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CE2102: Construction Materials

& Introduction To Design

T SUNIL BHAGAT
Rajiv Gandhi University of Knowledge Civil Engineering Department
Technologies RGU IIIT NUZVID
 CONCRETE AS A STRUCTURAL MATERIAL

3.1 General
Concrete is a ubiquitous material and its versatility and ready availability have ensured that it has
been and will continue to be of great and increasing importance for all types of construction
throughout the world. In volume terms it is the most widely used manufactured material, with
nearly 2 tonnes produced annually for each living person or more than 11 billion metric tonnes
every year, and is second only to water as most utilized / consumed substance on the planet by
the mankind. It can be found above ground, in housing, industrial and commercial buildings,
bridges etc., on the ground in roads, airport runways etc., under the ground in foundations,
tunnels, drainage systems, sewers etc., and in water in river and harbour works and offshore
structures. Many structures have concrete as their principal structural material, either in a plain,
mass form, as for example in gravity dams, but more often as a composite with steel, which is
used to compensate for concrete’s low tensile strength thus giving either reinforced or pre-
stressed concrete. However, even in those structures where other materials such as steel or timber
form the principal structural elements, concrete will normally still have an important role, for
example in the foundations. Not surprisingly, concrete has been described as the essential
construction material.

3.2 Concrete Definition

The word ―concrete‖ is derived from the Latin concretus, meaning ―to grow together.‖ Concrete
is a composite material composed of coarse granular material (the aggregate or filler) embedded
in a hard matrix of material (the cement or binder) that fills the space among the aggregate
particles and glues them together. Alternatively, we can say that concrete is a composite material
that consists essentially of a binding medium in which are embedded particles or fragments of
aggregates.
 CONCRETE = FILLER + BINDER
Portland Cement Concrete = Aggregate (coarse & fine)+ Portland cement paste
Mortar = Fine aggregate + Paste
Paste = Cement + Water
Note: In this reading material, ―concrete‖ means ―Portland cement concrete‖, until otherwise specified.

Depending on what kind of binder is used, concrete can be named in different ways. For
instance, if a concrete in made with non-hydraulic cement, it is called non-hydraulic cement
concrete; if a concrete made of hydraulic cement, it is called hydraulic cement concrete; if a
concrete is made of asphalt, it is called asphalt concrete; if a concrete is made of polymer, it is
called polymer concrete. Both non-hydraulic and hydraulic cement need water to mix in and
react. They differ here in the ability to gain strength in water. Non-hydraulic cement cannot gain
strength in water, while hydraulic cement does.

3.3 Constituents of concrete

The mixture of cementing materials, aggregate and water and sometimes aggregates in required
proportions is placed in forms and allowed to cure, hardens into rocklike mass, i.e. concrete. So,
the hardened concrete may also be considered as an artificial stone in which the voids of large
particles (coarse aggregates) are filled by the smaller particles (fine aggregates) and the voids if
fine aggregate are filled by cement. In a concrete mix, the cementing material and water form a
paste called cement-water paste (binder), which in addition to filling the voids of fine aggregate,
, coat the surface of fine & coarse aggregates and binds them together as they cure. The
properties of concrete composite depend on the properties of its constituents. Lets briefly get
introduced to the ingredients of concrete.

i. Cement: Cement is the essential component of concrete which, when hydrated, binds the
aggregates together to form the hard, strong and monolithic whole that is so useful. Well
over 95% of the cement used in concrete throughout the world is Portland cement in its
various forms. It is by no means a simple material, and its complexities have an impact
on the properties and behaviour of concrete from mixing right through to the end of its
life. The phases of cement consist of compounds of Calcium, Silica, Aluminum, Iron and
Oxygen.
 ii. Aggregate: Aggregates constitute a skeleton of concrete. Approximately three-quarters of
the volume of conventional concrete is occupied by aggregate. It is inevitable that a
constituent occupying such a large percentage of the mass should contribute important
properties to both the fresh and hardened product. Aggregate is usually viewed as an inert
dispersion in the cement paste. However, strictly speaking, aggregate is not truly inert
because physical, thermal, and, sometimes, chemical properties can influence the
performance of concrete. These are primarily naturally occurring inert granular materials
such as sand, gravel or crushed stone. However, technology is broadening to include the
use of recycled materials & synthetic products.

The term coarse aggregate (E.g. Gravel, Crushed stone) refers to the aggregate particles
larger than 4.75 mm and the term fine aggregate (E.g. Sand) refers to the aggregate
particles smaller than 4.75 mm, but larger than 75µm.

iii. Water: Water is an important ingredient of concrete, and a properly designed concrete
mixture, typically with 15 to 25% water by volume, will possess the desired workability
for fresh concrete and the required durability and strength for hardened concrete. The
total amount of water in concrete and the water-to-cement ratio may be the most critical
factors in the production of good-quality concrete. Too much water reduces concrete
strength, while too little makes the concrete unworkable. Because concrete must be both
strong and workable, a careful selection of the cement-to-water ratio and total amount of
water are required when making concrete.

iv. Admixtures: An admixture is defined as a material other than water, aggregates, cement,
and reinforcing fibers that is used in concrete as an ingredient, and added to the batch
immediately before or during mixing. Admixtures can be roughly divided into the
following groups.

Chemical admixtures: A chemical admixture is any chemical additive to the concrete

mixture that enhances the properties of concrete in the fresh or hardened state. The
general-purpose chemicals include those that reduce the water demand for a given
workability (called water reducers), to improve the frost resistance of concrete (air
entraining agents), and those chemicals that control the setting time and strength gain rate
 of concrete (called accelerators and retarders). Apart from these chemicals, there are
others for special purposes—viscosity-modifying agents, shrinkage reducing chemicals,
and alkali–silica reaction-mitigating admixtures.

Mineral admixtures: This kind of admixture consists of finely divided solids added to
concrete to improve its workability, durability, and strength. Slag, Fly ash, Silica fume,
Rice husk ash and pozzolans are important categories of mineral admixtures.

3.4 Concrete as a construction material

Concrete is the most widely used construction material in the world, and its popularity can be
attributed to two aspects. First, concrete is used for many different structures, such as dams,
pavements, building frames, or bridges, much more than any other construction material.
Second, the amount of concrete used is much more than any other material. Its worldwide
production exceeds that of steel by a factor of 10 in tonnage and by more than a factor of 30 in
volume.

In a concrete structure, there are two commonly used structural materials: concrete and steel. A
structural material is a material that carries not only its self-weight, but also the load passing
from other members.

Steel is manufactured under carefully controlled conditions, always in a highly sophisticated

plant; the properties of every type of steel are determined in a laboratory and described in a
manufacturer’s certificate. Thus, the designer of a steel structure need only specify the steel
complying with a relevant standard, and the constructor needs only to ensure that the correct
steel is used and that connections between the individual steel members are properly executed.

On the other hand, concrete is produced in a cruder way and its quality varies considerably. Even
the quality of cement, the binder of concrete, is guaranteed by the manufacturer in a manner
similar to that of steel; however, the quality of concrete is hardly guaranteed because of many
other factors, such as aggregates, mixing procedures, and skills of the operators of concrete
production, placement, and consolidation.
It is possible to obtain concrete of specified quality from a ready-mix supplier, but, even in this
case, it is only the raw materials that are bought for a construction job. Transporting, placing,
and, above all, compacting greatly influence the quality of cast concrete structure. Moreover,
unlike the case of steel, the choice of concrete mixes is virtually infinite and therefore the
selection has to be made with a sound knowledge of the properties and behavior of concrete. It is
thus the competence of the designer and specifier that determines the potential qualities of
concrete, and the competence of the supplier and the contractor that controls the actual quality of
concrete in the finished structure. It follows that they must be thoroughly conversant with the
properties of concrete and with concrete making and placing.

In a concrete structure, concretes mainly carry the compressive force and shear force, while the
steel carries the tension force. Moreover, concrete usually provides stiffness for structures to
keep them stable. High-strength concrete has been used in many tall building constructions.

Concrete has also been used in bridge and dam construction. Dams are other popular application
fields for concrete. The first major concrete dams, the Hoover Dam and the Grand Coulee Dam,
were built in the 1930s and they are still standing. The largest dam ever built is the Three Gorges
Dam in Hubei province, China. Concrete has also been used to build high-speed railways.
Shinkansen, the world’s first contemporary high-volume (initially 12-car maximum), ―high-
speed rail,‖ was built in Japan in 1964. In Europe, high-speed rail was introduce during the
International Transport Fair in Munich in June 1965. Nowadays, high-speed rail construction is
blooming in China. According to plan, 17,000 km of high-speed rail will be built in China by
2012.

In addition, concrete has been widely applied in the construction of airport runways, tunnels,
highways, pipelines, and oil platforms. As of now, the annual world consumption of concrete has
reached values such that if concrete were edible, every person on earth would have 2000 kg per
year to ―eat.‖ You may wonder why concrete has become so popular.

3.5 Characteristics of concrete

3.5.1. Advantages:
a) Economical: Concrete is the most inexpensive and the most readily available material in
the world. The cost of production of concrete is low compared with other engineered
construction materials. The three major components in concrete are water, aggregate, and
cement. Compared with steels, plastics, and polymers, these components are the most
inexpensive, and are available in every corner of the world. This enables concrete to be
produced worldwide at very low cost for local markets, thus avoiding the transport
expenses necessary for most other materials.

b) Ambient temperature-hardened material : Because cement is a low-temperature bonded

inorganic material and its reaction occurs at room temperature, concrete can gain its
strength at ambient temperature. No high temperature is needed.

c) Ability to be cast: Fresh concrete is flowable like a liquid and hence can be poured into
various formworks to form different desired shapes and sizes right on a construction site.
Hence, concrete can be cast into many different configurations.

d) Energy efficient: Compared with steel, the energy consumption of concrete production is
low. The energy required to produce plain concrete is only 450–750 kWh/ton and that of
reinforced concrete is 800–3200 kWh/ton, while structural steel requires 8000 kWh/ton
or more to make.

e) Excellent resistance to water: Unlike wood (timber) and steel, concrete can be hardened
in water and can withstand the action of water without serious deterioration, which makes
concrete an ideal material for building structures to control, store, and transport water,
such as pipelines, dams, and submarine structures. Contrary to popular belief, water is not
deleterious to concrete, even to reinforced concrete; it is the chemicals dissolved in water,
such as chlorides, sulfates, and carbon dioxide, that cause deterioration of concrete
structures.

f) High-temperature resistance: Concrete conducts heat slowly and is able to store

considerable quantities of heat from the environment. Moreover, the main hydrate that
provides binding to aggregates in concrete, calcium silicate hydrate (C–S–H), will not be
completely dehydrated until 910oC. Thus, concrete can withstand high temperatures
 much better than wood and steel. Even in a fire, a concrete structure can withstand heat
for 2–6 hours, leaving sufficient time for people to be rescued. This is why concrete is
frequently used to build up protective layers for a steel structure.

g) Ability to consume waste: With the development of industry, more and more by-products
or waste has been generated, causing a serious environmental pollution problem. To solve
the problem, people have to find a way to consume such wastes. It has been found that
many industrial wastes can be recycled as a substitute (replacement) for cement or
aggregate, such as fly ash, slag (GGBFS = ground granulated blast-furnaces slag), waste
glass, and ground vehicle tires in concrete. Production of concrete with the incorporation
of industrial waste not only provides an effective way to protect our environment, but
also leads to better performance of a concrete structure. Due to the large amount of
concrete produced annually, it is possible to completely consume most of industry waste
in the world, provided that suitable techniques for individual waste incorporation are
available.

h) Ability to work with reinforcing steel : Concrete has a similar value to steel for the
coefficient of thermal expansion (steel 1.2 × 10−5; concrete 1.0–1.5 × 10−5). Concrete
produces a good protection to steel due to existence of CH and other alkalis (this is for
normal conditions). Therefore, while steel bars provide the necessary tensile strength,
concrete provides a perfect environment for the steel, acting as a physical barrier to the
ingress aggressive species and giving chemical protection in a highly alkaline
environment (pH value is about 13.5), in which black steel is readily passivated.

i) Less maintenance required: Under normal conditions, concrete structures do not need
coating or painting as protection for weathering, while for a steel or wooden structure, it
is necessary. Moreover, the coatings and paintings have to be replaced few years. Thus,
the maintenance cost for concrete structures is much lower than that for steel or wooden
structures.

3.5.2. Disadvantages:

a) Quasi-brittle failure mode: The failure mode of materials can be classified into three
categories: brittle failure, quasi-brittle failure, and ductile failure, as shown in Figure 3.1.
 Glass is a typical brittle material. It will break as soon as its tension strength is reached.
Materials exhibiting a strain-softening behavior (Figure 3.1 b) are called quasi-brittle
materials. Both brittle and quasi-brittle materials fail suddenly without giving a large
deformation as a warning sign. Ductile failure is a failure with a large deformation that
serves as a warning before collapse, such as low-carbon steel. Concrete is a type of quasi-
brittle material with low fracture toughness. Usually, concrete has to be used with steel
bars to form so-called reinforced concrete, in which steel bars are used to carry tension
and the concrete compression loads. Moreover, concrete can provide a structure with
excellent stability. Reinforced concrete is realized as the second generation of concrete.

Fig 3.1 Three failure modes of materials.

b) Low tensile strength: Concrete has different values in compression and tension strength
Its tension strength is only about 1/10 of its compressive strength for normal-strength
concrete, or lower for high-strength concrete. To improve the tensile strength of concrete,
fiber-reinforced concrete and polymer concrete have been developed.
c) Low toughness (ductility): Toughness is usually defined as the ability of a material to
consume energy. Toughness can be evaluated by the area of a load–displacement curve.
Compared to steel, concrete has very low toughness, with a value only about 1/50 to
1/100 of that of steel, as shown in Figure 3.2. Adding fibers is a good way to improve the
toughness of concrete.
 Fig 3.2 Toughness of steel and concrete
d) Low specific strength (strength/density ratio): For normal-strength concrete, the specific
strength is less than 20, while for steel it is about 40. There are two ways to increase
concrete specific strength: one is to reduce its density and the other is to increase its
strength. Hence, lightweight concrete and high-strength concrete have been developed.
e) Formwork is needed: Fresh concrete is in a liquid state and needs formwork to hold its
shape and to support its weight. Formwork can be made of steel or wood. The formwork
is expensive because it is labor intensive and time-consuming. To improve efficiency,
precast techniques have been developed.
f) Long curing time: The design index for concrete strength is the 28-day compression
strength. Hence, full strength development needs a month at ambient temperature. The
improvement measure to reduce the curing period is steam curing or microwave curing.
g) Working with cracks: Even for reinforced concrete structure members, the tension side
has a concrete cover to protect the steel bars. Due to the low tensile strength, the concrete
cover cracks. To solve the crack problem, prestressed concrete is developed, and it is also
realized as a third-generation concrete. Most reinforced concrete structures have existing
cracks on their tension sides while carrying the service load.
3.6 Types of concrete

3.6.1 Classification in accordance with unit weight

According to the unit weight of concretes, they can be classified into four categories, as shown in
Table 3-1. Ultra-lightweight concrete can only be used to build up nonstructural members.
Lightweight concrete can be used to build both nonstructural and structural members, depending
on its specified composition. Normal-weight concretes are commonly used concretes in the
construction of infrastructures and buildings. Heavyweight concrete is used to build some special
structures, such as laboratories, hospital examination rooms, and nuclear plant, where radioactive
protection is needed to minimize its influence on people’s health.

Table 3.1 Classification in accordance with unit weight

Classification Unit weight (kg / m3)

Ultra Light weight concrete < 1200
Light weight concrete 1200 – 1800
Normal Weight concrete ~2400
Heavy weight concrete >3200

3.6.2 Classification in accordance with compressive strength

According to its compressive strength, concrete can be classified into four categories, as listed in
Table 3-2. Low-strength concrete is mainly used to construct mass concrete structures, subgrades
of roads, and partitions. Moderate-strength concretes are the most commonly used concretes in
buildings, bridges, and similar structures. High-strength concretes can be used to build tall
building columns, bridge towers, and shear walls. Ultra-high-strength concretes have not yet
been widely used in structural constructions. Only a few footbridges and some structural
segments, such as girders, have been built using such concretes.
Table 3.2 Classification in accordance with compressive strength

Classification Compressive strength (MPa)

Low strength concrete < 20
Moderate strength concrete 20 to 60
Normal Weight concrete 60 to 120
Ultra High strength concrete >120

3.6.3 Classification in accordance with additives

According to the materials other than cement, aggregate and water that are added into concrete
mixtures as additives, concretes can be classified into different categories. Four examples are
shown in Table 3-3. Fiber-reinforced concrete (FRC) is a type of concrete with fibers
incorporated. Many different fibers have been used to produce fiber-reinforced concrete,
including steel, glass, polymerics, and carbon. The purpose of incorporating fibers into concrete
includes toughness enhancement, tension property improvement, shrinkage control, and
decoration. Macro-defect-free (MDF) is a cementbased composite that incorporates a large
amount of water-soluble polymer, produced in a twin-roll mixing process. It was developed to
enhance the tensile and flexural properties of concrete. Concrete that has been densified with
small particles. (DSP) has incorporated a large amount of silica fume, a mineral admixture with
very small particles. DSP has excellent abrasion resistance and is mainly used to produce
machine tools and industrial molds. Three methods have been developed to incorporate polymers
into concrete: using the polymer as a binder, impregnating the polymer into normal Portland
cement concrete members, and using the polymer as an admixture in ordinary Portland concrete.
Table 3.3 Classification in accordance with additives

Classification Compressive strength (MPa)

Low strength concrete < 20
Moderate strength concrete 20 to 60
Normal Weight concrete 60 to 120
Ultra High strength concrete >120
3.7 Designation of concrete

Concrete is generally designated according to its characteristic cube compressive strength, called
as grade of concrete. The various grades of concrete as stipulated in IS:456-2000 and IS:1343-
1980 are given in table 3.4 below.

Table 3.2 Grades of concrete

Ordinary
Group Standard concrete High strength concrete
concrete
M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M
Grade designation
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80

Specified cube
characteristic
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
strength in 28 days
(MPa)

In the designation of concrete mix, the letter ―M‖ refers to mix and the number to the specified
characteristic strength of 150 mm work cubes at 28 days, expressed in MPa (N/mm2).
The concrete of grades M5 and M7.5 is suitable for lean concrete bases, simple foundations,
foundations for masonry walls and other temporary or simple constructions. These need not be
designed. The concrete of grades lower than M15 is not suitable for reinforced concrete works
and grades of concrete lower than M30 are not to be used in the prestressed concrete works.

3.8 Performance of concrete

The performance of concrete may be evaluated in two criteria. First, it has to be satisfactory in its
hardened state and also in its fresh state while being transported from the mixer and placed in the
formwork. Very generally the requirements in the fresh state are that the consistence of the mix
is such that the concrete can be compacted by the which are actually available on the job, and
also that the mix is cohesive enough to be transported and placed without segregation by the
means available. Clearly these requirements are not absolute but depend on whether the transport
is by a skip with a bottom discharge, or by a flat tray lorry, the latter of course not being a very
good practice.

As far as the hardened state in concerned, the usual requirement is satisfactory compressive
strength. This compressive strength is the easy means to measure, although the number that
comes out of the compressive strength test is certainly not a measure of the intrinsic strength of
concrete in the structure, but only of its quality. Thus strength is an easy way of ascertaining its
compliance with specification and sorts out contractual obligations. However, there are also
other reasons for the preoccupation with compressive strength, namely, that many properties of
concrete are related to its compressive strength. These are: density, impermeability, and
durability, resistance to abrasion, resistance to impact, tensile strength, resistance to sulphates,
and some others. In general, the concrete of higher strength has more desirable properties and
hence performance.

Self Assessment: REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Define concrete as a material and explain briefly about the constituents of concrete.

2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of concrete.

3. What are the different classifications of concrete, elaborate briefly.

4. How do you designate concrete as per IS 456-2000, explain.

5. Write briefly about the performance of concrete in fresh state and hardened state.

Selected References:

 Gambhir, M.L., ―Concrete Technology – Theory and Practice‖, Tata McGraw Hill Education
Private Ltd, New Delhi, India, 2009.

 Nivile, A.M., Brooks, J.J., ―Concrete Technology‖, Pearson Education Private Ltd., New
Delhi, India, 2006.

For Queries & Suggestions, please contact: bhagat@rgukt.in