)

 Renewable energy (solar-energy glass, wind turbines)

GYPSUM

Properties of Gypsum

 Gypsum is a soft mineral that is moderately soluble in water. The water solubility of

this mineral is affected by temperature. Unlike other salts, gypsum becomes less soluble

in water as the temperature increases. This is known as retrograde solubility, which is

a distinguishing characteristic of gypsum.

 Gypsum is usually white, colourless, or gray in colour. But sometimes, it can also be

found in the shades of pink, yellow, brown, and light green, mainly due to the presence

of impurities.

 Gypsum crystals can be transparent or translucent with vitreous to pearly luster.

Sometimes, gypsum crystals can be quite large, and are considered to be some of the

largest crystals found in nature.

 Some crystals can be flexible, which can be bent by applying pressure. But, when the

pressure is released, the crystals do not return to their original shape, as they are not

elastic.

 Gypsum crystals are sometimes found to occur in a form that resembles the petals of a

flower. This type of formation is referred to as ‘desert rose’, as they mostly occur in

arid areas or desert terrains.

Uses of Gypsums – Some of the Important Uses of Gypsums Include:

1. Building materials industry:

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The largest user of gypsums is the building materials industry, which is used to produce all

kinds of building materials and as raw materials for cement and cementing materials.

The production of gypsum partition board, load-bearing inner wallboard, external wall
block,

wall covering board, ceiling and so on.

2. Model plaster:

Model gypsum can be used in foundry, art, ceramics and other industries.

3. Agriculture:

It can be used to produce sulphuric acid and ammonium sulfate fertilizer.

Anhydrite can adjust soil pH, improve the soil environment, and provide calcium, sulfur
and

other nutrients for various fertilizers.

4. Food industry:

In terms of food, gypsum can coagulate soybean milk into tofu, and it can also be used as a

coagulant in canned tomatoes.

5. Pharmaceutical industry:

Plaster external fixation is still the basic method for clinical treatment of fractures and
various

orthopaedic diseases.

It has the functions of maintaining, fixing and maintaining the special posture of the
affected

limb, reducing or eliminating the weight-bearing of the affected area, and so on.

6. Fillers for plastics and rubber:

After processing, anhydrite can be used as a filler for plastics and rubber.

The modified anhydrite filler can improve the mechanical strength, heat resistance and

dimensional stability of the polymer.

7. Production of calcium sulfate whisker:

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Gypsum can be transformed into a calcium sulfate whisker in an aqueous medium under
the

conditions of high temperature and high pressure.

Calcium sulfate whisker can be used as reinforced filler in resin matrix composites, friction

materials, binders and other industries.

Plastics

Properties of Plastics

 They are light in weight and is chemically stable.

 Easily moulded into different shapes and sizes.

 Good insulation and low thermal conductivity.

 Good impact resistance and they do not rust.

 Good transparency and wear resistance.

 Poor dimensional stability and can be easily deformed.

 Low processing cost

Uses of Plastics

Plastics are highly durable, lightweight and most importantly can be moulded into any
form or

shape. These properties account for the largest usage of plastics. plastics are extremely
versatile

materials and can be used for a wide variety of purposes. Some usage of plastics are given

below:

1. The ability to be moulded makes plastic an ideal packaging material. Plastics in

packaging help to keep foods safe and fresh.

2. Being durable and lightweight, plastics have helped in the electronic field. From

computers and cell phones to television and microwave, almost all appliances around

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us make some use of plastic.

3. Plastics are used to make safety gear like helmets, goggles etc. Plastics are used in the

construction industry due to their low maintenance and high durability.

4. Plastic is strong and lightweight, that is why it is useful in making toys, electrical

switches and other household products.

5. Being non-reactive with air and water, plastic is used to store water in plastic bottles

and other chemicals in chemical laboratories.

6. Plastic is a poor conductor of electricity and heat. Its insulation property is used for

coating the electric wire and to make handles of cooking utensils and various household

products

PAINT

Application of Paint

Preparation of surface for application of paint is the most important part in painting. The
surface

to be painted should not be oily and it should be from flakes of the old paint. Cracks in the

surface should be filled with putty and then with sand paper. Then primer is applied.
Painting

work should be carried out in dry weather. The under coats and first coats must be allowed
to

dry before final coat is applied

Following are the properties of Bitumen

1. Adhesion

2. Resistance to Water

3. Hardness

4. Viscosity and Flow

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5. Softening Point

6. Ductility

7. Specific Gravity

8. Durability

9. Versatility

10. Economical

11. Strength

Adhesion:

The adhesive property of bitumen binds together all the components without bringing
about

any positive or negative changes in their properties. Bitumen has the ability to adhere to a
solid

surface in a fluid state depending on the nature of the surface. The presence of water on the

surface will prevent adhesion.

Resistance to Water:

Bitumen is insoluble in water and can serve as an effective sealant Bitumen is water
resistant.

Under some conditions water may be absorbed by minute quantities of inorganic salts in
the

bitumen or filler in it.

Hardness:

To measure the hardness of bitumen, the penetration test is conducted, which measures the

depth of penetration in tenths of mm. of a weighted needle in bitumen after a given time, at
a

known temperature. Commonly a weight of 100 gm is applied for 5 sec at a temperature of

77

°F. The penetration is a measure of hardness. Typical results are 10 for hard coating
asphalt,

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15 to 40 for roofing asphalt and up to 100 or more for water proofing bitumen.

Viscosity and Flow:

The viscous or flow properties of bitumen are of importance both at high temperature
during

processing and application and at low temperature to which bitumen is subjected during

service. The flow properties of bitumen vary considerably with temperature and stress

conditions. Deterioration, or loss of the desirable properties of bitumen, takes the form of

hardening. Resultantly, decrease in adhesive and flow properties and an increase in the

softening point temperature and coefficient of thermal expansion.

Softening point:

This property make us to know whether given bitumen can be used at the particular place
i.e.

softening point value should be higher than pavement temperature otherwise bitumen
present

in the layer get soften and come out.

Softening point is the temperature at which a steel ball falls a known distance through the

bitumen when the test assembly is heated at a known rate. Usually the test consist of a (3/8)
in

dia. steel ball, weight 3.5 gm, which is allowed to sink through a (5/8) in dia, (1/4) in thick
disk

of bitumen in a brass ring. The whole assembly is heated at a rate of 9 °F per min. Typical

values would be 240 °F for coating grade asphalts, 140 °F to 220 °F for roofing asphalt and

down to 115 °F for bituminous water proofing material.

Ductility:

Ductility test is conducted to determine the amount bitumen will stretch at temperature
below

its softening point. A briquette having a cross sectional area of 1 in2 is placed in a tester at
77

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°F. Ductility values ranges from 0 to over 150 depending on the type of bitumen.

Presence of ductility means the formation of the film and coating would be proper.

Specific Gravity

Specific gravity of a binder does not influence its behaviour. But all the same, its value is

needed in mix design. The property is determined at 27º C.

Durability:

Bitumen durability refers to the long-term resistance to oxidative hardening of the

Material in

the field. Although, in-service, all bitumen harden with time through reaction.

With oxygen in the air, excessive rates of hardening (poor durability) can lead to
premature

binder embrittlement and surfacing failure resulting in cracking and chip loss. Bitumen
lives

upto twenty years if maintained properly throughout the pavement life.

Versatility:

Due to versatility property of Bitumen it is relatively easy to use it in many applications

because

of its thermoplastic property. It can be spread easily along the underlying pavement layers
as

it liquefies when heated making the job easier and hardens in a solid mass when cooled.

Economical:

It is available in cheaper rates almost all over the world which makes it feasible and
affordable

in many applications.

Strength:

Though the coarse aggregates are the main load bearing component in a pavement,
bitumen or

asphalt also play a vital role in distributing the traffic loads to the layers beneath.

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General Properties of Bitumen

 Most bitumen are colloidal in nature.

 Bitumens are thermoplastics.

 They have no specific melting, boiling or freezing point.

 Bitumens are insoluble in water.

 They are highly impermeable to the passage of water.

 They are generally hydrophobic. They are chemically inert.

 Bitumen oxidises slowly.

Tests on bitumen

There are a number of tests to assess the properties of bituminous materials. The following

tests are usually conducted to evaluate different properties of bituminous materials.

1. Penetration test

2. Ductility test

3. Softening point test

4. Specific gravity test

5. Viscosity test

6. Flash and Fire point test

7. Float test

8. Water content test

9. Loss on heating test

Timber properties

Timber type
The commercial division of timbers into ‘hardwoods’ and
‘softwoods’ bears little relation to the softness or hardness of
the timber. Softwoods are produced from coniferous or cone
bearing trees which have needle-like leaves and are mostly

30
evergreen, such as pines and yew. Hardwoods are produced from
broadleaved trees which produce seeds contained in an enclosed
case or ovary, for example an acorn or walnut.

Appearance
All timbers can vary in colour and this can change with use, with
the application of finishes and exposure to light. Unprotected
timber exposed externally will eventually weather to a silver grey
colour. Appearance is also determined by the characteristics
such as knots, figure and grain pattern. Timber can be graded
and supplied by appearance category and this is often a key
consideration where visual appeal is important, such as for
exposed beams, decorative wood flooring, furniture or veneers.

Density
Density varies depending on species and its moisture content.
Density is usually quoted at a standard moisture content. (In
Table 1 averages at 15% moisture content are quoted; * indicates
that density can vary by 20% or more.)

Texture
Surface texture is classified as fine, medium or coarse. It refers
to the structural character of the wood as revealed by touch
or reaction to cutting tools. This is largely determined by the
distribution and size of the various types of cells.

Moisture movement
The dimensional changes that occur when dried timber is
subjected to changes in atmospheric conditions are referred to as
‘moisture movement’. It is classed as small, medium or large and
is not directly related to the shrinkage which initially occurs when
green timber is dried to moisture contents suitable for in service
use. For structural purposes, movement is not usually significant.
Species with small movement should be specified where stability
in varying humidity is important, for example decorative wood
flooring.

Uses of Wood in Different Sectors

Wood is a plant part having multipurpose uses those are impossible to deny and difficult to
note all in our daily life. From the ancient time wood is used by human and this
continuation still remains in the modern civilization. A few of many uses of wood are
mentioned below:

1. Construction and Fencing

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  Home Construction:

During the early periods, use of wood in domestic construction was a common scene
and this is still followed in this twenty-first century. In different parts of the world
in the making of houses, wood is used commonly like the flooring, frames of doors
and windows for its strength and internment quality.
e.g. Deodar (Cedrus deodara), walnut wood (Juglans sp) is used in Pakistan widely,
teak (Tectona grandis) in South Asia and all over the world, Chir pine
(Pinus roxburghii) etc. In Bangladesh during construction of buildings woods from
mango (Mangifera indica), burflower tree (Neolamarckia cadamba) are used for
casting and piling.  

 Fencing and Decorating Gardens:

In modern decoration system woods are also used for building the fencing and
simple decoration for artificial gardening inside a home or on roofs.
e.g. Cedar (Cedrus libani), redwood (Sequoia semipervirens), Shorea sp, Acacia sp.

2. Household Uses

 Utensils:

Utensils made up of wood instead of plastic and steel are a symbol of elegance which
increases the charm and loveliness of the home corners.
e.g. Black walnut (Juglans nigra) wood is used in the west for home utensils.  

 Hand Tools:

The handles of most common hand tools made of wood help as heat resistant when
they are kitchenware used in an oven and closes the chance to shock while used on
electricity.

3. Art Industry

 Artworks:

For artworks such as statues, sculptures, carvings and making decorative objects
woods are widely used. The frames of art board, color plate are also made from
wood in many cases.
e.g. Pine (Pinus sp), maple (Acer sp), cherry (Prunus sp) wood for framing work.  

 Musical instrument:

The musical instruments such as Piano, violin, cello, drums, flute, guitar, double
bass and a number of other music instruments material requires wood for making a

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 perfect tune.
e.g. Mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla), maple, ash wood (Fraxinus sp) for guitars.

4. Sports Equipment

 Wooden Toys:

These are preferred to plastic towards the health conscious people which were
supposed as a fashion before. Plastic is nothing but the combination of chemicals
which is hazardous to children's health. Cricket, hockey, billiard, table tennis etc.
Toys and sports equipment have long made use of wood for handles and main parts.
e.g. Willow (Salix sp) wood for cricket, tennis bat; Mulberry (Morus sp) wood for
hockey sticks.

5. Commercial Uses

 Furniture:

At present, the market for wooden furniture is very profitable. No one can deny the
demand for wooden furniture as it is a sign of aristocracy since ancient time.
e.g. Teak (Tectona grandis) wood is the best for making furniture. Some other
woods from Mahogany (Swietenia macrophylla), Shimul (Bombax ceiba), Sundari,
Jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus), Mango trees are used in south Asia for
making different types of furniture.

 Shipbuilding:

Ships and rural fishing boats were made from wood. For constructing boats and
ships wood is one of the most important construction material. Hardwood and
softwood were used in the past for ship industry.
e.g. Teak, shal (Shorea robusta), mango, Arjun (Terminalia arjuna) were frequently
used in the past. Now Cypress (Cupressaceae sp), redwood (Sequoioideae sp), white
oak (Quercus alba) are water resistant and used for shipbuilding and boat building.
Woods like kauri (Agathis australis) is used for making the frames of ships.  

 Fuel:

Wood is an age-old source of energy all over the world. Before the exploration of
gas, fuel was the main source we can also define as only one source of energy that
people used by burning as woods were available in the forest easily. Generally,
sticks, pellets, sawdust, and charcoal are used as an energy source from wood.
Usually, woods from cheap plants are used in this sector.  

 Stationary:

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 Some stationaries like paper pencil are made of wood. Wood pulp is used for
making paper. Wood is used for making pencils too.
e.g. in the past Cyper papyrus trees were used to make paper. In Bangladesh woods
from Keora (Sonneratia apetala), Bine (Avicennia alba), Sundari (Heritiera fomes),
Kakra (Bruguiera gymnorhyza), Geoa (Excoecaria agallocha) are used for making
pulp of paper. Dhundal wood (Xylocarpus granatum) is used for pencil production.
Mortar
It is always desirable to use the best mortar in constructions. Therefore, the properties of a
good mortar must be investigated. Generally, good mortar possesses following properties-

 The main quality that mortar should possess is adhesion. Good mortar should
provide good adhesion to building units (bricks, Stones etc).
 Mortar should be water resistant. It should have the capability of resisting the
penetration of water.
 Deformability of mortar should be low.
 Mortar should be cheap.
 Mortar should be easily workable in the site condition.
 The mobility of mortar should be good. It helps the mortar to be paved thinly and
evenly.
 It should possess high durability.
 To improve the speed of construction, good mortar should set quickly.
 Cracks should not be developed in the joint formed by mortar. It is desirable to last
for long period of time without losing the appearance.
 To bind building materials such as bricks and stones into a solid mass.
 To carry out pointing and plasterwork on exposed surfaces of masonry.
 To form an even and soft bedding layer for building units.
 To form joints of pipes.
 To improve the general appearance of a structure.
 To prepare moulds for coping, corbels, cornice, etc.
 To serve as a matrix or cavity to hold the coarse aggregates, etc.
 To distribute ...

Asphalt – Types: Asphalt is a sticky, black and viscous liquid or semi-solid form of
petroleum. It is a refined product of crude oil.

Asphalt Properties and Uses

Asphalt is a black, sticky, and viscous material that is made by combining bitumen and
aggregate. It is used as a paving material because it is durable, flexible, and resistant to
wear and tear. Asphalt can also be used to make roofs, sidewalks, and parking lots.

1. Waterproof Property

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 This refers to the ability of a material to prevent the penetration of water. A waterproof
material will keep water out even when it is subjected to pressure.

2. Moisture Resistant

This term is similar to waterproof, but it is used to describe a material’s ability to resist the
absorption of moisture. A moisture resistant material will not let water penetrate its
surface, but it may still allow moisture to pass through its pores.

3. Viscosity

The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of its resistance to flow. A high-viscosity fluid is thick
and flows slowly, while a low-viscosity fluid is thin and flows quickly.

4. Surface Tension

Surface tension is a measure of the force that acts at the surface of a liquid. A liquid with
high surface tension has a strong force that holds its surface together, while a liquid with
low surface tension has a weak force that allows its surface to break apart.

5. Plasticity

4. The brain’s ability to reorganize itself by forming new connections between neurons

5. The ability of the brain to change in response to experience, environment, and learning

6. Temperature Sensitivity

The sensitivity of a digital thermometer to temperature is expressed in degrees Celsius or

Fahrenheit. For example, a digital thermometer with a temperature sensitivity of 0.1
degree Celsius is accurate to within 0.1 degree Celsius of the actual temperature.

7. The Stability of Asphalt in the Atmosphere

 Asphalt is a material that is used to pave roads. It is made of a combination of bitumen and
aggregate. Bitumen is a type of petroleum that is found in the ground. It is a thick, black
liquid that is used to make asphalt. The aggregate is a type of rock that is used to make the
asphalt.
 Asphalt is a very stable material. It does not react with the atmosphere and it does not
corrode. This makes it a very durable material that can be used for paving roads.

Asphalt Pavements

Asphalt pavements are a mixture of asphalt and aggregate. The asphalt is a sticky, black
substance that is used to bind the aggregate together.

35
 There are two types of asphalt pavements: hot mix and cold mix.

 Hot mix asphalt is made by heating the asphalt and aggregate together in a plant. The hot
mix is then delivered to the job site and placed on the surface of the road.
 Cold mix asphalt is made by combining the asphalt and aggregate in a plant, but the mix is
not heated. The cold mix is then delivered to the job site and placed on the surface of the
road.

Alternatives and Bio-asphalt

There are a number of alternatives to asphalt, some of which are bio-based. A few of the
most common alternatives are:

 Concrete: A common alternative to asphalt, concrete is a mixture of cement, sand, and

gravel. It is durable, relatively inexpensive, and can be used for a variety of applications.
 Paving Stones: Paving stones are a popular alternative to asphalt, and are made of natural
or synthetic materials. They can be used for driveways, walkways, and other applications.
 Cobblestones: Cobblestones are a type of paving stone that are made of natural materials.
They are often used in historic districts and other areas where a traditional look is desired.
 Brick: Brick is a type of masonry that is made of fired clay. It is durable, weather-resistant,
and can be used for a variety of applications.
 Pavers: Pavers are a type of brick that are used for paving roads, driveways, and other
areas. They are made of natural or synthetic materials, and are available in a variety of
colors and styles.
 Asphalt Pavement: Asphalt pavement is made of asphalt, a type of concrete. It is durable,
weather-resistant, and can be used for a variety of applications.

Types of Asphalt

There are two main types of asphalt: hot mix and cold mix.

 Hot mix asphalt is made with a heated aggregate that is combined with asphalt cement and
then mixed with water. The hot mix is then placed on a roadbed and compacted.
 Cold mix asphalt is made with a cold aggregate that is combined with asphalt cement and
then mixed with water. The cold mix is then placed on a roadbed and compacted.

Uses of Asphalt

 Asphalt is most commonly used for paving roads, parking lots, and other surfaces that
need to be durable and water-resistant.
 It is also used as a roofing material, and can be combined with other materials like gravel
or concrete to create a surface that is both strong and attractive.

36
REFERENCES

1. A Text-Book of Building Construction, S.P.Bindra and S.P.Arora, Dhanpat Rai

Publications
2. Building Materials and Construction, Jena and Sahu, Mc. Graw Hill.
3. Materials for Civil and Construction Engineers, Mamlouk and Zaniewski, Pearson
4. Building Materials and Building Construction, by P C Verghese
5. Building Construction, by B. C. Punmia, , Laxmi Publicaton

6 https://civiltoday.com/civil-engineering-materials/timber/148-uses-of-wood

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