Oluseyi Abegunde

CPUT
Civil Engineering department
oluseyiblessed@gmail.com
Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering
All Civil Engineering begins
with Geotechnical
Engineering

ground

2
Definitions
Soil mechanics is a discipline that applies the
principles of engineering mechanics to soils to
predict the mechanical behavior of soil.

Geotechnical Engineering is the branch of

civil engineering that deals with soil, rock, and
underground water, and their relation to the
design construction and operation of
engineering projects (Coduto 1998)
• Soil Mechanics is defined as the branch of engineering
science which enables an engineer to know theoretically or
experimentally the behavior of soil under the action of ;
1. Loads (static or dynamic),
2. Gravitational forces,
3. Water and,
4. Temperature.1

• According to Karl Terzaghi, Soil Mechanics is the applications

of Laws of Hydraulics and Mechanics to engineering
problem dealing with sediments and other unconsolidated
accumulations of solid particles produced by Mechanical and
Chemical Disintegration of rocks.1

Ref. 1. Pg # 8. Soil Mechanics for Transportation Engg. by Prof. Shaukat Ali Khan
 Soil Mechanics is the branch of science that deals with study of
physical properties of soil and behavior of soil masses subjected
to various types of forces.

 Civil Engineer must study the properties of Soil, such as its origin,
grain size distribution, ability to drain water, compressibility,
shear strength, and load bearing capacity.

 Geotechnical Engineering is the sub discipline of Civil Engineering

that involves applications of the principles of Soil Mechanics and
Rock Mechanics to design of foundations, retaining structures
and earth structures.
Typical Geotechnical Project
Geo-Laboratory soil properties Design Office
~ for testing ~ for design & analysis

ils
eta
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ign
l sa

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construction site 6
 Karl Terzaghi has often been called the father of Soil Mechanics.
 Academically, he earned an under graduate degree in Mechanical
Engineering.
 In 1925, he accepted lectureship at MIT.
 In 1939, he accepted professorship at Harvard University till his
death.
 His recognition and formulation of the effective stress principle
and its influence on settlement analysis, strength, permeability
and erosion of soils was his most prominent contribution. But
Terzaghi also pioneered a great range of methods and procedures
for investigation, analysis, testing, instrumentation, and practice
that defined much of the field we currently know as geotechnical
engineering.
Unfortunately, soils are made by nature and not by
man, and the product of nature are always complex...
As soon as we pass from steel and concrete to earth, the
omnipotence of theory ceases to exist. Natural soil is
never uniform. Its properties changes from point to
point while our knowledge of its properties are limited
to those few spots of which the samples have been
collected. In soil mechanics, the accuracy of computed
results never exceeds that of crude estimate, and the
principal function of theory consists in teaching us in
what and how to observe in the field. (Karl Terzaghi)
 Why we study Soil Mechanics?
 Virtually every structure is supported by soil or rock.
Those that aren’t either fly, float or fall over.1

 Various reasons to study the properties of Soil:2

1. Foundation to support Structures and Embankments
2. Construction Material
3. Slopes and Landslides
4. Earth Retaining Structures
5. Special Problems

Ref. 1. Pg # 1. Geotechnical Engg. (Principles and Practices) by Donald P. Coduto. 2 nd Ed.

2. Pg # 3 to 16 , Chap # 1. Soil Mechanics by T. William Lambe .
 Why we study Soil Mechanics?
 Various reasons to study the properties of Soil:
1. Foundation to support Structures and Embankments
• Effects of static loading on soil mass
• Shear failure of the foundation soil
• Settlement of structures
• Stability criteria (Solution)
• There should be no shear failure of the foundation soil.
• The settlement should remain within permissible limits.

• Firm Soil -> Spread Footing (Spread Foundation)

• Soft Soil -> Pile Foundation (Vertical members transferring
load of structure to ground i.e. rock)
 Why we study Soil Mechanics?
 Various reasons to study the properties of Soil:
1. Foundation to support Structures and Embankments
• Effects of dynamic loading on soil mass
• For Design and construction of roads following must be considered:
• Compaction Characteristics
• Moisture Variation
 Why we study Soil Mechanics?
 Various reasons to study the properties of Soil:
2. Construction Material
• Subgrade of highway pavement
• Land reclamation (Dubai Palm City)
• Earthen dam
 Why we study Soil Mechanics?
 Various reasons to study the properties of Soil:
3. Slopes and Landslides
• Major cause is the moisture variation resulting in;
• Reduction of shear strength
• Increase of moisture
• Increase in unit weight
• Excavation of trenches for buildings require braced excavation.
 Why we study Soil Mechanics?

Landslide of a parking
area at the edge of a
steep slope, mainly
due to increase in
moisture content.
 Why we study Soil Mechanics?
 Various reasons to study the properties of Soil:
4. Earth Retaining Structures
• Earth retaining structure (e.g., Retaining walls)are constructed to retains
(holds back) any material (usually earth) and prevents it from sliding or
eroding away.
 Why we study Soil Mechanics?
 Various reasons to study the properties of Soil:
5. Special Problems
i. Effects of river water on soil mass
a) Scouring
Causes:
• Increased flow velocity due to obstruction
• Fineness of riverbed material
Stability criteria:
• The foundation of pier must be below the scour depth

• Land Erosion
 Why we study Soil Mechanics?
 Various reasons to study the properties of Soil:
5. Special Problems
iii. Effects of frost action on soil mass
• Reduction Of Shear Strength
• Settlement Of Structure In Summer
• Lifting Up Of Structure In Winter
Causes:
• Heaving (due to formation of ice lenses)
• Increase of moisture due to thawing (MELTING)
• Engineering Soil Surveys
• Soil Sampling Devices and Methods
• Soil Testing Devices and Methods
• Physical Properties of Soil
• Evaluation and Interpretation of Test results
• Behavior under Loads and Forces
• Soil Conservation Techniques
• Sedimentation Control of Dam Reservoirs
• Design and Operation of Landfills
 Shallow Foundations
~ for transferring building loads to
underlying ground
~ mostly for firm soils or
light loads

firm
ground

20
bed rock
Shallow Foundations
 Foundation Systems
• Designing of Shallow Foundations Systems –
Bearing Capacity Failure
Transcona Grain Elevator

(from Budhu 2000)

 Foundation Systems
• Designing of Shallow Foundation Systems – Differential
Settlement

Leaning Tower of Pisa

 Deep Foundations
~ for transferring building
loads to underlying
ground
~ mostly for weak
P
soils or heavy loads I
L
E
weak soil

24
bed rock
 Foundation Systems
Deep Foundation Systems: Driven Piles
 Deep Foundations

Driven timber piles, Pacific Highway 26

 Foundation Systems
Deep Foundation Systems: Drilled Shafts
 Retaining Walls

~ Prevent soils from from spreading laterally

retaining
wall

Road
Train

28
 Earth Pressure
and Retaining Walls
• Reinforced Earth Walls

(The Reinforced Wall Company 2003)

 Retaining Structure Systems
• Gavions

(Gaviones LEMAC (2003)

 Retaining Structure Systems
• Tie-backs

(Boulanger and Duncan 2003)

Soil Nailing: steel rods placed into holes drilled into the
walls and grouted

32
 Retaining Structure Systems
• Excavation Support Systems
 Sheet Piles
~ sheets of interlocking steel or timber driven into
the ground, forming a continuous sheet

warehouse

ship

sheet pile

34
 Sheet Piles
~ resist lateral earth pressures
~ used in temporary works
~ used in excavations, waterfront structures

35
Sheet Pile Walls

(Boulanger and Duncan 2003)

 Cofferdam
~ sheet pile walls enclosing an area, to
prevent water seeping in

37
Tunneling

38
 Earth Dams
~ for impounding water

reservoir
clay
core shell

soil

39
Landslides

40
 Earthworks
~ preparing the ground prior to construction

Roadwork, Pacific
Highway

41
 Geofabrics
~ used for reinforcement, separation, filtration and
drainage in roads, retaining walls, embankments…

Geofabrics used on Pacific Highway 42

 Geosynthetics
• Geosynthetic stabilized walls

(kshitija.wordpress.com 2007) (Environmental Science & Engineering 2007)

Mechanically Stabilized Earth Walls
~ using geofabrics to strengthen the soil

44
 Geoenvironmental Engineering
• Characterization and remediation of Geo-
environmental hazards

MSW Landfill

(from Willmer 2001) (from Norwegian Geotechnical Institute 2001)

Geoenvironmental Engineering

Waste Disposal in Landfills

46
 Instrumentation
~ to monitor the performances of earth and earth
supported structures
~ to measure loads, pressures, deformations,
strains

47
 Soil Testing

Vane Shear Test Standard Penetration Test

 Soil Testing

Cone Penetration Testing

Soil Testing

Triaxial Test on Soil Sample in Laboratory

50
GeoHazards
 Geotechnical Engineering Problems

• How will the groundwater

conditions impact the
engineering project?
Teton Dam Failure (1975)
 Geotechnical Engineering Problems
• What will be the
impact of excavations,
grading, or filling?

Collapse of Nicoll
Highway,Singapore,
2004
 Geotechnical Engineering Problems
• Are natural or proposed earth slope stable?

(from Norwegian Geotechnical

Institute, 2001)
 Geotechnical Earthquake
Engineering
• Effects of earthquakes
1964 Niigata Earthquake 1967 Caracas Earthquake

(from Kramer – (from Alshibli 2001)

www.ce.washington.edu 1996)
 Geotechnical Earthquake
Engineering
• Effects of earthquakes
1995 Kobe Earthquake 1999 Chi Chi Earthquake

(Boulanger and Duncan 2006)

GeoSolutions
Ground Improvement

Impact Roller to Compact the Ground

58
Ground Improvement

Sheepsfoot Roller to Compact Clay Soils

59
Ground Improvement
Big weights dropped
from 25 m, compacting
the ground.

Craters formed in 60compaction

 Soil Improvement
• Stone Columns

(Boulanger and Duncan 2003)

 Soil Improvement
• Jet Grouting

(Boulanger and Duncan 2003)

 Soil Improvement
• Compaction Grouting

(Boulanger and Duncan 2003)

 Soil Improvement
• Chemical Injection

(Boulanger and Duncan 2003)

What is Soil
SOIL AND ITS TYPES

 What is Soil?
 Formation of Soil
 Types of Soil
 Geological Consideration
 Engineering Consideration
 What is Soil? (Definitions)
 Soil is defined as the weathered and fragmented outer
layer (crust) of the earth’s terrestrial surface. 1

• The term Soil, according to engineering point of view, is

defined as the material by means of which and upon
which engineers builds their structures. 2

• For engineering purpose Soil is defined as the

uncemented aggregate of mineral grains and decayed
organic material (solid particle) with liquid and gas in the
empty spaces between the solid particles. 3

Ref. 1. Pg # 3. Introduction to Env. Soil Physics by Daniel Hillel (Elsevier Academic Press)
2. Pg # 2. Soil Mechanics for Transprtation Engg. by Prof. Shaukat Ali Khan
3. Pg # 1. Principles of Geotechnical Engg. By Braja M. Das. 5th Ed. (CENGAGE Learning)
 Formation of Soil
 Soil is generally formed by disintegration and decomposition
(weathering) of rocks through the action of physical (or mechanical)
and chemical agents which break them into smaller and smaller
particles.
Different stages of
weathering of rocks and
formation of soil.
 Types of Soil
 Soil types, based on geological and engineering view
points, are separately discussed below:
1. Geological consideration:
Geologist classify soil into two major categories:
residual soils and transported soil
i. Residual Soils:
When the rock weathering is faster than
the transport process induced by water,
wind and gravity, much of the soil remains in
place. It is known as residual
soil.
 Types of Soil
1. Geological consideration:
ii. Transported Soil:
i. Glacial Soil: This type of soil is developed, transported and deposited
by the actions of glaciers. These deposits consists of rocks fragments,
boulders, gravels, sand, silt and clay in various proportions (i.e., a
heterogeneous mixture of all sizes of particles).
ii. Alluvial Soil: This type of soil (also known as fluvial soil or alluvium) is
transported and deposited to their present position by streams and
rivers.
 Types of Soil
1. Geological consideration:
ii. Transported Soil:
iii. Aeolian Soil: The soil transported by geological agent ‘wind’ and
subsequently deposited is known as wind blown soil or Aeolian Soil.
iv. Colluvial Soil: A colluvial soil is one transported downslope by gravity.
There are two types of downslope movement – slow (creep – mm/yr)
and rapid (e.g., landslide)
v. Lacustrine and Marine Soil:
i. Lacustrine Soil is deposited beneath the lakes.
ii. Marine Soil is also deposited underwater i.e., in the Ocean.
 Types of Soil
2. Engineering consideration:
 Types of Soil
2. Engineering consideration (MIT):
i. Clay: ( < .002mm)
– In moist condition, clay becomes sticky and can be rolled into threads.
– High dry strength, low erosion, low permeability, good workability and
compaction under moist condition. Also susceptible to shrinkage and swelling.

ii. Silt: (.002mm < Size < .06mm)

– High capillarity, no plasticity and very low dry strength
– It possesses properties of both clay and sand.

iii. Sand: (.06mm < Size < 2mm)

– Particle shape varies from rounded to angular
– No plasticity, considerable frictional resistance, high permeability and low
capillarity
– Abundant quantities of sand are available in deserts and riverbeds
 Types of Soil
2. Engineering consideration (MIT):
iv. Gravels: (2mm < Size < 60mm)
– They form a good foundation material.
– The gravels produced by crushing of rocks are angular in shape while those
taken from riverbeds are sub-rounded to rounded.
v. Cobbles and Boulder:
– Particles larger than gravels are commonly known as cobbles and boulders.
– Cobbles generally range in size 60mm t0 200mm.
– The materials larger than 200mm is designated as boulders.
Soil Composition
Soil Composition
 Archimedes Principle
• Archimedes' principle is named after
Archimedes of Syracuse, who first discovered
this law in 212 B.C
• “An object partially or wholly immersed in a liquid
is buoyed up by a force equal to the weight of
the liquid displaced by the object”
• Any fluid applied a buoyant force to an object
this is partially or completely immersed in it: the
magnitude of the buoyant force equals the
weight of the fluid that the object displaces”
 Archimedes Principle

Buoyancy
The “upward” force
is acting on an
object due to the
displaced fluid
Archimedes Principle - Why ships
float!!
 SINKING AND FLOATING OBJECTS

The reading of The reading of

spring balance is 2.7 N spring balance is 1.7 N
What is the reading of spring balance
if the wood is attached to it ? ZERO
 Density and Buoyancy

From Archimedes’s Principle :

Buoyant Force = Weight of fluid displaced
= mg (note : F = ma)
= Vg (note :  = m )
V
Thus FB = Vg
Where ……
FB = Buoyant Force or Upthrust
 = Density of fluid
V = Volume of fluid displaced or
the volume of the object that immersed in the fluid.
 Buoyant Force and Floatation

Buoyant force = weight  the object floats and stationary

Buoyant force > weight  the object moves up

Buoyant force < weight  the object moves down

Your Hands will Get “Dirty”
Major Components of Soil
Pore Space (50%) Soil Space (50%)
This may contain air • Organic Matter
• Mineral Matter
and/or water
 Master Soil Horizons
O Horizon- leaf litter / humus
A Horizon- organic accumulation
in mineral soil
E Horizon- leached horizon
(elluviation)

B Horizon- zone of illuviation

C Horizon – unconsolidated
parent material
R Horizon – Lithic material R
(Rock)
Not All the Master Horizons Will Be Present in All Profiles
 Mineral Soil
Is never saturated with water for more than a few
days and contains less than 20 % (by weight)
organic carbon
Is saturated with water for longer periods or
artifically drained and excluding live roots, has an
organic-carbon content of:
Less than 18 % if the mineral fraction contains 60% or
more clay;
Less than 12 %, if the mineral fraction contains no clays;
or
Less than 12 + (clay percentage multiplied by 0.1) %, if the
mineral fraction contains less than 60%.

Soil material containing more than the above organic carbon is an organic soil.
Describing Soil Morphology
for Mineral Soil
Soil Texture and Coarse Fragment Content
Soil Structure
Soil Color
Consistency
Redoximorphic Features
Boundaries
Soil Texture
Describes the mineral content of the soil - Which is
typically less than 50% of the soil volume.
Soil texture is based on a weight ratio of the 3 soil
separates (sand, silt, and clay).
Material > 2mm are coarse fragments or “rock
fragments” and used as a modifier to the soil texture
term. Modifier used only when the fragments
represent more than 15 % of the soil volume.
Material < 2mm represent the three (3) soil separates.
Sand - 2.0 - 0.05 mm - GRITTY Feel !
Silt - 0.05 - 0.002 mm – Talc – Floury Feel !
Clay - < 0.002 mm – Tends to be Sticky when Wet !
Particle

Size Classification Systems
USDA System – Soil description for agricultural, land-based
wastewater disposal, and most environmental applications.
(i.e., loam)
AASHTO: American Association of State Highways and
Transportation Projects – potential use as road base (i.e., A-1)
Unified Soil Classification System (ASTM D2487-92) Engineering
Applications (i.e., SM)
Wentworth (phi #)- Geological and Geotechnical Studies Using
screen or sieve size using the phi number. (phi #, sieve no., or mm)
Each system has unique (“jargon” or terminology)
The Systems Do Not Group the
Soil Separates the Same
USDA Particle-Size Distribution
 This is the Particle System we will use in the course.

 System is divided into: fine-earth fraction and rock fragments.

 Fine-earth fraction: Finer than 2 mm: This is the information used to

describe the soil and is the Soil Textural Class, such as sandy loam.
Classification based on weight of 3 soil separates.
 Rock fragments: 2 mm in diameter or larger. These are commonly
described as part of the coarse fragment content.

 The rock fragment modifier is based on a volumetric fraction of the

soil and is used as a soil modifier. Therefore – Gravels made up 30 % of
the volume for a sandy loam the full description would be gravelly
sandy loam.
Fine-earth fraction
The Three Soil Separates

Sand - 2.0 - 0.05 mm

Silt – 50 – 2 um
Clay - < 2 um
USDA and NRCS
Textural
 Sand (S)
Classes (12)
 Sandy Clay Loam
Loamy Sand (LS) (SCL)
Sandy Loam (SL) Silty Clay Loam
Loam (L) (SICL)
Silt Loam (SIL) Clay Loam
Silt (SI) (CL)
Sandy Clay
(SCL)
Silty Clay
(SIC)
Clay ( C)
 Sand + Silt + Clay
40 % Sand = 100%
40 % Silt Texture =
20 % Clay LOAM
The 21 Subclasses
in Soil Texture
There are 12 soil texture classes.
When a sand modifier is added there can be 21 total
subclasses, but 22 subclasses if very coarse sandy loam
is included.

Fraction Size (mm)

Very coarse sand.....................................2.0 to 1.0
Coarse sand.............................................1.0 to 0.5
Medium sand.........................................0.5 to 0.25
Fine sand..............................................0.25 to 0.10
Very fine sand......................................0.10 to 0.05
Soil Texture Subclasses
LOAMY SANDS (4)
SANDS (5)
Loamy Coarse Sand
Very Coarse Sand (LCOS)
(VCOS) Loamy Sand (LS)
Coarse Sand (COS)
Loamy Fine Sand (LFS)
Sand (S)
Loamy Very Fine Sand
Fine Sand (FS) (LVFS)
Very Fine Sand (VFS)
Soil Texture Subclasses
SANDY LOAMS (4)
LOAMS (3)
Coarse Sandy Loam
(COSL) Loam (L)
Sandy Loam (SL) Silt Loam (SIL)
Fine Sandy Loam (FSL) Silt (SI)
Very Fine Sandy Loam|
(VFSL)
Soil Texture Subclasses
CLAY LOAMS (3)
CLAYS (3)
Sandy Clay Loam
(SCL) Sandy Clay (SC)
Clay Loam (CL) Silty Clay (SIC)
Silty Clay Loam (SICL) Clay ( C )
 Using Rock Fragment
Modifiers
 Divided into Spherical (cubelike) and Flat Units

 Less than 15 percent: No adjective or modifier terms are used.

 15 to 35 percent: The dominant kind of rock fragment is used as an

adjective ie. "gravelly loam”.

 35 to 60 percent: An adjective term with the word "very" is used ie. "very
gravelly loam“.
 More than 60 percent: An adjective term with the word “extremely" is
used i.e., "extremely gravelly loam."

NOTE:
 > 90 %, less than 10 % soil separates it may be advisable to use the rock fragment
modifier – such as gravel.
Determination of Texture
Field Procedure
The “Feel” Method
Estimating Sand and Clay Content
Field Test Kit – “Volume Method”
Laboratory Procedure
Hydrometer
Sieve
Pipette
What Texture is This Material ?
Method 1: The Feel Method
Key Features or Characteristic that We Use
Cast Formation and Stability
Feel – Grittiness, Floury, and Sticky
Ribbon Length
Evaluate Samples that are Moist, but note
characteristics when the material is dry and wet.
See “Feel of Textural Classes” in Appendix C of the
Course Documentation.
Go to this Handout
in Appendix C of the
Course Manual.
Feel Method of
Determination of Texture
Soil must be moist, not saturated; moist enough to
mold like putty when you try to form a ball in your
hand.
Question 1: Does soil form a ball or cast?
No - the texture is SAND
Question 2: Does the soil form a stable cast, but
does not form a ribbon
No – the texture is loamy sand
ank You – Dr. David Lindo (NCSU)

Soil does not form a cast:

Textural class is SAND
Feel Method of
Determination of Texture (continued)
Question 3: Does soil form a weak ribbon less than
2.5 cm?
Yes - the possible textures are sandy loam, silt loam, or
loam
Does the soil feel gritty? ------- Sandy Loam
Does the soil feels very smooth with some grittiness?
------ Silt loam
Does not feel gritty or smooth? ----- Loam
The length of the ribbon will depend on
clay content and mineralogy.

Thank You – Dr. David Lindo (NCS

Feel Method of
Determination of Texture (continued)
Question 4: Does soil form a ribbon from 2.5 to 5
cm?
Yes - the possible textures are sandy clay loam,
silty clay loam, or clay loam
Does the soil feel gritty? ------- Sandy Clay Loam
Does the soil feels very smooth with some grittiness?
------ Silty Clay Loam
Does not feel gritty or smooth? ----- Clay Loam
Feel Method of
Determination of Texture (continued)
Question 4: Does soil form a ribbon > 5 cm?
Yes - the possible textures are sandy clay,
silty clay, or clay
Does the soil feel gritty? ------- Sandy Clay
Does the soil feels very smooth with some grittiness?
------ Silty Clay
Does not feel gritty or smooth? ----- Clay
Thank You – Dr. David Lindo (NCSU)

Forms a cast of moist soil material.

Textural class is LOAMY SAND
Method 2: Estimating Sand and Clay
Content
Collect a soil sample and remove the observable the
coarse fragments, organic material (roots, etc), and
other materials
If sample is dry, moisten the sample. Do not over wet
or completely saturate the sample.
Knead sample between your thumb and finger and
remove any other coarse fragments or non-soil
aggregates.
Crush all the soil aggregates.
Method 2: Estimating Sand and Clay
Content
Question 1: Does the soil have more than
50 % sand?
Yes- Therefore, the sand texture is dominant and the
likely soil textures are sandy clay loam, sandy clay,
sandy loam, loamy sand, and sand. material (roots, etc),
and other materials.
No – Therefore, the sand does not dominate and the
likely soil textures are loam, silt loam, silt, clay loam,
silty clay loam, silty clay, and clay.
 < 50 %

> 50 %
Method 2: Estimating Sand and Clay
Content
Question 2: What is the range in clay content and is
the sand content > 20 %?
The key is ribbon length and sand percentage.
Ribbon < 1 inch long – texture does not include the word
clay. (sand, loamy sand, sandy loam, loam, silt loam, and
silt)
Ribbon 1 to 2.5 inch (clay is 27 to 40 %), the soil texture
includes the word clay. (sandy clay loam, clay loam, and
silty clay loam)
Ribbon > 2.5 inch (clay > 40%), clay is the dominant name
in the soil texture. (sandy clay, silty clay, and clay)
 Ribbon > 2.5 inches
Ribbon 1 to 2.5 inches

Ribbon < 1
inch
Method 2: Estimating Sand and Clay
Content
Combine Your Observations
Sand content < 50 %
Ribbons 1.5 inch
Material has more of a floury feel and no real gritty feel.
Sand content is likely under 20 %
When near saturated the material is sl. sticky.

Therefore, the field evaluation would suggest that the soil has a
clay modifier. It is likely that the soil is a silty clay loam.
Method 3 – Volume Method

Used to Estimate Soil Texture

Based on a Non-Volume and
Not on a Weight Bases

This does not account for differen

in material density, but settling
rates on particle size.
 Method 4 – Hydrometer Method
Bouyoucos hydrometer method of mechanical analysis used in routine work,
e quick measurements are necessary and extreme accuracy is not required.

method is based on the fact that water containing material in suspension has
y than pure water. The more material in suspension, the greater the density.

Bouyoucos hydrometer measures the density of the suspension. The higher th

Requirements:
meter floats, the greater the density of the suspension.
1) Hydrometer- reading in grams
2) Electronic Balance
3) Dry Soil – 40 to 60 grams
4) Dispersing Agent
5) Use of an Oxidizing Agent (H202)
6) 1000 ml volumetric cylinder
7) Readings at 40 seconds and 3 hours
Method 5 -Sieve Analysis
Particle-Size Distribution
Particle size distribution describes the abundance
(by weight) of the various size particles that
constitute the mineral portion of soil materials.
The distribution of the size based on mm, pH #, or
sieze size is used for more detailed geological,
engineering, and geotechnical applications.
Distribution of Particles for (Sand) can be used to
estimate the permeability using the Hazen
equations.
Laboratory Method
 •The pipet method utilizes Stoke's Law by the extraction of
subsamples of the soil suspension at a given depth after a
Method 6 – Pipette Method
predetermined settling time for each size fraction of interest.

•As time passes, larger particles pass by the sampling depth,

and smaller and smaller size fractions can be sampled.

•After extracting the sample, it is dried weighed, and a

calculation can be done to determine the percentage of the
total soil in suspension present in each sample.

• The pipet method is very accurate, but also time

= (2gr²)(d1-d2)/9µ (Stokes Law)
consuming. Pretreatment of the sample may include the use
here, of dispersing chemicals or oxidizing agents.
= velocity of fall (cm sec-¹), g = acceleration of gravity (cm sec-²),
"equivalent" radius of particle (cm), dl = density of particle (g cm -³),
= density of medium (g cm-³), and µ = viscosity of medium (dyne sec cm-²
CONSISTENCY LIMITS AND INDICES .6

132
This figure shows
how the nature of
soil behavior is
divided into four
states based on
the value of the
moisture content.

133
134
General
 The consistency of clays and other cohesive soils
(fine-grained soils) is greatly influenced by the
water content of the soil.
 Depending on the moisture content, the behavior of
soil can be divided into four basic states:
•Solid
•Semisolid
•Plastic
•Liquid

 The water content at which a soil passes from one

state to another is different for different soils and
can be used in a qualitative way, to distinguish
between, or classify different fine-grained soil types.
135
In Summary
1. Water influences consistency of fine-grained soils.
2. Soils passes from one state to another state as water
content changes.
3. Different soils passes from state to state at different
water contents.
4. The water content at which different soils pass from
one state to another state can be used to classify or
distinguish different fine-grained soils.
5. How we can find the water content at which a given
soil passes from a given state to another?.
Atterberg (A Swedish scientist) developed a method to
describe the consistency of fine-grained soils with
varying degrees of moisture content. He defined several
limits of consistency which are called Atterberg limits.

136
 Atterberg Limits
Border line water contents, separating the
different states of a fine grained soil

water content
0 Shrinkage Plastic Liquid
limit limit limit

brittle- semi- plastic liquid

solid solid

137
Atterberg or Consistency Limits
Liquid Limit (LL): The moisture content, in percent, at the point of
transition from plastic to liquid state

Plastic Limit (PL): The moisture content, in percent, at the point of

transition from semisolid to plastic state

Shrinkage Limit (SL): The moisture content, in percent, at the point

of transition from solid to semisolid state

There are also another two limits, but they have no significance for
civil engineers:
Sticky Limit: The water content at which a soil loses its ADHESION
to a metal blade.

Cohesion Limit: The water content at which the grains cease to

cohere to each other, e.g. at which cultivation of the soil does not
result in clods or lumps forming.
These two limits are important for the agriculturist and to
earthwork contractors, and also in ceramic industry.
138
Importance of Atterberg limits

 If we know how the water content of our sample is

relative to the Atterberg limits, then we already know
a great deal about the engineering response of our
sample.
 The Atterberg limits are water contents at certain
limiting or critical stages in soil behavior.
 The Atterberg limits along with the natural water
content, are the most important items in the
description of fine-grained soils.

139
The Atterberg limits are used for four general
applications:
1. To obtain general information about a soil and its
strength, compressibility, permeability, shrinkage,
and swell properties.
2. Used in empirical correlations for some engineering
properties.
3. For soil classification
4. In construction specifications

Remark
Atterberg limits are conducted on completely REMOLDED soils.
They therefore do not account for the importance of the
structure of the soil as related to the soil behavior. So there main
usefulness is in classification of soils and only qualitatively they
give some ideas about behavior.
Determination of Atterberg Limits
 Atterberg’s original consistency limit tests were rather
arbitrary and not easily reproducible.
 A. Casagrande subsequently standardized the
apparatus and the procedures to make the
measurement more repeatable.

141
142
 Classifying soils into groups with similar behavior, in
terms of simple indices, can provide geotechnical
engineers a general guidance about engineering
properties of the soils through the accumulated
Communicate
experience. between
engineers

Simple indices Classification Estimate Achieve

system engineering engineering
GSD, LL, PI (Language) properties purposes
Use the
accumulated
experience 143
2. Classification Systems
Two commonly used systems:

• Unified Soil Classification System (USCS).

• American Association of State Highway and

Transportation Officials (AASHTO) System

144
Origin of USCS:
This system was first developed by Professor A. Casagrande
(1948) for the purpose of airfield construction during World
War II. Afterwards, it was modified by Professor Casagrande,
the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation, and the U.S. Army Corps of
Engineers to enable the system to be applicable to dams,
foundations, and other construction (Holtz and Kovacs, 1981).
Four major divisions:
(1) Coarse-grained
(2) Fine-grained
(3) Organic soils
(4) Peat
145
 3.1 Definition of Grain Size No specific
grain size-use
Atterberg limits

Gravel Sand Silt and

Boulders Cobbles
Clay
Coarse Fine Coarse Medium Fine

300 mm 75 mm No.4 No.200

4.75 mm 0.075
19 mm No.10 No.40 mm
2.0 mm 0.425 mm

146
3.2 General Guidance
50 %
Coarse-grained soils: Fine-grained soils:
Gravel Sand Silt Clay
NO. 4 NO.200
50%
4.75 mm 0.075 mm

•Grain size distribution •PL, LL LL>50

LL <50
•Cu •Plasticity chart

•Cc
Required tests: Sieve analysis

Atterberg limit
147
3.3 Symbols
Soil symbols: Liquid limit symbols:
G: Gravel H: High LL (LL>50)
S: Sand L: Low LL (LL<50)
M: Silt Gradation symbols:
C: Clay W: Well-graded
O: Organic P: Poorly-graded
Well  graded soil
Pt: Peat 1  C c  3 and C u  4
Example: SW, Well-graded sand
(for gravels)
SC, Clayey sand
1  C c  3 and C u  6
SM, Silty sand, (for sands)
MH, Elastic silt
148
 3.4 Plasticity Chart
L H
• The A-line generally
separates the more
claylike materials
from silty materials,
PI
and the organics
from the inorganics.
• The U-line indicates
the upper bound for
general soils.

Note: If the measured

limits of soils are on
the left of U-line,
LL they should be
rechecked.
(Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)

149
3.5 Procedures for
Classification
Coarse-grained
material
Grain size
distribution

Fine-grained
material
LL, PI

Highly

(Santamarina et al., 2001) 150

 Passing No.200 sieve 30 % LL= 33
3.6 ExamplePassing No.4 sieve 70 % PI= 12

Passing No.200 sieve 30 %

Passing No.4 sieve 70 %

LL= 33
PI= 12
PI= 0.73(LL-20), A-line
PI=0.73(33-20)=9.49
SC
(15% gravel)
Clayey sand with Highly
gravel
151
(Santamarina et al., 2001)
3.7 Organic Soils
• Highly organic soils- Peat (Group symbol PT)
 A sample composed primarily of vegetable tissue in various
stages of decomposition and has a fibrous to amorphous
texture, a dark-brown to black color, and an organic odor
should be designated as a highly organic soil and shall be
classified as peat, PT.

• Organic clay or silt( group symbol OL or OH):

 “The soil’s liquid limit (LL) after oven drying is less than 75 % of
its liquid limit before oven drying.” If the above statement is
true, then the first symbol is O.
 The second symbol is obtained by locating the values of PI and
LL (not oven dried) in the plasticity chart.

152
3.8 Borderline Cases (Dual
Symbols)
For the following three conditions, a dual symbol should
be used.
Coarse-grained soils with 5% - 12% fines.
 About 7 % fines can change the hydraulic conductivity of
the coarse-grained media by orders of magnitude.
 The first symbol indicates whether the coarse fraction is well or
poorly graded. The second symbol describe the contained fines.
For example: SP-SM, poorly graded sand with silt.
Fine-grainedsoils with limits within the shaded zone. (PI
between 4 and 7 and LL between about 12 and 25).
 It is hard to distinguish between the silty and more claylike
materials.
 CL-ML: Silty clay, SC-SM: Silty, clayed sand.
Soil contain similar fines and coarse-grained fractions.
 possible dual symbols GM-ML 153
3.8 Borderline Cases
(Summary)

(Holtz and Kovacs, 1981)

154
Origin of AASHTO: (For road construction)
This system was originally developed by Hogentogler and
Terzaghi in 1929 as the Public Roads Classification System.
Afterwards, there are several revisions. The present AASHTO
(1978) system is primarily based on the version in 1945. (Holtz
and Kovacs, 1981)

155
4.1 Definition of Grain Size No specific
grain size-use
Atterberg
limits
Boulders Gravel Sand Silt-Clay

Coarse Fine

75 mm No.4 No.200
4.75 mm 0.075
No.40 mm
0.425 mm

156
4.2 General Guidance
8 major groups: A1~ A7 (with several subgroups) and organic soils A8
 The required tests are sieve analysis and Atterberg limits.
 The group index, an empirical formula, is used to further evaluate
soils within a group (subgroups).

A1 ~ A3 A4 ~ A7

Granular Materials Silt-clay Materials

 35% pass No. 200 sieve  36% pass No. 200 sieve
Using LL and PI separates silty materials Using LL and PI separates silty materials
from clayey materials (only for A2 group) from clayey materials

 The original purpose of this classification system is used for road

construction (subgrade rating).
157
4.3 Group Index
The first term is determined by the LL

GI  (F200  35)0.2  0.005(LL  40)

 0.01(F200  15)(PI  10)
The second term is determined by the PI

For Group A-2-6 and A-2-7

GI  0.01(F200  15)(PI  10) use the second term only
F200: percentage passing through the No.200 sieve

In general, the rating for a pavement subgrade is

inversely proportional to the group index, GI.

158
4.4 Classification

Das, 1998

159
4.4 Classification (Cont.)

Note:
Das, 1998
The first group from the left to fit the test data is the
correct AASHTO classification.
160
 Passing No.200 86%
LL=70, PI=32
LL-30=40 > PI=32
4.4Passing
Example
No.200 86% GI  (F  35)0.2  0.005(LL  40)
LL=70, PI=32
200

 0.01(F  15)(PI  10)

200
LL-30=40 > PI=32  33.47  33 Round off A-7-5(33)

161
6. References
 Main References:
 Das, B.M. (1998). Principles of Geotechnical Engineering, 4th edition, PWS
Publishing Company. (Chapter 3)
 Holtz, R.D. and Kovacs, W.D. (1981). An Introduction to Geotechnical Engineering,
Prentice Hall. (Chapter 3)
 Others:
 Santamarina, J.C., Klein, K.A., and Fam, M.A. (2001). Soils and Waves, John Wiley &
Sons, LTD.

162
Liquid limit
Multi-Point Method (ASTM D-4318) .1
The water content required to close a distance of ½
inch (12.7 mm) along the bottom of the groove after 25
blows is defined as the Liquid Limit.

163
 It is difficult to adjust the moisture content in soil to
meet the required ½ inch closure of the groove at 25
blows. Hence, at least 4 tests for the same soil are
made at varying w%, and then w% values are plotted
against the logarithm of the number of blows, N.

?Why Semi logarithmic plot

164
165
One-Point Method (ASTM D-4318) .2
 Proposed by the USACE in 1949 based on the
analysis of hundreds of liquid limit tests.
tan   0.121

wN = moisture content of the soil which closed in N blows (N

should be between 10 and 40).
N = number of blows required to close the standard groove for
a distance of ½ inch (12.7mm)

 Thisformula generally yields good results for the

number of blows between 20 and 30.

166
Fall-Cone Method (British Standard – BS1377) .3
 This method is popular in Europe and Asia.

 The cone is released for 5 seconds so that it may penetrate the

soil.
 The liquid limit is defined as the water content of the soil which
allows the cone to penetrate exactly 20 mm during that period
of time.

167
168
Plastic Limit (PL)
Rolling into Thread Method (ASTM D-4318) .1
The plastic limit is defined as the moisture content in
percent, at which the soil crumbles, when rolled into
threads of 3.18 mm (1/8 in.) in diameter.

169
Fall-Cone Method .2
Similar to Liquid Limit test only the weight of the cone
is 2.35 N (240 grams) instead of 0.78 N (80 grams). (three
times heavier).

170
PL =37.5%

171
Remarks
 The liquid limit of a soil containing substantial amounts of
organic matter decreases dramatically when the soil is oven-
dried before testing. Comparison of the liquid limit of a sample
before and after oven-drying can therefore be used as a
qualitative measure of organic matter content of a soil.

 The plastic limit test is performed on material prepared for the

liquid limit test.
 The multipoint liquid limit method is generally more precise
than the one-point method. It is recommended that the
multipoint method be used in cases where test results may be
subject to dispute, or where greater precision is required.
 The correlation on which the calculations of the one-point
method are based may not be valid for certain soils, such as
organic soils or soils from a marine environment. It is strongly
recommended that the liquid limit of these soils be determined
by the multipoint method.
172
Shrinkage Limit (SL) (ASTM D-427, ASTM D-4943)
o Soil shrinks as moisture is gradually lost from it. With continuing loss of
moisture, a stage of equilibrium is reached at which more loss of
moisture will result in no further volume change
o The shrinkage limit is defined as the moisture content, in percent, at
which the volume of the soil mass ceases to change.
INDICES OF SOIL CONSISTENCY
Various indices have been developed using Atterberg limits.
Plasticity Index (PI) .1

PI = LL - PL
 This index provides a measure of a soil plasticity,
which is the amount of water that must be added to
change a soil from its plastic limit to its liquid limit.
 The PI is useful in engineering classification of fine-
grained soils, and many engineering properties have
been found to correlate with the PI.

 The plasticity index, in conjunction with the

mechanical analysis, provides the basis for several
of the engineering classification of soils.
174
175
Liquidity Index (LI) .2
 The relative consistency of a cohesive soil in the
natural state can be defined by a ratio called the
Liquidity Index, which is given by

 This index provides a clue as the condition of the in

situ soil. This index helps us to know if our sample
was likely to behave as a plastic, a brittle, or a liquid.

• If LI< 0 Brittle behavior (desiccated (dried) hard soil)

• If 0 <LI <1 The soil behave like a plastic
• If LI>1 The soil is a very viscous liquid.
Consistency Index .3

Flow Index .4
This index is the slope of the flow curve. A low number (flat
slope) indicates that a small change in moisture content is
likely to produce a significant change in the soil
CONSISTENCY.

Toughness Index .5
TI= PI/IF
177
Example
The following data were obtained from the liquid and
plastic limit tests for a soil:
Liquid limit test:
w% N 44

42.1 17
38.2 22
36.2 27

M oisture Content (% )
40

34.1 32
Plastic limit test: PL = 21.3%
In situ moisture content=25.7% 36

Find: LL, PI, LI, Fi

32
20 30 40 50
10
Num ber of Blow s, N

178
Activity .6
 The presence of even small amounts of certain clay
minerals in a soil mass can have a significant effect
on the properties of the soil.

 Identifying the type and amount of clay minerals may

be necessary in order to predict the soil’s behavior
or to develop methods for minimizing detrimental
effects.

 An indirect method of obtaining information on the

type and effect of clay minerals in a soil is to relate
plasticity to the quantity of clay–sized particles.

 It is known that for a given amount of clay mineral,

the plasticity resulting in a soil will vary for the
different types of clays.
179
 The plasticity index (PI) of a soil increases linearly
with the percentage of clay-size fraction (%finer than
2 micrometer by weight present).

 We can see form the plot below that different clays

have different correlation of PI with clay-size fraction.
This is because that different clay minerals have
different plasticity characteristics.

180
 A quantity called activity is defined as the slope of the
line correlating PI and %finer then 2 micrometer and
expressed as:
Note: The line is considered
to pass through the origin.

 The activity factor gives information on the type and

effect of CLAY MINERAL in a soil.
181
 Clay minerals with KAOLINITE have LOW activity,
whereas those soils with MONTMORILLONITE will
have a HIGH activity value.

 Activity is used as an index for identifying the

swelling potential of clay soils.

Activity Classification
<0.75 Inactive clays
0.75-1.25 Normal Clays
>1.25 Active Clays

182
PLASTICITY CHART
 Casagrande (1932) studied the relationship of the
plasticity index to the liquid limit of a wide variety
natural soils.
 On the basis of the test results, he proposed a
plasticity chart as shown below. This chart was
developed by plotting the results of several hundred
tests.

B-Line
CH

CL-ML CL
MH
ML
183
184
 Above A-line Clays
Below A-line Silts and organic soils (silt and clays)
 Left of B-line --Low plasticity
Right of B-line-- High plasticity
 U-line is approximately the upper limit of the
relationship of PI and the LL for any soil found so
far. The data plotting above or to the left of U-Line
should be considered as likely in error and should
be rechecked.
 All the lines (A, U, and B) are empirical.
 The plasticity chart is the basis for the classification
of the fine-grained soils according to USCS. We will
see this in the next topic.

185
Estimation of shrinkage limit from plasticity chart
Knowing the plasticity index (PI) and liquid limit (LL) shrinkage limit can be
determined from the plasticity chart as shown below:

186