CONCRETE

Concrete is an engineering material that stimulates the properties of rocks and is a combination of
particles closely bound together

It is simply a blend of aggregates, normally natural sand and gravel or crushed rock

Types of concrete
Reinforced Concrete

Just as the name suggests, reinforced concrete is used in conjunction with bars, fibers, or other materials
to improve the tensile strength of the concrete. These materials – most commonly rebar – are more
pliable than concrete and pass those characteristics on to the concrete structure as a whole. Most
concrete applications use some kind of reinforcement.

Lightweight Concrete

Made from pumice rock instead of the usual stone or rock aggregate, this concrete is less structural and
more used as protection for metal building materials or as non-loading bearing concrete walls.
Additionally, lightweight concrete is used as insulation for water pipes within the facility and provides
fire-proofing of sorts.

High-Density Concrete

This type of concrete is made when the contents of the concrete structure need to be extra secured –
like a nuclear power plant for example. Iron or barytes are used as a heavy aggregate, as opposed to
rocks for standard aggregates. This concrete can actually be a bit thinner than reinforced or plain
concrete.

Precast Concrete

This refers more to how the concrete pieces are produced, less what the makeup of the concrete is. In
many cases, concrete is poured into forms at the job site and left to strengthen over days or weeks.
Precast concrete is made in a controlled environment, so that means the products can be made well
ahead of time, strength tested, and delivered the day it’s needed. A much more efficient process

General idea on the all the characteristics of concrete. Based on this test, one can either accept or reject
a concrete work. Compressive strength as a concrete property depends on several factors related to
quality of used materials, mix design and quality control during concrete production. Depending on the
applied code, the test sample may be cylinder [15 cm x 30 cm is common] or cube [15 cm x 15cm x 15
cm is the most common]. For example, as per ASTM C39, a standard test method is given to get the
compressive strength of concrete cylinders.

Advantages of using concrete

 Incredibly durable (strong)
 It is extremely long lasting
 Concrete makes great flooring

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  It can be used for a large range of purposes (fly overs, base, roofins)

Disadvantages of using concrete

 It often need to be reinforced
 Requires professional installation
 Concrete can crack

Composition (ingredients)
-Binding materials like cement or lime

-Aggregates or inert materials -fine aggregates (sand)

-coarse aggregates (stones)

-Water

-Admixtures eg (Pozzoloma)

Properties of concrete
Physical cause arises from the action of frost and from differences between the thermal properties of
aggregate and of the cement paste, while mechanical causes are associated mainly with abortion.

Impermeability

Penetration of concrete by materials in solution may adversely affect its durability, for instance, when
Ca(OH)2 is being leached out or an attack by aggressive liquids (acids) takes place. Permeability has an
important bearing on the vulnerability of concrete to water and frost. In the case of reinforced cement
concrete, the penetration of moisture and air will result in the corrosion of steel. This leads to an
increase in the volume of the steel, resulting in cracking and spalling of the concrete. Permeability of
concrete is also of importance for liquid retaining and hydraulic structures;

Segregation

The tendency of separation of coarse aggregate grains from the concrete mass is called segregation. It
increases when the concrete mixture is lean and too wet. It also increases when rather large and rough-
textured aggregate is used. The phenomenon of segregation can be avoided as follows.

 Addition of little air-entraining agents in the mix.

 Restricting the amount of water to the smallest possible amount.
 All the operations like handling, placing and consolidation must be carefully conducted.
 Concrete should not be allowed to fall from large heights.

Bleeding

The tendency of water to rise to the surface of freshly laid concrete is known as bleeding. The water
rising to the surface carries with it, particles of sand and cement, which on hardening form a scum layer
is popularly known as laitance. Concrete bleeding can be checked by adopting the following measures.

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Durability

Durability is the property of concrete to withstand the condition for which it has been designed, without
deterioration over a period of years. Lack of durability can be caused by external agents arising from the
environment or by internal agents within the concrete.

Elastic Properties

Concrete is not perfectly elastic for any range of loading, an appreciable permanent setting taking place
for even low loads. The deformation is not proportional to the stress at any stage of loading. The elastic
properties of concrete vary with the richness of the mixture and with the intensity of the stress. They
also vary with the age of concrete.

Workability

The strength of concrete of a given mix proportion is very seriously affected by the degree of its
compaction. It is therefore vital that the consistency of the mix be such that the concrete can be
transported, placed and finished sufficiently easily and without segregation. A concrete satisfying these
conditions is said to be workable.

Factors affecting the workability of concrete are:

Water Content
Mix Proportions
Size of Aggregates
Shape of Aggregates
Grading of Aggregates
Surface Texture of Aggregates
Use of Admixtures
Time
Temperature

Strength

Strength of concrete are of the following types:

Compressive strength

Tensile strength

Flexural strength

Shear strength

Flexural strength

The flexural strength of plain concrete is almost wholly dependent upon the tensile strength. However,
experiments show that the modulus of rupture is considerably greater than the strength in tension.

Shear strength

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It is the real determining factor in the compressive strength of short columns. The average strength of
concrete in direct shear varies from about half of the compressive strength for rich mixtures to about 0.8
of the compressive strength for lean mixtures.

Test of strength on concrete

Compression test
Compressive Strength Test Idea:

1- Concrete is poured in the mould and compacted properly to reduce the amount of voids.

2- After 24 hours, moulds are removed and test specimens are then placed in water for curing.

3- After the specified curing period [3, 7, 28, 56, or 91 days], specimens are tested by the compression
testing machine.

4- Load is applied gradually until specimen failure.

5- Divide failure load by cross-sectional area of specimen to get the compressive strength of concrete.

Compressive Strength Test Procedure:

TOOLS/APPARATUS

Compression test machine, moulds, mixer, trowel, tamping rod (steel bar 16 mm diameter and 60 cm
long)

SAMPLE PREPARATION

Samples are taken from the concrete patches used in site or prepared with the same mixture as used in
the field.

Specimen size: 3 cylinders [15 cm x 30 cm] or 3 cubes [15 cm x 15cm x 15 cm]

Minimum three specimens should be tested at each selected age. The Average of there specimens gives
the strength of concrete.

Concrete Mixing:

by laboratory batch mixer, or by hand:

First, mix the cement and fine aggregate until the mixture is thoroughly blended. Then, add the coarse
aggregate and mix until the coarse aggregate is uniformly distributed. Finally, add water and mix until the
concrete appears to be homogeneous and of the required consistency.

Pouring Concrete into moulds:

1- Clean the moulds properly and finish it with oil so that concrete will not stick into the mould and make
latter cleaning difficult.

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2- Put concrete in the moulds layer by by layer. Each layer is around 5 cm thick. Each layer is compacted
with a tamping rod [35 stroke]

3- Level the top surface with a trowel

Curing:

Test specimens are kept in the moulds and stored in moist air for 24 hours and then, the specimens are
removed from the moulds and submerged in fresh water for the specified curing period.

TEST PROCEDURE

1- Get the specimen out of water after curing time and wipe out excessive water from the surface.

2- Measure the dimensions of the specimen are that will be subjected to load.

3- Place the specimen in the appropriate location in the test machine. Note the load will be applied to
the face perpendicular to the direction of casting.

4- Align the specimen centrally on the base plate of the machine.

5- Make the movable portion of machine touches the specimen top surface.

6- Apply the load gradually at the rate of 140 kg/cm2/minute until the specimen fails

7- Record the maximum load.

CALCULATION OF COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH

Cube size =15 cm x 15 cm x 15 cm

Area of the specimen subjected to load=150 x 150 = 2250 mm2

Maximum load at failure at 7 or 28 days = ………. N

Characteristic compressive strength (f cu) at 7 or 28 days days = Failure Load / Area = ………….. N/mm2

Average compressive strength of the 3 concrete cubes = [strength of cube 1 + strength of cube 2 +
strength of cube 3] / 3 = ………….N/ mm2 (at 7 or 28 days)

GUIDANCE

The following table gives the strength of concrete at different ages as a percentage of the strength at 28
days in order to accept the test result.

Age % of 28 day Strength

1 day 16%

3 days. 40%

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7 days 65%

14 days 90%

28 days 100%

The slump test

Concrete slump test or slump cone test is to determine the workability or consistency of concrete mix
prepared at the laboratory or the construction site during the progress of the work. Concrete slump test
is carried out from batch to batch to check the uniform quality of concrete during construction.

Procedure for Concrete Slump Cone Test

Clean the internal surface of the mould and apply oil.

Place the mould on a smooth horizontal non- porous base plate.

Fill the mould with the prepared concrete mix in 4 approximately equal layers.

Tamp each layer with 25 strokes of the rounded end of the tamping rod in a uniform manner over the
cross section of the mould. For the subsequent layers, the tamping should penetrate into the underlying
layer.

Remove the excess concrete and level the surface with a trowel.

Clean away the mortar or water leaked out between the mould and the base plate.

Raise the mould from the concrete immediately and slowly in vertical direction.

Measure the slump as the difference between the height of the mould and that of height point of the
specimen being tested.

NOTE:

The above operation should be carried out at a place free from Vibrations or shock and within a period
of 2 minutes after sampling.

Slump Value Observation:

The slump (Vertical settlement) measured shall be recorded in terms of millimeters of subsidence of the
specimen during the test.

Results of Slump Test on Concrete

Slump for the given sample= _____mm

When the slump test is carried out, following are the shape of the concrete slump that can be observed:

Concrete Slump Test Results - Slump Shapes

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Figure-3: Types of Concrete Slump Test Results

True Slump – True slump is the only slump that can be measured in the test. The measurement is taken
between the top of the cone and the top of the concrete after the cone has been removed as shown in
figure-1.

Zero Slump – Zero slump is the indication of very low water-cement ratio, which results in dry mixes.
These type of concrete is generally used for road construction.

Collapsed Slump – This is an indication that the water-cement ratio is too high, i.e. concrete mix is too
wet or it is a high workability mix, for which a slump test is not appropriate.

Shear Slump – The shear slump indicates that the result is incomplete, and concrete to be retested.

Plastics
Plastic is a polymer just like any synthetic fibers which can be molded into desired shape and size when
soft and can be hardened to produce durable articles. The tern plastic was derived from the word
“platikos” which means “to mold in Greek”, and it is used to refer to a wide range of semi-synthetic or
synthetic organic polymers. Different types of plastics are known to possess different physical and
chemical properties. Many articles like chairs, tables, buckets, toys, balls, etc. are made of plastic
material.

Properties of Plastics

 They are light in weight and are chemically stable.

 Easily molded into different shapes and sizes.
 Good insulation and low thermal conductivity.
 Good impact resistance and they do not rust.
 Good transparency and wear resistance.
 Poor dimensional stability and can be easily deformed.
 Low processing cost.

Manufacturing Process Plastic extrusion:

Small plastic pellets are melted and extruded through a heated chamber by a screw. Molding: The
molten plastic is injected into the mold. Cooling and release: The part cools in the mold until it is solid
enough to be ejected, either mechanically or by compressed air.

How is plastic produced and manufactured?

Plastics are made from natural materials such as cellulose, coal, natural gas, salt and crude oil through a
polymerization or polycondensation process. Plastics are derived from natural, organic materials such as
cellulose, coal, natural gas, salt and, of course, crude oil.

What are the different types of plastic production?

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Some of the different types of plastic manufacturing that you may encounter include thermoforming,
extrusion blow molding, injection molding, or compression molding.

Manufacturing Process Plastic extrusion

Small plastic pellets are melted and extruded through a heated chamber by a screw. Molding: The
molten plastic is injected into the mold. Cooling and release: The part cools in the mold until it is solid
enough to be ejected, either mechanically or by compressed air.

How is plastic produced and manufactured?

Plastics are made from natural materials such as cellulose, coal, natural gas, salt and crude oil through a
polymerization or polycondensation process. Plastics are derived from natural, organic materials such as
cellulose, coal, natural gas, salt and, of course, crude oil.

What are the different types of plastic production?

Some of the different types of plastic manufacturing that you may encounter include thermoforming,
extrusion blow molding, injection molding, or compression molding.

Disadvantages of plastic are:

- Plastic is soft

- Plastics show deformation under load

- Plastic holds low heat resistance and poor ductility

- Plastics are combustible

Advantages of using plastic

-plastics are light weight

-plastics have high adhesive strength

-they have excellent finishing and may be easily formed

-plastics do not disintegrate therefore can be recycled

-plastics have high capability for shock absorption

Uses of plastics

-Polyvinyl chloride is the material that our water and sewer systems are built of (PVC).

- Polypropylene (PP) has a seemingly limitless number of applications.

- It's used to make packaging and labelling

-carpeting

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-underwear and jackets

-stationery

-plastic parts

-recyclable containers of all kinds

SYNTHETIC MATERIALS
These are materials that are obtained from natural materials which has undergone a chemical reaction
in a lab or factory for example plastics, medicines, fuels or man-made substances that are created
through chemical synthesis or manufacturing processes. These materials are designed to have specific
properties and characteristics that make them suitable for various applications

Plastic is a synthetic material that is made from POLYMERS which are very large molecules built from
smaller units called MONOMERS thru a process called POLMERIZATION. Most plastics are made from
hydrocarbons which are ORGANIC MOLLECULES derived from FOSSIL FUELS e.g. oils, gas, coal. Some
plastics are made from natural or biological substances e.g. starch or bacteria which is called BIOBASED
PLASTICS

PROPERTIES OF SYNTHETIC MATERIALS

-They dry up easily (the soak less water)

- They are less expansive compared to natural fibers

- They are durable

- They are readily available

- They are stronger then natural fibers

- They do not shrink or get wrinkled easily

How they are made

 They are formed when humans deliberately mix substances together to create new materials
with desirable properties
 The atomic structures of the original substances are rearranged to form the new material, some
of raw materials used for the production of synthetic materials come from nature , such as soil.
 Plastics are the most common example of synthetic materials

Types of synthetic materials include

a) Bioplastic

b) Nylon

c) Plastic compounds

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d) Polyester

e) Self-repairing material

Bio plastic

 Are plastic materials produced from renewable biomass sources, such as vegetable fats and oils,
corn starch, straw, woodchips, sawdust, recycled food waste

 Some bio plastics are obtained by processing directly from natural biopolymers including
polysachandes for example starch, cellulose

Nylon

 Is a thermoplastic material made from petrochemicals? It belongs to a group of synthetic called

linear polyamides

 It is a silk-like thermoplastic, generally made from petroleum, that can be melt -processed into
fibers

Plastic Compounds

 They are also known as polymers

 The polymers are formed by linking monomer units without any change of materials

 Plastics and natural materials such as rubber or cellulose are composed of very large molecules
called polymers

Polyester

 It is derived from a chemical reaction involving petroleum, coal, water, and other substances

 polyester fiber is PET fiber or Ethylene

 Polyester can be blended with natural fibers to improve its properties

Chemical Properties:

1. Composition: Synthetic materials are composed of specific chemical compounds or polymers. The
composition can vary widely depending on the desired properties and applications of the material.

2. Chemical Stability: Synthetic materials are often engineered to be chemically stable, meaning they are
resistant to degradation, corrosion, and decomposition when exposed to various chemicals,
environmental conditions, or UV radiation.

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3. Reactivity: Some synthetic materials may exhibit specific chemical reactivity, such as polymers that can
undergo cross-linking or chemical bonding to enhance their strength or modify their properties.

. Solubility: The solubility of synthetic materials can vary. Some materials are insoluble in common
solvents, while others may be soluble or partially soluble, allowing them to be processed or dissolved for
specific applications.

Physical Properties:

1. Density: Synthetic materials can have a wide range of densities, from lightweight materials like foams
to dense materials like metals.

2. Strength and Stiffness: Synthetic materials can be engineered to have high strength and stiffness,
making them suitable for structural applications. Examples include carbon fiber composites and high-
strength polymers.

3. Flexibility and Elasticity: Synthetic materials can exhibit various levels of flexibility and elasticity,
ranging from rigid and brittle to highly flexible and elastic materials. This property is often determined by
the molecular structure and arrangement of the material.

4. Thermal Conductivity: Synthetic materials can have different levels of thermal conductivity, meaning
they can conduct and transfer heat at varying rates. Some materials, like metals, are good thermal
conductors, while others, like polymers, are poor conductors.

Uses of synthetic materials

-Synthetic fibers and fabrics are used in a broad variety of industries and sectors, including aerospace,
apparel, architecture and construction, automotive and transportation, chemical processing, electrical
and electronic, filtration, marine

Paints
Paint is a liquid pigment that, after application to a solid material, and allowed to dry, adds a film-like
layer to protect, add color, or provide texture. Paint can be made in many colors—and in many different
types. Most paints are either oil-based or water-based, and each has distinct characteristics.

Functions of paints
1. Protection

The first and most important benefit of painting your house is protection. Painting your home help to
protect the substrate or surface against internal and external environmental elements. This includes
protection against rust and moisture, only to name a few. Meaning that using quality products when
preparing to paint your house, you are investing in long term protection thereof. As protection is the
most important part of any painting project.

2. Environmental Properties

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Through the painting of your house, you are modifying the environment around the painted surface in
some way that inhibits environmental hazards. For example, biocidal paints. With the addition of a
biocide to the Deluxe paint formulation, we are safeguarding the paint from the attack of thousands of
aggressive microorganism strains that feed on waterborne or other biologically active material. Like in
other household and industrial products, preservatives prevent bacteria, fungi, algae, yeast, mound and
mildew from eroding away a product's proprietary qualities. Specifically, for coatings, biocides are highly
effective against bacteria, cyanobacteria, yeast, Chlorophyceae, enter bacteria and fungi.

3. Fixation

Painting your house are also the solution to small areas where fixation is required. The use of a surface
coating to fix or to re-enforce unstable material is an important aspect of the painting process. Using the
right paint is an easy way to recover a chalky surface or to fill cracks. JF Paints offers technical advice on
such fixation problems, please don’t hesitate to contact us directly for more information or directions.

4. Modification of Surface Properties

Also, the paint and coatings used during the painting project can be used as a way to modify the surface
properties of the area. In other words, paint can be used to change the way in which the surface area
reacts. Also, the paint and coatings used during the painting project can be used as a way to modify the
surface properties of the area. In other words, paint can be used to change the way in which the surface
area reacts.

5. Decoration

One of the most popular reasons why customers paint their homes is for decorative purposes. Once
decided on changing or redoing the appearance of a home, a fresh coat of paint refreshes the
appearance. Examples of the decorative function appear to the eye in color and opacity. At Deluxe JF
Paints we are here to serve the decorative function of paint, by offering a wide range of different color
options to our customers. Customers can mix and match colors to their every, making colors lighter,
darker or matching colors to perfection comes naturally to our color consultants. Visit any JF Paints
branch or contact us for a FREE color consultation.

6. Communication

Paint is also a way of transferring and communicating information to others. For example, pre-schools
use different colors of paint to indicate different classrooms to children. As such, Color Psychology is a
means of communicating the mood you want to achieve in each room of your house. Have a look at our
blog post on Color Psychology to find out more on how to communicate with paint.

Types of Paint
Oil paint

Paints are divided into two categories - oil-based paints and water-based paints.

Oil paints are usually applied as a primer, undercoat and a finish coat. In the past oil paints were heavily
relied on because of its durability and longevity on surfaces, however water-based paints are now at par.
Known for their gloss and durability, oil paints stand for a rich finish, water-resistant properties and long-
lasting abilities.

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Applications, benefits and tips to consider when choosing oil paint:

 Use on metals, walls, doors, windows and stained surfaces for durability
 Highly recommended for trim work
 Use in non-humid areas since drying time takes longer than 24 hours
 Easy to clean and easy to apply

Expert Tip: Oil paints are best suited for wooden and metallic surfaces for home projects due to their
durability and strong adhesion.

Emulsion Paint

Unlike traditional oil paints, majority of emulsions are water-based paints with fast-drying characteristics.
It’s the popular choice for paint contractors since it’s alkali resistant, rich in texture and has stronger
color retention abilities, making it a long-lasting paint choice. As a homeowner, your biggest advantage
with water-based emulsions is that it does not leave an odor and dries quickly. Acrylic emulsions offer
your beautiful home resistance to cracking with its versatile and flexible finish through the years.

Applications, benefits and tips to consider when choosing enamel paint:

 Perfect for humid and wet spaces like bathrooms and kitchen metals
 Best for walls that need protection
 Highly popularized for woodwork, metal work and window work
 Offers good coverage, hardness and color retention
 Long-lasting choice for certain wood surfaces and metal

Expert tip: If you prefer water-based paints, there are water-based enamel paints meant for metal
painting and interior sheens to meet your criteria too.

Bituminous Paint

Along with common paints, there are many types of industrial paints used to coat pipes, irons, woods
and external work. Characterized by a black, tar-like appearance and good alkali-resistant properties,
bituminous paint is formulated using dissolved asphalt and/or tar.

Although this type of paint is water-proof, it is generally not suited for areas exposed to the sun, since it
deteriorates in sunlight. To achieve a certain color, pigment can always be added to this type of paint.

Applications, benefits and tips to consider when choosing bituminous paint:

 Provides a protective, water-proof, weather proof, chemical and corrosion-resistant layer

 Ideal for metal work, pipe work, wood work, underwater structures
 Ideal for exteriors such as ladders, shafts, and other iron work
 Helps in providing rust resistance for metal application

Expert tip: Best for underwater work and its long-lasting properties

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Aluminium Paint

Aluminium paint is a type of paint coating that is made by mixing aluminium particles or flakes with
oil/spirit varnish. The type of varnish can be used as per the requirement since spirit varnish leads to a
shorter drying period.

The benefits of using this type of paint is resistant to electricity, weather, corrosion and is waterproof.
Aluminium paints give a silvery finish and are strong and durable paints due to the resin in it.

Applications, benefits and tips to consider when choosing aluminium paint:

 Used for hot water tanks, hot pipes, masonry, oil storage tanks etc.
 Used for metals and woods too
 Popular for being electricity and corrosion-resistant

Expert tip: If you look around, you might notice most building tanks and radiators have aluminium paint
on it.

Anti-Corrosive Paint

Made from anti-corrosive elements like linseed oil, zinc chrome and fine sand, Anti-Corrosive Paints are
ideal for metallic surfaces. As its name suggests, it helps prevent corrosion on various surfaces, mainly
metallic in nature.

Applications, benefits and tips to consider when choosing anti-corrosive paints:

 It is used for steel and iron work

 Mainly used for pipes, external structures and metallic work
 It is cost-effective, black in color and a strong, long-lasting choice

Expert tip: It is used to paint industrial products to protect it from rust, chemical or environmental
degradations owing to its properties

Synthetic Rubber Paint

Synthetic Rubber Paints are formulated from dissolving synthetic resins and by adding suitable pigments
and solvents to it. Due to pigments being added, any colour can be attained. You will find this paint on
concrete surfaces, walls and floors since it's weather-resistant and has properties that make it alkali and
acid resistant too.

Applications, benefits and tips to consider when choosing synthetic rubber paint:

 It dries very quickly and maintains consistency and uniformity on large expanses
 It is cost-effective, chemical-resistant and weather-resistant
 Widely used on concrete walls, large surfaces, floors, grounds etc.
 It will be long-lasting despite weather and wear and tear of surfaces

Cement Paint

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Traditionally known as whitewash or cement paint, distemper paint is a paint variant that comprises of
lime, chalk, pigment, water and glue. It happens to be one of the oldest types of paint. Contemporary
versions of it are in paint form, or else traditional distempers are available in powder form and need to
be mixed for application on walls.

Applications, benefits and tips to consider when choosing cement paint:

 No cracking due to sunlight

 Can be applied on cement and rough interiors/exteriors without primers
 A cheaper medium of paint and application
 Perfect for exteriors, buildings and weather-prone areas
 Easy to apply and high coverage material
 Targets specific concerns like algal issues, dust, longevity, climate etc.

Expert tip: Head for a water-based distemper paint that gives you an excellent finish, durability

Classification of paints:
By Composition

Paints are composed of four components, including pigments, binders, solvents, and additives. There are
also different types of these components.

A paint component can be organic or inorganic – this determines what type of paint it becomes after the
formulation. The solvent in the paint can be water or oil-based.

By Operating Conditions

Paint formulation will also vary depending on its intended purpose. For example, interior paints are less
toxic compared to exterior paints.

The latter is more weather-proof compared to the former because it has to combat harsh weather
elements like sunlight, mildew, snow, wind, etc.

Different surfaces also require a particular formula. For example, car paints are specially formulated to
withstand oxidation – they have anti-rust properties.

1. Interior Paints

Interior paints are specialty paints produced for painting indoor surfaces. These are paints that are
mainly used for aesthetic purposes.

They are highly resistant to scuffs, marks, and stains. They are more resilient to physical damage. They
are also easy to clean using ordinary soap and water.

The key advantage of interior paints is breathability. These paints contain fewer VOCs, making them less
likely to cause or trigger health issues.

Interior paints are not highly weather-proof. They could not withstand changing weather elements such
as rain, snow, wind, sunlight, and mildew.

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They will not last long when applied to external surfaces unless modified. The common issues of using
interior paint outside are fading, cracking, flaking, chalking, and peeling.

2. Exterior Paints

These paints are the counterparts of interior paints. They are used for painting external surfaces and
areas that are directly exposed to harsh weather elements such as wind, rain, snow, sunlight, and
mildew.

The paint’s formulation includes anti-fading properties and UV protection.

Exterior paints also contain additives that prevent instances of fading, flaking, cracking, chalking, and
peeling. They also include biocides that are responsible for keeping bacteria away.

These ingredients help in extending the life of the paint because they resist mildew growth that causes
premature adhesion loss or degradation.

Unlike interior paints, outdoor paints are not prone to peeling and crumbling due to their elasticity. In
other words, they are more durable than indoor paints when both are applied outdoors.

The main disadvantage of exterior paints is the high amount of VOC content. VOCs are threats to both
human health and the environment.

These paints produce toxins even after they dry, and inhalation of these fumes can cause difficulty in
breathing or other respiratory conditions.

3. Ceiling Paints

Ceiling paints are, obviously, paints that are ideal for use to paint ceilings. These paints are thicker than
other paints, such as wall paints.

They are more viscous to avoid instances of dripping. Thin and watery paints can easily rain down when
used on ceilings.

Another key characteristic of ceiling paints is their hiding imperfections along the room’s edges. This is
because they do not reflect light.

4. Wall Paints

In terms of color options, wall paints have more varieties. There is a wide range of hues and finishes that
users can choose from.

These paints are also highly customizable or mixable with others to create modified results.

Wall paints are durable and easy to clean with just soap and water. Moreover, these paints are resilient
to scuffs and marks.

5. Floor Paints

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Floor paints are special paints that feature more adhesive strength and are more resistant to abrasion.
They are durable enough to withstand human and automotive traffic.

These paints include properties that can efficiently expel algae and fungus.

There are also different types of floor paints, including epoxy floor coatings, polyurethane, polyaspartic,
and acrylic coatings.

In choosing which type of coating to use, you must consider a few things below:

Anticipated traffic

Environmental conditions

Durability requirements

6. Paints for Metal

Stoves, ovens, gates, railings, signs, and cars require the use of metallic paint. Ordinary wall paints or any
other paints will not work well on these objects.

Metal paints feature aluminum particles or metals that provide a glossier effect than other paints.

These paints mainly help protect the surface by avoiding corrosion or rust.

There is also a wide variety of metal paints available in the market. They can be water-based or metal-
based. Check this article to learn more about their key differences.

7. Paints for Wood

Paints for wood are those that adhere well to wood surfaces. They can be oil-based, water-based, acrylic,
or chalk. Read this article to see their advantages and disadvantages.

When painting wood surfaces, there are a few factors to consider.

These include the object to be painted, the type of wood, the smoothness of the surface, and the
desired finish. These factors are discussed and elaborated on in this resource.

8. Paints for Concrete

Concrete paints are non-reactive and help cover concrete pores to achieve consistent color on a concrete
surface.

Generally, these paints require meticulous surface preparation to ensure strong adhesion and quality
result.

Concrete paints are more viscous than standard exterior or interior paints.

They also contain binders that promote expansion and contraction along with the concrete. You can get
more information about concrete painting here.

9. Paints for Painting Cars

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Car paints are metallic paints that can resist corrosion and rust. Painting automobiles require stringent
surface preparation.

When the metal surface is ready, multiple coatings (primer, base coat, and clear coat) are required for
the best result.

Urethane and acrylic types of paints are the most popular choices for painting cars.

Urethane car paints are arguably more durable and nice-looking. These paints are highly resistant to
chipping.

On the other hand, acrylic car paints are less toxic because they are generally water-based. They are also
more affordable.

10. Artwork Paints

Painters or artists use artwork paints to create beautiful paintings/art.

There are generally five types of artwork paints, including acrylic, oil, watercolor, gouache, and encaustic.
These are defined in this article, along with some examples.

The common types of paint that painters use include acrylic, oil, watercolor, and pastel. Each of these

IRON
Iron is a chemical element with the symbol Fe ( *from* _Latin_ ferrum 'iron') and atomic number 26. It is
a metal that belongs to the first transition series and group 8 of the periodic table. It is, by mass, the
most common element on Earth, just ahead of oxygen (32.1% and 30.1%, respectively), forming much of
Earth's outer and inner core. It is the fourth most common element in the Earth's crust, being mainly
deposited by meteorites in its metallic state, with its ores also being found there

*The physical properties of iron are as follows*:

1. It is a heavy metal with a density of 7.9 g/cc.

2. It is a lustrous metal, greyish white in colour.

3. It has highly malleable and ductile.

4. It is a good conductor of heat and electricity.

5. It can be magnetised.

6.It melts at 1536 degree celcius and boils at 2861 degree celcius.

7.It dissolves readily in dilute acids

Chemical Properties

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The electronic configuration of iron – the element, is [Ar]4s23d6, and it has a total of 14 known isotopes.
Iron is the 4th most abundant element in the Earth’s crust, and it is an integral chemical element found
in the human body. It is placed in the first transition series of the periodic table, and is known to be an
important transition metal. It mainly exists in the +2 and +3 oxidation states.

Iron (II) compounds are known as ferrous, while iron (III) compounds are known as ferric. Iron (II)
compounds are light green in color, while iron (III) compounds are orange/brown in color. It also occurs
in a higher oxidation state of +6, in the compound potassium ferrate (K2FeO4).

Physical and Chemical Properties Iron

like other metals, conducts heat and electricity, has a luster, and forms positive ions in its chemical
reactions. Pure iron is fairly soft and can easily be shaped and formed when hot. Its color is silvery white.
Iron is easily magnetized

Why is iron important in construction industry

Iron's strength and durability make it an essential material in the construction of long-lasting structures
and buildings. . Furthermore, its ability to withstand heavy loads, resist fire and weather, and reinforce
other materials such as concrete, make it invaluable in the construction industry.

Iron is used in construction of bridges and houses because it is capable of lifting the weight of different
things at one time. We know that iron is a strong, hard and tough metal, hence it has high resisting
power. So, it can resist high load, stress and strain.

Iron is an essential material in the construction industry due to its numerous benefits. Below are some
points that can be included in a presentation discussing the importance of iron in construction*:

1. Strength: Iron is known for its considerable strength and durability, making it an ideal material for
construction. Iron is often used to reinforce concrete structures, providing additional support and
stability.

2. Versatility: Iron has a versatile nature by which it can be molded into different shapes and sizes for use
in various construction projects. This allows for its use in various applications, including building and
infrastructure construction, roofing, and fencing construction.

3. Cost-Effectiveness: The cost of iron is relatively low compared to other materials commonly used in
construction. Iron is also readily available in most parts of the world, making it an affordable choice for
builders and contractors.

4. Durability: Iron is highly resistant to wear and tear and can withstand harsh environmental conditions,
making it an ideal material for construction projects that require long-term use.

5. Sustainability: Most of the iron used in construction has been recycled, making it a sustainable
material for use in the construction industry. The recycling of iron reduces the environmental impact of
construction by limiting the amount of waste generated and reducing the need for new materials.

6. Fire-Resistant: Iron also has good fire-resistant properties and is often used in the construction of high-
rise buildings where fire safety is a significant concern.

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7. Strength to Weight Ratio: Iron is a very sturdy material that is lighter in weight as compared to other
materials used in construction such as concrete. This makes iron an ideal material for use in structures
such as bridges, where the weight-bearing capacity of the material is a critical factor to consider.

WHAT IS STEEL
Steel is utilized in the constitution industry because it’s a durable and eco-friendly material. Because of
its versatility, you can find it in various building projects. The next time you perform a home renovation,
consider the different uses of steel in the construction process.

Steel is one of the most commonly used materials in construction, with a variety of applications in
modern architecture. Its use in construction dates back to the 19th century, and it has remained a
popular choice due to its unique properties.

Steel is a versatile material that can be easily fabricated, cut and welded into different shapes, making it
suitable for a wide range of construction projects. It is also known for its strength, durability and
ductility, making it an ideal material for structures that require resilience and longevity.

In addition to its physical properties, steel is also a sustainable material for construction. With a high
recyclability rate, steel is an environmentally friendly option for builders and architects.

Steel is also a material that can be produced domestically, reducing the need for international shipping
and transportation, which can reduce carbon emissions. As a result, the use of steel in construction not
only benefits the builders and owners but also the environment.

Steel is a durable and recyclable material perfect for building residential properties. Construction
workers use this material in a variety of ways within their industry. Here are some of the common uses of
steel in the construction industry.

Uses of steel in construction

1. Structural Sections
Since steel is a strong material, people often use it to create frames for buildings. The frames are part of
the structural skeleton forming a solid foundation for the home. They consist of vertical or horizontal
beams which are bolted or welded together.

When designing, engineers must consult the American Institute of Steel Construction (AISC) guidelines.
Construction workers use steel frameworks in many different building projects. Using steel is also a more
cost-effective and lightweight option for many contractors.

2. Reinforcing Bars
This is one of the most common uses of steel in construction. The steel helps strengthen the concentrate
allowing it to better withstand tension. Construction workers use steel because it easily binds with

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concrete and has similar properties. Reinforced concrete provides a durable foundation making it a
popular building material.

Reinforced bars are hot-rolled from different materials, such as railroad rails. The law requires these bars
to have some sort of identification. The American Society for Testing Materials (ASTM) created a
standard for identification. This state’s guidelines, like the number must identify the bar size.

Here are some of the common types of reinforced bars used in construction:

 Carbon Steel: This is the most common type and is very versatile. The one downside is it
corrodes more easily than other types.
 Welded Wire Fabric: This is made from a series of steel wires electrically welded at each
crossing. It is commonly used in road pavements and drainage structures.
 Sheet-Metal: Sheet-metal is often used in building stairs or roofs. It consists of bent annealed
steel sheets with holes at regular intervals.
 Epoxy-Coated: These are more costly and used in properties near saltwater. Since the coating is
very delicate you should order it from a reputable source.
 European: The material used allows them to bend more easily and is a more cost-effective
option. Although, they are not well suited for areas vulnerable to extreme weather.

3. Sheet Products
Contractors use sheeting products in structures such as roofing, internal walls, and ceilings. Sheet metal
is formed by an industrial process that turns metal, such as steel, into flat pieces. These are then used for
many construction purposes, such as internal ducts or roof flashings.

Engineers use steel due to its durability and malleability. It can also be repaired easily making it perfect
for building in areas prone to more extreme weather.

Here are the other types of sheet products available:

 Plywood
 Construction Plywood
 Particleboard
 OSB boards
 MDF sheets

4. Non-Structural Appliances
Another one of the uses of steel in construction is to create building appliances. Some heating and
cooling systems have steel features. Your heat exchanger, refrigerant pipes, and ductwork often contain
steel.

Builders use the material because of its heat-resistant properties, including corrosive and creep
resistance. Creep resistance refers to the tendency of the material to deform when exposed to stress.
Since steel can withstand high temperatures it’s perfect for furnace conditions reaching over 1100 ℃.

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5. Internal Fixtures
People also use steel to make interior fixtures, such as rails, stairs and shelving. Since stairs receive lots
of foot traffic throughout the day the durable material is key. Steel staircases also give off a more
modern and sleek appearance. It’s also a more affordable and eco-friendly option. Another perk for
homeowners is it’s long-lasting and easy to maintain.

The durability is also an important factor for handrails. They need to be able to withstand high amounts
of pressure when you lean against them. Plus, outdoor rails also need protection against the elements.

6. Transportation Networks
Creating transportation structures is one of the critical uses of steel in construction. Steel is used in
building bridges, tunnels, rail tracks. It’s also used to construct properties, such as train stations, shipping
ports, and airports. Most of this steel utilized is from reinforced bars. The other steel application comes
from sections, plates, and rail tracks.

These transportation buildings are vital to making the construction process more efficient. They also help
to limit the number of cars on the road. This makes travel quicker and helps the environment.

Steel is also used to create vehicles, such as trains, airplanes, and ships. Steel is mainly used for
components under the train, such as wheels and axles. It is also used in freight or goods wagons. In
planes, steel composes the engines and landing gear. Shipbuilders also employ steel plates to make their
ship hulls.

Steel is a popular building material for these structures because it is durable and safe. The material
needs to withstand heavy pressure while transporting supplies and passengers.

7. Utilities
People can find steel in utilities, such as fuel, water, or power because it makes up some of the pipelines
used to carry water and gas. On the other hand, older homes and commercial properties typically have
galvanized pipes, which people treat with a zinc coating. One of the main benefits fo galvanized pipes is
that they’re long-lasting; they have a life span of about 40 to 50 years. Although, due to the labor and
time it takes to cut, thread, and install, construction workers don’t often use them anymore. Other
applications include power stations and pumping houses. These mainly utilize reinforced bars.

8. Architectural Wall Cladding

Architectural cladding is when you apply one material over another, forming a layer of skin. This provides
thermal insulation and weather resistance. It can even approve the appearance of your home.
Contractors can attach the cladding in a variety of ways.

Here are some of the standard installation methods:

 Standing Seam: This is a more well-known system involving folded connections between the panels.
The hidden fixed details create a sleek exterior look.

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  Snaplock: This displays a similar ribbed profile but doesn’t use any closing equipment. Instead,
the panels snap together, providing simple insulation.
 Interlocking: Interlocking uses express joints to create a smoother appearance. The panels can
vary in width and are detailed to run in multiple directions.
 Flat lock: These boards lock together, forming a flexible and thin exterior. Contractors can even
install the system in reverse for deeper express lines.
 Cassette: This is a good system for more extensive projects since you can use it with huge
panels. The material is bent and fixed using invisible clips and creates a flat look.

Steel is a durable material to use for this process. Its resilience to water damage and corrosion makes it a
popular cladding option. The material is also easy to install and maintain. Another advantage for
homeowners is steel comes in a wide variety of styles and finishes. This way, you can find one that
matches your house’s design.

9. Wall Support Products

You can find steel in many wall support products, such as brackets and mounting plates. Stainless steel
brackets can help hold items, such as photographs, in place. Their strong material provides the perfect
support for heavy shelving. The steel is also easy to clean and water-resistant.

10. Kitchen Appliances

Many kitchen appliances, such as washers and refrigerators, contain some steel. In fact, 75% of the
weight of typical household appliances comes from steel. Stainless steel products don’t corrode or rust,
making them last longer. They also provide your home with a more sophisticated look. With the
popularity of these appliances, buying them can even increase your home’s value.

Common Uses of Steel in Construction

Steel is used in various ways in construction, ranging from structural frames to cladding and roofing.
Structural frames made of steel are known for their strength and durability, and they are often used in
high-rise buildings, bridges and other large structures.

Steel roofing and cladding are also popular in construction, as they are lightweight and easy to install.
Steel reinforcement is commonly used in concrete construction, providing added strength to structures.
Steel can also be used in the construction of pipelines, as it is resistant to corrosion and can withstand
high pressure.

In recent years, steel has also become increasingly popular in residential construction. Steel-framed
houses are quick to assemble and can be customized to meet the needs of the homeowner. Additionally,
the use of steel in residential construction can reduce the risk of damage from natural disasters, such as
earthquakes and hurricanes.

The versatility of steel in construction means that it can be used in a wide range of projects, from large
commercial buildings to small residential homes.

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ADVANTAGES OF USING STEEL IN CONSTRUCTION
One of the main advantages of using steel in construction is its cost-effectiveness. Steel is relatively
affordable compared to other materials, and it is readily available, making it a popular choice for
construction projects. Its ease of installation is also a significant advantage, as it requires less time and
labour compared to other construction materials.

Steel structures are also highly durable and require minimal maintenance, which reduces the overall cost
of construction. Furthermore, steel is a sustainable material, with a high recyclability rate, making it an
environmentally friendly option.

Steel structures also have a long lifespan, which is a significant advantage in construction. Steel can
withstand extreme weather conditions and natural disasters, making it a more reliable material for
buildings that require durability and longevity.

This makes it an ideal material for buildings that are expected to have a long lifespan, such as bridges,
skyscrapers, and stadiums. Additionally, steel structures can be easily disassembled and recycled, which
reduces the environmental impact of demolition and disposal.

Another advantage of using steel buildings is their flexibility. Steel structures can be easily modified or
expanded to accommodate changes in the building’s function or design.

This is particularly useful for commercial buildings that may require additional space in the future or for
residential homes that may need to be modified to accommodate a growing family. The flexibility of steel
also allows for innovative design solutions that would not be possible with other materials.

MAINTENANCE AND PRESERVATION OF STEEL IN

CONSTRUCTION
To ensure the longevity of steel structures, regular inspection and maintenance are essential. The
structure should be inspected for signs of corrosion and other damage, and any necessary repairs should
be carried out promptly.

Additionally, applying a protective coating to the surface of the steel can help to prevent corrosion and
prolong the lifespan of the structure. Proper drainage and ventilation can also help to reduce the risk of
corrosion.

Preserving the structural integrity of steel also requires appropriate design and construction techniques.
Steel structures should be designed to resist the effects of corrosion and fire, and appropriate
fireproofing measures should be taken. Proper installation and anchorage of steel components are also
essential to ensure the stability and safety of the structure.

Steel is manufactured by mixing iron and carbon in a specific ratio, in which the percentage of carbon
may range from 0.2 percent to 2.14 percent of the total weight. Other than carbon, the alloying
materials used in manufacturing steel include chromium, manganese, vanadium and Tungsten. Of these
materials, carbon is the most cost-effective element. And any of the alloying elements help in altering
the mechanical property of steel.

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Steel differs from wrought iron and cast iron, only in the percentage of carbon content. Steel contains
more iron than wrought iron and lesser iron than cast iron. It is because of this reason steel is considered
to occupy a position between these two metals. However, the properties of steel, wrought iron and cast
iron differ tremendously.

PROPERTIES OF STEEL
Steel has a unique combination of properties that make it an ideal material for construction. Its strength
is unmatched, making it resistant to compression and tension forces. Steel is also highly durable and can
withstand harsh weather conditions and extreme temperatures, which makes it suitable for use in a
variety of settings.

Its ductility allows it to be easily formed into various shapes, and it can also be easily cut and welded to
meet specific construction needs. Furthermore, steel has a high recyclability rate, which makes it an
environmentally friendly material for construction.

Steel’s unique properties allow for more creative and efficient designs in modern architecture. Steel is
used in many iconic structures worldwide, such as the Eiffel Tower in Paris and the Burj Khalifa in Dubai.

These structures would not have been possible without the unique properties of steel, which enabled
architects to design taller, more intricate, and more awe-inspiring buildings. The ability to use steel in
such designs demonstrates its versatility, and its continued use in modern architecture ensures that it
will remain a vital material for years to come.

Steel: Physical Properties

 The physical properties of an alloy depend on the percentage composition of the constituent
elements and the manufacturing process. The properties of steel are totally different from its
component elements – iron and carbon. One of its major properties is the ability to cool down
rapidly from an extremely hot temperature after being subjected to water or oil. And a particular
amount of carbon can be dissolved in iron at a specific temperature.
 The physical properties of steel include high strength, low weight, durability, ductility and
resistance to corrosion. Steel, as we all know, offers great strength though it is light in weight. In
fact, the ratio of strength to weight for steel is the lowest than any other building material
available to us. The term ductility means steel can be molded easily to form any desired shape.
 Unlike the constituent element iron, steel does not corrode easily, on being exposed to moisture
and water. The dimensional stability of steel is a desired property; it is found that the dimension
of steel remains unchanged even after many years, or after being subjected to extreme
environmental conditions. Steel is a good conductor of electricity, i.e., electricity can pass
through steel.
 Steel grades are classified by many standard organizations, based on the composition and the
physical properties of the metal. The deciding factor for the grade of steel is basically its
chemical composition and the supplied condition. The higher the carbon content, the harder and
stronger is the steel metal. On the contrary, a high quality steel containing less carbon is more
ductile.
 Earlier forms of steel consisted of more carbon, as compared to the present day steel. Today, the
steel manufacturing process is such that less carbon is added and the metal is cooled down

25
 immediately, so as to retain the desirable physical properties. Rapid cooling (or quenching) of
steel also alters the grain structure.
 There are other types of steel such as galvanized steel and stainless steel (corrosion-resistant
steel). Galvanized steel is coated with zinc to protect it from corrosion, whereas stainless steel
contains about 10 percent chromium in its composition.

The major advantage of steel is the ability to recycle it effectively, without destroying or losing any of its
physical properties in the recycling process. Steel is very important in our day-to-day life; starting from
cookware to scientific instruments like scalpel, steel is used in making several items. Steel is one of the
most versatile and sustainable construction materials. Due to its cost-effectiveness and strength, it is
used in engineering works and infrastructure developments such as roads, railways, bridges, buildings
and stadiums. Indeed, the technological and economic progress gained momentum with the growth and
development of steel industries, further promoting the industrial growth.

TIMBER
Lumber, also known as timber, is wood that has been processed into beams and planks, a stage in
the process of wood production.
Timber denotes wood which is suitable for building or carpentry and for various engineering and
other purposes. The word timber is derived from an old English word ‘timbrian’ which means to
build. Timber or wood as a building material possesses a number of valuable properties, such as low
heat conductivity, amenability to mechanical working, low bulk density and relatively high strength.
Timber has been a very important structural member from time immemorial. It has been
extensively used as beams, columns and plates in construction in a variety of situations, such as
foundation, flooring, stairs and roofing. Even today its use as a building material is quite popular,
though it has to face tough competition from structural steel.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD TIMBER

A timber is said to be good based on the following characteristics:

1. Durability

2. Strength

3. Permeability

4. Hardness

5. Toughness

6. Elasticity

7. Workability

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8. Weight

9. Structure

10. Defects

11. Fire resistance

12. Mechanical wear

13. Appearance

14. Colour

15. Shape

16. Smell

17. Sound

Durability

Durability is the first priority for any kind of engineering material. A good timber should be durable
enough to resist the actions of chemical agents, biological agents, physical agencies, etc. However,
wood is weak against the actions of strong acids and alkalis but it can withstand weak acids and
alkali solution.

Strength

Strength is the resistance against failure. A good timber should not fail easily and it should be strong
enough to take loads acting on it. The strength of timber varies depending on the direction
(transverse or direct) it is loaded. Strength is considered as an important property while designing
structural wood members such as wooden beams, joists, rafters, etc.

Permeability

The permeability of timber should be less. A good timber should not absorb more than 8 to 12% of
water by its weight when placed in water. The water permeability of timber depends upon various
factors such as moisture content of timber, age of timber, type of timber, type of cut, etc.

Hardness

Hardness is the resistance against penetration. Good timber should be hard and workable. The
hardness of timber depends upon its density and heartwood properties. Stronger is the heartwood
higher is the hardness of timber.

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Toughness

Toughness is the resistance against sudden shocks and vibrations. A good timber should be tough
enough to resist sudden impact loads and vibrations. The toughness of timber is improved by the
good interlocking of grains in its structure. A good tough timber is used to make handles of different
tools, parts of automobiles, etc.

Elasticity

A good timber should be elastic. Elasticity is the property of regaining its original shape after
deformation causing loads are removed. A good elastic timber is used to make sports items, shafts,
bows, etc.

Workability

Workability of timber is the ease with which it can cut into the required shape. A good timber is
easily workable. It should not damage or block the teeth of the saw during cutting.

Weight

The timber should be heavy as much as it looks. A timber is said to be good if it weighs heavy.
Lightweight timbers are less in strength and unsound.

Structure

A timber with uniform structure is said to be a good timber. The fibers of timber should be straight
and firm. The annual rings of timber should be closely located indicating the fact that the tree is
mature enough to use it for making timber products. The medullary rays should be hard and
compact. In general, an age of 50 to 100 years is considered a good age for felling of trees.

Defects

A timber is said to be good when it is free from defects caused by natural forces such as burls,
knots, shakes, etc. and also it should be free from various fungal defects such as blue stain, dry rot,
wet rot. etc.

Fire resistance

Fire-resistance of timber is very low. Of all the timber types, dense wood offers the most resistance
against fire but up to certain limit only. The thermal conductivity of timber depends upon various
factors such as moisture content, density, porosity, etc.
Mechanical Wear
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Wooden floors, pavements, etc. made of timber are continuously subjected to traffic loads. Hence,
good timber should not deteriorate easily against mechanical wear or abrasion.

Appearance

The appearance of a good timber should be shiny when it is freshly sawed. This shining appearance is
due to resinous matter present in the timber. The appearance of timber depends upon the arrangement
of cells in its structure. If they are arranged in a uniform manner, the uniform appearance will be
obtained after cutting. Fungal defects such as blue stain, sap stain, etc. damage the appearance of
timber.

a. Timber Harvesting
b. Timber Seasoning
c. Timber Conversion
d. Timber Preservation

As stated in section 1, Timber or Lumber is nothing but wood used for building and other engineering
purposes. It is obtained from the trunk of trees. Trees give different types of timber which can be used
for different kinds of works. However, to obtain timber, we go through a number of processes which
are;

TIMBER HARVESTING

In forest management, trees are harvested for a variety of reasons including improving the health
of the forest; controlling the types of trees that grow on the site; attracting certain wildlife species;
providing a source of income for the landowner; producing paper, lumber and numerous other
forest products; and improving access to the area for hikers, hunters and other recreational users.
Just as there are many reasons for harvesting trees, there are many different harvesting methods.
Each method has its benefits, drawbacks and conditions under which it is the most suitable way to
harvest trees. No one harvesting method is ideal for all situations.

1. CLEARCUT METHOD

Clear-cutting removes all the trees in a given area, much like a wildfire, hurricane or other natural
disturbance would do. It is used most frequently in pine forests, which require full sunlight to grow,
and in hardwood forests with yellow poplar, sweet gum, cherry, maple and other species that
require full sunlight. Clear-cuts are an efficient way to convert unhealthy stands to healthy,
productive forests because they allow forest managers to control the tree species that grow on the
site through natural or artificial regeneration. While a clear-cut removes all canopy cover and is
unattractive for a short period of time, it is an effective method for creating habitat for a variety of
wildlife species. Animals that eat insects, such as turkeys and quails, and those that eat annual and
perennial plants, such as bears and deer, thrive in recently clear-cut areas. Many creatures also find
shelter from weather and predators in the low growing grasses, bushes and briar thickets that

29
follow this type of harvest. In addition, clear-cutting is an important forest management tool
because it can be used to create edges - areas where two habitat types or two ages of the same
habitat meet. Because edges provide easy access to more than one habitat, they usually have more
diverse wildlife communities than large blocks of a single habitat.

2. SHELTERWOOD.

In a shelter wood cut, mature trees are removed in two or three harvests over a period of 10 to 15
years. This method allows regeneration of medium to low shade-tolerant species because a
"shelter" is left to protect them. Many hardwoods, such as oak, hickory and cherry, can produce
and maintain seedlings or sprouts in light shade under a partially cut stand. However, the young
trees will not grow and develop fully until the remaining over story trees are removed.
One benefit to shelter wood harvests is that they provide cover and early successional food sources
for wildlife. However, this method of harvest is not recommended for trees with shallow root
systems because the remaining trees are more susceptible to wind damage after neighboring trees
are removed. Another disadvantage to shelter wood cuts is that they require more roads to be built
through the forest, and increase the risk of soil disturbance and damage to the remaining trees
during harvesting.

3. SEED TREE.

In a seed tree harvest, five or more scattered trees per acre are left in the harvested area to provide
seeds for a new forest stand. These trees are selected based on their growth rate, form, seeding
ability, wind resistance and future marketability.
Wildlife benefit from seed tree harvests in much the same way as they do from a clearcut harvest,
except that they also reap the benefits of the seed trees themselves. If left on site indefinitely, seed
trees eventually may become snags or downed logs, which are important habitat components for
woodpeckers and many other species. Seed trees are also excellent food sources and nesting sites
for hawks and other birds.
One disadvantage to seed tree harvests is that the remaining trees are at increased risk of damage
from wind, lightening, insect attack and logging of nearby trees. This type harvest may also require
the landowner to make future investments in thinning and competition control because of
uncontrolled reseeding.

4. GROUP SELECTION.

Group selection is essentially a small-scale clear cut where groups of trees in a given area are
harvested over many years so that the entire stand has been cut within 40 to 50 years. This method
is used primarily on bottomland hardwood stands to harvest high-quality, top dollar logs. The size of
the group cut determines the tree species that are likely to return after the harvest. Openings that
are less than one-fourth acre favor shade-tolerant species, and larger favor sun-loving species.
Group selection provides ideal pockets of young vegetation for grouse, deer and songbirds. But
because it requires intensive management and frequent access to all areas of the property, it can be
an expensive forest regeneration method.
5. SINGLE TREE SELECTION

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Single-tree selection, the most intensive harvesting method, removes individual trees that are ready
for harvest, of low value or in competition with other trees. With single-tree selection, the forest
continuously produces timber and constantly has new seedlings emerging to take the place of
harvested trees. Single-tree selection maintains a late succession forest that benefits many wildlife
species such as squirrels and turkey.
Single-tree selection harvesting is best in small or confined areas for a variety of reasons. One is
that this harvesting method requires more roads. In addition, surrounding trees can be damaged
during harvests, and frequent use of logging equipment in a given area may compact the soil. Sun-
loving trees, which are an important source of food for wildlife, do not regenerate well with single-
tree selection, so forest managers must use mechanical or chemical controls to prevent shade-
tolerant species from taking over the site.

4. TIMBER SEASONING.

Seasoning is the process of drying timber to remove the bound moisture contained in walls of wood
cells, producing a new product called "seasoned timber." Seasoning can be achieved in a number of
ways, but all methods aim to remove water at a uniform rate to prevent damage to the wood
during drying (seasoning degrade).
Seasoned timber has better superior dimensional stability than unseasoned timber. Moreover, it is
much less prone to warping and splitting during service. In higher grades of timber, especially
hardwoods, the seasoning process is done to enhance the basic characteristic properties of timber;
increasing stiffness, bending strength, and compression strength.

Moisture Content of Wood

Water is stored in wood in two primary forms:

-As free water in the vessels and cells; used to move nutrients within the tree
-As cell or bound water, which is an integral part of the cell walls
Seasoning removes all free water and most bound water in the wood. In the removal of the bound
water, the wood cells change in size and shape. Due to this, a part of the process must be carried
out with careful control over drying rate.

31
When the timber is first cut, the initial reduction in moisture content is a result of free water loss.
This usually occurs without any significant dimensional changes to the timber as the loss of
moisture represents the drainage of pores in the timber. If the environmental conditions are
favorable, the moisture loss continues until all free water is released to the atmosphere. This point
is known as the fiber saturation point (fsp). The fiber saturation point varies minimally with each
piece of timber, but it generally maintains a moisture content of between 25 and 30 percent. The
loss of free water will occur relatively quickly in small cross-sections of timber, even if the timber is
exposed to rain.
Even when all free water has been lost, the timber will still be classified as unseasoned as its
moisture content would still be above 25 percent. Further drying is required to bring the moisture
content down. This additional reduction in moisture content, below fiber saturation point, requires
a reduction in the amount of bound water in the wood's cell wall, which in turn needs more energy
and occurs more slowly than the loss of free water. It also results in a reduction in the size of the
cell walls, which causes the timber to shrink in size.

KILN SEASONING.

A number of commercial processes for seasoning of timber are available, but the most common one
is kiln-drying. Kiln seasoning accelerates the process of seasoning by using external energy to drive
out moisture. The timber is stacked in the same way as it is for air drying, and is placed inside a
chamber in which the conditions can be varied to provide the best seasoning results. Air is
circulated around the charge (stacked timber), and the temperature and humidity can be varied to
provide optimum drying. Each species has different cell characteristics and would, therefore,
require different drying schedules. Typically, the timber may be in the kiln for a period of two days
to a week. Generally, it is not feasible to kiln-dry structural timber in thicknesses greater than 45
mm, although there are limited amounts of 70 mm thick kiln-dried softwood members in the
market place. All untreated structural pine and some commercial hardwoods are seasoned, mostly
using kilns that are often heated by sawmill by-products or gas.
Studies are continually being done to determine kiln drying schedules for different species, but
researchers were already able to develop a kiln supervisor tool that would be able to analyze kiln
productivity and use through a variety of performance indicators [1]. An optimum schedule will
remove the moisture as quickly as possible, rendering minimal damage to the dried timber.After
kiln seasoning, there will often be some damage to cells near the surface of the wood. This is
because all of the moisture passes through those cells; however, they could easily be “pumped back
up” in a reconditioning chamber. This chamber introduces steam and puts some moisture back into
the outer cells, ultimately removing the effect of seasoning collapse.

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While kiln-seasoning of softwoods such as pine species is generally a relatively quick process,
seasoning of hardwoods tends to be a much longer process. This is mainly due to the different
(closed) cell structure of hardwoods. Conventional kiln-drying for hardwoods uses temperatures
below the boiling point of water. This avoids damage to the wood fibers which, if the seasoning is
not adequately controlled, can experience loss of strength. In seasoning hardwoods, the process is
slow and can be economically undertaken first.
Another option would be to partially season the hardwoods for a period of three to nine months,
depending on the thickness of material, the ambient temperature and humidity, and the species.
The partial seasoning process can be accelerated for some hardwoods by using fan-forced pre-
drying in a controlled environment. This reduces the lead time for kiln-drying to 20 to 30 days. Once
the sawn hardwood material reaches fiber saturation point or moisture content of about 20 to 25
percent, the material would then be placed in kilns between 10 to 14 days (depending upon the
thickness of the sawn timber), so that moisture content falls below 10 to 15 percent. This drying
process must strictly be controlled or monitored to avoid drying degrade.

AIR DRYING

The traditional method of seasoning timber was to stack it in the air and let atmospheric heat and
the natural air movement remove the moisture. The process has undergone a number of
refinements over the years that have made it more efficient. It also reduced the quantity of wood
that was damaged by drying too quickly near the ends in air seasoning. The basic principle is to
stack the timber so that plenty of air can circulate around each piece. The timber is stacked with
wide spaces between each piece horizontally, and with strips of wood between each layer to ensure
that there is also a vertical separation. Air can then circulate around and through the stack, to
slowly remove moisture. In some cases, weights can be placed on top of the stacks to prevent the
warping of the timber as it dries.
Air-drying is a relatively slow process, particularly for hardwoods, typically taking six to nine months
to reach a moisture content in the range at a fiber saturation point. The time taken for air-drying is
a function of the thickness of the timber. While little additional energy needs to be supplied for this
type of seasoning, there are still disadvantages. For instance, the stacks of timber require a lot of
land, the process may lead to a potential fire hazard, and the product is not able to be sold for a
considerable time. The interest costs on holding the stock for long periods may also be significant.
In timber air-drying, the amount of drying is very much governed by the relative humidity of the
drying environment and will often vary within individual boards as well as within the stack itself.

33
SOLAR DRYING
Solar seasoning offers a compromise between the low energy requirement of air drying and the
speed of kiln drying. A number of different configurations have been tried, including a double
skinned inflatable kiln. Because the energy input is variable, the kilns often have effective insulation
to hold the heat inside at night time. Some kilns developed overseas could generate temperatures
of over 40oC inside even when the external temperature is -20oC.
Solar-drying, which can take nearly twice the time required for kiln-drying, is well suited to high-
grade applications such as furniture. It is a slower and gentler form of kiln drying. Some seasoned
hardwood producers use air-drying down to fiber saturation point (FSP) before stacking the timber
in the solar kiln. Research has found evidence that solar drying, particularly using timber solar
dryers, significantly reduce drying time and drying defects compared to air dryers [2].

MICROWAVE SEASONING

Microwave seasoning is an uncommon method of removing moisture but may serve as a

complementary tool to air dryers to facilitate faster and higher quality wood drying [3]. It is an
established technology in Canada that is now used for drying some commercial sizes of North
American softwood timber.
In this method, pulsed microwave energy is directed into layers of timber in a manner that will drive
the moisture out of the timber at rates that will not cause the seasoning to degrade. The process
can deliver energy that varies from second to second to suit the moisture content of the timber at
the time, as well as the ambient conditions. In some cases, microwave energy delivery can be
combined with low ambient pressure to produce optimal seasoning speeds.

CHEMICAL SEASONING

Chemical seasoning is used for high-value applications where the timber is required to be
completely free of surface checks (e.g., rifle butts, golf club heads, and carvings). The process
involves soaking the green timber (as soon as it is cut) in a hygroscopic chemical for about a day,
which slows down the rate of moisture loss and minimizes the risk of inducing the internal stresses
which cause checking to occur during the subsequent air-drying.
THE PROCESSES OF TIMBER SEASONING HAVE A DOWNSIDE OR DISADVANTAGES ASSOCIATED
WITH THEM. THESE DISADVANTAGES ARE REFERRED TO AS ‘SEASONING DEGRADE’

34
SEASONING DEGRADE
All producers aim to minimize the extent of damage that occurs during seasoning. They remove any
piece that has degraded significantly during the grading process. Typically, users of timber do not
have to worry about seasoning degrade because all affected pieces have been rejected during
production. The term “seasoning degrade” can also be used to refer to the population of timber
that has been downgraded because of the degradation that occurs during drying.
Seasoning degrade can produce timber that has reduced utility due to the following factors:
Twisting and other deformations, such as bow and spring. One of the most commonly observed
forms of degrading in wide pieces of timber (e.g., boards) is cupping of the member. The board
becomes concave on the face further from the core wood (or center of the log) and convex on the
other face.
Cracks that do not extend right through the timber. They often present as a small surface crack that
doesn't extend deep into the timber but will reduce the appearance value of the timber and make it
more difficult to coat with a surface finish
Splitting – These are cracks that extend right through the timber. They are most prevalent at ends
Collapse – Some cells collapse, and the surface of the timber will have a corrugated or washboard
appearance. The cross-section may be irregular rather than the rectangular shape it started with.
Collapse can be recovered in some species through controlled re-humidification in a steaming
chamber.
Blackheart – A number of species are prone to severe checking and collapse, in the zone of dark-
colored wood in the core material of logs. This can cause problems when this otherwise decorative
material is exposed on the face of a piece of timber.

5. TIMBER CONVERSION.

The cutting up of timber to form planks, battens, etc. of required sizes by the saw is called a
conversion. Power machines are employed in several stages when working on a large scale.
During conversion the allowance should be made for shrinkage, squaring, and planning. It is about 3
mm to 6 mm. The conversion should be carried out in such a way that there is minimum wastage of
useful timber. The wooden beams should be sawn in such a way that they do not contain pith in
their cross-section. Strong pieces are obtained from timber when saw cuts are tangential to the
annual rings and more or less parallel to the direction of medullary rays.

35
CONVERSION METHODS
There are three methods of conversion that have been and continue to be used to turn round logs
into timbers for structural use by carpenters: cleaving, hewing and sawing.

CLEAVING

Cleaving, splitting or riving uses wedges which are struck with tools such as beetles (mauls) or
mallets to split the log longitudinally, following the grain. If required, a variety of clamps or ‘brakes’
can be used to help hold the timber and stop it moving.
The process of splitting tears the grain asunder and leaves a distinctive, slightly, ridged surface
finish. Because the splits follow the grain, and the grain can both spiral and deviate around knots,
however small, cleft timbers are often dressed with an edge tool like an axe or drawknife to
produce greater regularity. The marks from where the edge tools have cut into the surface are
sometimes visible. As a result, it is extremely rare, due to the difficulty of procuring the required
amount of long, clean timbers, to come across any cleft structural timbers in buildings surviving
from after 1200AD and those that do survive tend to be relatively short (less than 2m long). Splitting
is used, however, to produce a wide variety and great quantity of associated elements that are
quite short (roughly 300-1800mm), such as paneling, boards, shingles, laths, staves and pins.
Hardwoods cleave best radially, conferring the added advantages of reducing moisture-related
movement and enhancing the aesthetic qualities of oak by exposing the maximum amount of the
attractive medullary rays on the wide face. In contrast, softwoods such as Scots Pine cleave best
tangentially. This can often be seen in nailed-on, imported Georgian laths where a face knot runs
through a series of adjoining laths.

HEWING.

Hewing is the technique of using edge tools to ‘square up’ logs, although the final shapes are often
rectangular in cross-section as well as tapering along their length. Due to the adaptability of the axe and
the hewer, cranked or curved timbers present no particular problems. Whatever the shape required,
lines are first snapped on to the log, the bark being either left on or removed.
Two different types of axes are used – firstly the scoring axe, which is often the same axe that was
used to throw the tree over. The log is supported on low bearers or trestles and held-fast with
pointed iron dogs. The long-handled, double-beveled scoring axe first chops a series of notches into
the log at roughly 300-400mm intervals. Then the same axe is used to strike off the timber between
the notches and to clean off any remaining large irregularities.
This leaves rough-hewn surfaces consisting of shallow notches, torn-out grain and axe-marks that
are then cleaned up with a second type of axe, which is generally shorter handled, single

36
beveled and slightly convex. It is used to remove just the final shavings, to get exactly down to the
line. The final surface finish is defined by the slightly undulating, smoothly cut surface with some
small amount of tear-out on one side of any knots.
The quality of some hewing from the 13th and 14th centuries has to be seen to be believed – it can
appear almost hand-planed, so crisp are the corners and so smooth is the surface. In theory, no
trace of the roughhewing should be visible, but in practice it becomes increasingly evident on hewn
timber surfaces from the 15th to the 19th centuries. Hewing was practised widely and nearly all
buildings with structural timbers have some visible hewn surfaces. With imported softwoods, which
mainly date from the 17th century onwards, the hewn baulks show a similar, slightly undulating,
smoothly cut surface finish. Hewing is slower than cleaving but quicker than sawing.

SAWING

Sawing shows the most variation of the three types of conversion due to the different ways the saw
can be presented to the timber and the motive power driving it. Sawing appears around the end of
the 12th century in the form of ‘see-sawing’, where the hewn timber is inclined at an angle and
supported at about mid-length on a single trestle. The frame saw then cuts from one end down to
the trestle, before being withdrawn. The timber is then pivoted on the trestle like a see-saw and a
second cut started from the other end.

Ordinary sawing:

The log is moved backward and forward on the platform of a sawmill. It is very easy, quick &
economical method and wastage of useful timber is minimum. But the planks obtained by this
method are liable to warp and twist as a result of unequal shrinkage.

Radial sawing:

The sawing did parallel to the medullary rays and perpendicular to the annular rings. The cut section
shrinks at a uniform rate and the warping is therefore less. This method is used for the conversion
of hard timber. The wood can be used for high-quality timber works. The wastage of wood is more
in this method and it takes a longer time for conversion.

Tangential sawing:

The sawing is done at right angles to the medullary rays and tangential to the annular rings. Due to
the cutting of the medullary rays, the sections cut become weaker.

Quarter sawing:

The log is first divided into form quadrants. The saw cuts are at right angles to each other. In this
method, there is a tendency for the timber to bend in a transverse direction.

6. TIMBER PRESERVATION

37
Preservation of timber is carried out to increase the life of timber. Preservation is done using
different types of preservatives. Methods and different materials used for preservation of timber is
discussed.
The following are the widely used preservatives:
1. Tar
2. Paints
3. Chemical salt
4. Creosote
5. ASCO

TAR

Hot coal tar is applied to timber with brush. The coating of tar protects the timber from the attack
of fungi and insects. It is a cheapest way of protecting timber. Main disadvantage of this method of
preservation is that appearance is not good after tar is applied it is not possible to apply other
attractive paints. Hence tarring is made only for the unimportant structures like fence poles.

PAINTS

Two to three coats of oil paints are applied on clean surface of wood. The paint protects the timber
from moisture. The paint is to be applied from time to time. Paint improves the appearance of the
timber. Solignum paint is a special paint which protects the timber from the attack of termites.

CHEMICAL SALT

These are the preservatives made by dissolving salts in water. The salts used are copper sulphate,
masonry chloride, zinc chloride and sodium fluoride. After treating the timber with these chemical
salt paints and varnishes can be applied to get good appearance.

CREOSOTE

Creosote oil is obtained by distillation of coal tar. The seasoned timber is kept in an air tight
chamber and air is exhausted. Then creosote oil is pumped into the chamber at a pressure of 0.8 to
1.0 N/mm2 at a temperature of 50°C. After 1 to 2 hours timber is taken out of the chamber.

ASCO

This preservative is developed by the Forest Research Institute, Dehradun. It consists of 1 part by
weight of hydrated arsenic pent oxide (As2O5, 2 H2O), 3 parts by weight of copper sulphate
(CuSO4⋅5 H2O) and 4 parts by weight of potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7) or sodium dichromate
(Na2Cr2O7⋅2 H2O). This preservative is available in powder form. By mixing six parts of this powder
with 100 parts of water, the solution is prepared. The solution is then sprayed over the surface of
timber. This treatment prevents attack from termites. The surface may be painted to get desired
appearance.

38
7. DEFECTS ASSOCIATED WITH TIMBER

There are various types of defects in timber as a construction material. These defects in timber can
be due to natural forces, fungi, insects, and during seasoning and conversion. Types of these defects
in wood are discussed in detail. Trees give us the timber, which is converted into the required form
and finally used. Before reaching this final stage, timber comes across many critical stages like
growing without defects, cutting at the right time, seasoning, converting, and using. Different types
of defects occur in timber at these various stages.

Types of Defects in Timber as a Construction Material

In general, the defects in timber are mainly due to:

1. Natural forces

2. Fungi

3. During Seasoning

4. During conversion

5. Insects

Defects in timber due to Natural Forces

1. Wind cracks
2. Shakes
3. Twisted fibers
4. Upsets
5. Rind galls
6. Burls
7. Water stain
8. Chemical stain
9. Deadwood
10. Knots
11. Coarse grain
12. Foxiness
13. Druxiness
14. Callus

39
1. WIND CRACKS IN TIMBER

If the wood is exposed continuously to the high-speed winds, the outer surface shrinks and
formscrack externally, which are called wind cracks.

2. SHAKES IN TIMBER

Shakes are nothing but cracks which separate the wood fibers partly or completely. Different shakes
are formed in different conditions as follows:

• Cup shakes are formed due to the non-uniform growth of a tree or excessive bending by cyclones
or winds. In this case, the shakes develop between annual rings and separate them partly.

• Heart shakes, the other type of shakes which develop in maturity approaching trees whose inner
part is under shrinkage. The shake spread from pith to sapwood following the directions of
medullary rays.

• Ring shakes are similar to cup shakes, but they completely separate the annual rings.

• Star shakes are formed due to extreme heat or severe frost action. They develop wider cracks on
the outside of timber from bark to the sapwood.

• Radial shakes are developed radially from pith to the bark.

3. TWISTED FIBERS IN TIMBERS

When the tree in its younger age is exposed to high-speed winds, the fibers of wood gets twisted.
This type of wood is not suitable for sawing. So, this can be used for making poles, posts, etc.

4. UPSETS

Upsets, a defect of timber in which the fibers of the wood are crushed and compressed by fast
blowing winds or inappropriate chopping of trees.

6. RIND GALLS

Rind galls are curved swellings of trees which are formed at a point where a branch of the tress is
improperly removed or fell down
.
6. BURLS

Burls are uneven projections on the body of the tree during its growth. These are mainly due to the
effect of shocks and injuries received by the tree during its young age.

40
7. WATER STAIN
When the wood is in contact with water for some time, the water will damage the color of the
wood and forms a stain on its surface. This defect is called as water stain.

8. CHEMICAL STAIN

Chemical stain is formed on the wood by the action of any external chemical agents like reaction by
the gases present in the atmosphere etc. The stain area gets discolored in this defect.

9.DEAD WOOD

The wood obtained from the cutting of the dead tree is light in weight and is actually defected. It is
reddish in color and its strength is very less.

10. KNOTS IN TIMBER

The central part or stem of a tree is majorly used in the conversion of timber. Branches from the
stem are removed, and the whole rounded stem is taken. But the base of branches forms a mark on
the stem, which results in dark-colored stains on the surface after conversion. This dark-colored
stains are due to the continuity of wood fibers. These dark-colored rings are known as knots

11. COARSE GRAIN DEFECT IN TIMBER

The age of a tree can be known by the number of annual rings. For fast-growing trees, the gap
between the annual rings is very large. This type of tree is called as coarse-grained tress, and timber
obtained from them is of less strength.

12. TIMBER FOXINESS

When the timber is stored without proper ventilation, the trees growing near the banks of water
bodies and over matured trees may exhibit this type of defect. Foxiness is generally indicated by red
or yellow

13. DRUXINESS

Druxiness is a defect of timber in which the top surface of timber indicates white spots. These. spots
will give the access to fungi.

14. CALLUS

The wound of the tree is covered by soft skin, which is called a callus.

Defects in timber due to Fungi

1. Dry rot

41
2. Wet rot

3. Brown rot

4. White rot

5. Blue stain

6. Heart rot

7. Sap stain

1. DRY ROT IN TIMBER

Dry rot is caused by a certain type of fungi that eats wood for their living. They make food by
converting timber into dry powder form. This occurs mainly when there is no ventilation of air or if
the wood improperly seasoned. Absence of sunlight, dampness, presence of sap will increase the
growth of dry rot, causing fungi. This can be prevented by using well-seasoned wood and also by
painting the timber surface with copper sulfate.

2. WET ROT IN TIMBER

Wet rot is caused by fungi that decompose the timber and convert it into a grayish-brown powder
form.Wet rot causing fungi growths mainly when there are alternate dry and wet conditions of
timber

3. BROWN ROT IN TIMBER

The cellulose compounds of the wood are consumed by certain types of fungi, which then makes
the wood brownish, and this defect is called brown rot.

4. WHITE ROT IN TIMBER

Some types of fungi attack lignin of timber and leaves cellulose compounds; hence the wood will
turn into white color, which is called white rot.

5.BLUE STAIN IN TIMBER

Blue stain is a defect caused by some kind of fungi, which makes the timber bluish

42
. 6. HEART ROT IN TIMBER
Heart rot is generated in the trees when fungi attack the heartwood through its newly formed
branch. This type of fungi makes the tree hollow by consuming heartwood. This defect is known as
heart rot.
.
7. SAP STAIN IN TIMBER

When the moisture content in the timber is more than 25%, some types of fungi attack the
sapwood and make it discolored. This type of defect is known as a sap stain.

DEFECTS IN TIMBER DURING SEASONING

1. Bow

2. Cup

3. Check

4. Split

5. Twist

6. Honeycombing

7. Case hardening

8. Collapse

9. Warp

10. Radial shakes

1. BOW
When the converted timber is stored for a longer time, some timber planks may have a curve along
its length, which is known as Bow.

2. CUP

If the timber planks curve along its width, then it is called Cupping of timber.

3. CHECK

Check is the formation of a crack in the wood, which will separate the wood fibers. They formdue to
over seasoning of timber.

4.SPLIT

43
Split forms when a check extends from one end to the other end, which will split the wood into a
number of pieces

5. TWIST

Twist forms when the timber piece is distorted spirally along its length. It looks like a propeller
blade after twisting.
.
6. HONEYCOMBING

Honey combing occurs in the inner part of the timber, which cannot be identified by just seeing. It is
mainly due to stresses developed during the drying of timber.

7. CASE HARDENING

Case is nothing but the top surface of wood, which dries rapidly during seasoning, but the inner part
didn’t. Then this defect is called as case hardening

8. COLLAPSE

During drying, some parts of the wood may dry rapidly while some may not. Because of this,
improper drying shrinkage of wood occurs, that results in the defect called collapse.

9.WARP

Warping is the loss of shape of wood due to stresses developed during drying. Cupping bowing,
twisting of wood come under warping.

10. RADIAL SHAKES

Radial shakes develop after the tree being felled down and exposed to the sun for seasoning. In this
case, the cracks run radially from bark to the pith through annual rings .

DEFECTS IN TIMBER DURING CONVERSION

1. Diagonal grain

2. Torn grain

3. Chip mark

4. Wane

1. Diagonal Grain Defect in Timber

During the conversion of timber, different cutting saws are used. The cutting should be done
properly. If there is any improper cutting by the saw, then a diagonal grains will appear.

44
2. TORN GRAIN

In the conversion, many tools are used. If any of the tools or any other heavy things are dropped
accidentally on the finished surface of timber it will cause small depression, which is called torn
grain .

3. CHIP MARK

When the timber is cut through the planning machine, the parts of the machine may form chip
marks on it. Usually, they are indicated by chips on the finished surface.

4. WANE

The edge part of the timber log contains a rounded edge on one side because of its original rounded
surface. This rounded edge is called wane

DEFECTS IN TIMBER DUE TO INSECTS

1. Termites

2. Beetles

3. Marine borers

1. TERMITES IN TIMBER

Termites also known as white ants which form a colony inside the timber and eat the core part of
the timber rapidly. They do not disturb the outer layer of timber, so one cannot identify their
presence. The trees in tropical and sub-tropical regions are mostly affected by these termites.
However, some trees like teak, Sal, etc. cannot be attacked by termites because of the presence of
termite preventing chemicals in their cellulose part.

2. BEETLES IN TIMBER

Beetles are a type of insects that destroy the sapwood of the tree and make a tunnel-like hole from
the bark. Usually, the diameter of the hole is around 2 mm. They convert sapwood into powder
form, and larvae of these beetles use these holes. Almost all hardwood trees can be prone to
damage by these beetles
.
3. MARINE BORERS IN TIMBER

Marine borers are found near coastal areas. They do not consume wood, but they make large holes
of diameter up to 25mm in the timber to live inside it. They excavated up to 60mm deep in the
wood. The wood attacked by marine borers is of less strength and discolored. They can attack all
types of trees present in their region.

45
8. USES OF TIMBER IN CONSTRUCTION

Timber is used in doors, windows, cabinet, cupboards, shelves, tables and railings etc. Timber is also
popularly used in the form of plywood & raw wood. Products like ply blocks and ply boards. Heavy
patterned doors and windows are made of solid wood/Timber to provide the strength, toughness
and durability

USES OF TIMBER
Timber is used for the following works:
1. for heavy construction works like columns, trusses, piles. 2. For light construction works like
doors, windows, flooring and roofing. 3. For other permanent works like for railway sleepers,
fencing poles, electric poles and gates. 4. For temporary works in construction like scaffolding,
centering, shoring and strutting, packing of materials. 5. For decorative works like showcases and
furniture. 6. For body works of buses, lorries, trains and boats 7. For trusses 8. For formwork
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
9. PLYWOOD AND VENEERS

PLYWOOD

Plywood (sometimes referred to simply as 'ply') is an engineered sheet timber product that is
widely used for construction purposes. It is manufactured from three or more thin layers of wood
veneer, or 'plies', that are glued together to form a thicker, flat sheet.

USES OF PLYWOOD AS A BUILDING MATERIAL

-Plywood has a huge range of used within the construction industry. Some of its most common uses
are:
-To make light partition or external walls
-To make formwork, or a mould for wet concrete
-To make furniture, especially cupboards, kitchen cabinets, and office tables
-As part of flooring systems
-For packaging
-To make light doors and shutters

PROPERTIES OF PLYWOOD

High Strength:

Plywood has the structural strength of the wood it is made from. This is in addition to the
properties obtained from its laminated design. The grains of each veneer are laid at 90 degree
angles to each other. This makes the whole sheet resistant to splitting, especially when nailed at the
edges. It also gives the whole sheet uniform strength for increased stability. Furthermore, plywood

46
has a higher strength to weight ratio as compared to cut lumber. This makes it ideal for flooring,
webbed beams, and shear walls.

High panel shear:

Plywood is made with an odd number of layers, making it tough to bend. The angle at which the
veneer grains are laid against each other may be varied from 90 degrees. Each veneer can be laid at
a 45 or 30 degree angle to the next one, increasing the plywood’s strength in every direction. This
cross lamination increases the panel shear of plywood, important in bracing panels and fabricated
beams.

Flexibility:

Unlike cut timber, plywood can be manufactured to fit every requirement. The thickness of each
veneer can vary from a few millimeters to several inches. The number of veneers used also ranges
from three to several, increasing the thickness of the sheet. The extra layers add more strength to
the plywood. Thinner veneers are used to increase flexibility for use in ceilings and paneling.

Moisture resistance:

The type of adhesive used to bind the veneers makes the plywood resistant to moisture and
humidity. A layer of paint or varnish can also increase resistance to water damage. These types of
veneers are suitable for exterior use such as cladding, sheds, and in marine construction. They are
also suited for holding concrete while it sets. Moisture resistance is important in interior
applications as well, including on floors. The cross lamination ensures the veneers do not warp,
shrink, or expand when exposed to water and extreme temperature.

Chemical resistance:

Plywood treated with preservative does not corrode when exposed to chemicals. This makes it
suitable for chemical works and cooling towers.

Impact resistance:

Plywood has high tensile strength, derived from the cross lamination of panels. This distributes
force over a larger area, reducing tensile stress. Plywood is therefore able to withstand overloading
by up to twice its designated load. This is critical during short-term seismic activity or high winds. It
is also useful in flooring and concrete formwork.

Fire resistance:

Plywood can be treated with a fire resistant chemical coating. More commonly, it is combined with
non combustible materials such as plasterboard or fibrous cement. This makes it ideal for use in fire
resistant structures.

Insulation:

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Plywood has high thermal and sound insulation. This makes it a useful insulating material for
flooring, ceilings, roofing, and wall cladding. Insulation offered by plywood can greatly reduce
heating and cooling costs.

TYPES OF PLYWOOD

Structural plywood:

Used in permanent structures where high strength is needed. This includes flooring, beams,
formwork, and bracing panels. It can be made from softwood or hardwood.

External plywood:

Used on exterior surfaces where a decorative or aesthetic finish is important. It is not used to bear
loads or stress, such as on exterior door surfaces, and wall cladding.

Internal plywood:

This has a beautiful finish, for non-structural applications like wall paneling, ceilings, and furniture.

Marine plywood:

It is specially treated using preservatives, paint, or varnish, to resist water damage. It is used in
shipbuilding, resists fungal attacks and does not delaminate.

VENEERS

In woodworking, a veneer is actually a "paper thin" cut of wood that's applied to both sides of a
strong core surface, like furniture-grade MDF or substrate material, to seal and stabilize it—which is
critically important when you're fashioning built-in furniture or anything with a mechanism.
Wood veneers are a highly versatile surfacing material that can be glued onto various types of core
surfaces to produce decorative panels and furniture. When used with care and creativity, wood
veneers deliver a distinct appeal that is simply a cut above the rest. Leading engineered veneer
suppliers offer a wide range of options with various textures and grains to complement different
decor and functional needs. Continuing on the subject, in this blog post, we present five ways
veneers can be used to enhance the aesthetics of your property.

USES OF VENEERS

Wall Panels

Engineered wood veneer can be used on walls panels to increase their aesthetic appeal.
Reconstructed from different species of wood, engineered veneer sheets provide consistency in
grain and color. Besides being available in a wide range of design, color and texture, engineered

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veneer is also remarkably durable and moisture resistant, which makes it an ideal choice for wood
panels.

Ceilings and Walls

Engineered veneer sheets are the future of environmentally green, high-end veneer core. Ceilings
and walls adorned with engineered wood veneer sheets help customize the interiors of your
property to fit the style and decor. Whether you want a minimalistic or luxurious ambience, wood
veneers can help you manifest your vision to perfection.

Furniture

Chairs, tables, dressers and other furniture pieces can be easily given a new and unique appeal with
engineered wood veneers. You can take your pick from a wide variety of wood veneers that can be
used to create countless patterns and arrangements. This allows you to explore endless design
possibilities, and achieve the desired appeal with ease.

Cabinets

Engineered veneers on cabinets can provide the desired aesthetic appeal. With engineered veneer,
it is easy to create and apply patterns that make your cabinet surfaces stand out. With wood
veneers, engineered oak veneers and other, more exotic wood types available, the cabinets can
look truly unique and stylish.

Artwork

Engineered wood veneers are quite agile and easy to work with, which makes them ideal for
decorative artwork. From creating wooden instruments to decorating your favorite collector’s
items, wood veneers can be a great way to enjoy the artwork of any scope and size.

Wrap Up

Engineered wood veneer sheets, coupled with fine craftsmanship and skills, can transform your
property. From ceilings to furniture, engineered wood veneer sheets have an array of applications
that can help you protect and beautify your living spaces. If you are looking for premium engineered
veneers, look no further than Deco wood Veneers, a trusted veneer brand of Greenlam Industries.

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