INTERNSHIP REPORT

Contents
CHAPTER I ......................................................................................................................... 2
ABOUT THE ORGANISATION ........................................................................................ 2
COMPANY PROFILE ..................................................................................................... 2
1.1. VISION OF THE ORGANIZATION ................................................................... 3
1.2. OBJECTIVES OF THE ORGANIZATION ......................................................... 3
1.3. MILESTONES ACHIEVED BY THE COMPANY ............................................ 4
CHAPTER II........................................................................................................................ 5
OBJECTIVES OF INTERNSHIP ....................................................................................... 5
CHAPTER III ...................................................................................................................... 6
INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................................... 6
3.1. BUILDING............................................................................................................ 6
3.2. RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS .............................................................................. 7
CHAPTER IV .................................................................................................................... 11
CONSTRUCTION OF RESIDENTIAL BUILDING ....................................................... 11
4.1. Principles of site selection ................................................................................... 11
4.2. Site Plan............................................................................................................... 12
4.3. GRID LINE MARKING: .................................................................................... 15
4.4. EXPLORATION: ................................................................................................ 17
4.5. FOUNDATION ................................................................................................... 19
MAIN FUNCTIONS OF FOUNDATION ................................................................. 19
DIFFERENT TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS .............................................................. 20
4.6. COLUMN............................................................................................................ 24
4.7. BEAM ................................................................................................................. 29
CLASSIFICATION OF BEAMS: ................................................................................. 30
4.8. WALLS ............................................................................................................... 31
Functional Requirements of Walls in Building Construction: ....................................... 32
CLASSIFICATION OF WALLS ................................................................................... 33
CHAPTER V ..................................................................................................................... 38
CONCLUSION .................................................................................................................. 38

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENG., U.B.D.T.C.E., DAVANAGERE 1

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CHAPTER I
ABOUT THE ORGANISATION
COMPANY PROFILE

Hi-Tech Constructions is situated at one of the popular roads and also at heart of
Davanagere city.

Hi-Tech Constructions provide all type of service regarding constructions like vaasthu
planning, structural design, 3D elevations, estimation, valuation, interior works,
construction of residential and commercial building, real estate, renovation work, estimates
for bank loan, supervision, supply of building materials, wood work, supply of RMC,
architects & consultants.

• Hi-Tech constructions started on 11 November 2017 with registered office at #57/2

“JAYADEVA”, 2nd Main P.J. Extension, Davangere-577002, Karnataka.
• Hi-Tech construction has a group of technically qualified personnel and expert in the
field of civil engineering along with the depth knowledge of all types of construction.
• Hi-Tech constructions have experienced engineers and skilled persons to handle and
manage the construction activities to satisfy client needs.

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1.1. VISION OF THE ORGANIZATION

Hi-Tech Constructions is primarily a construction company that is also into
development. We develop functional, durable and aesthetic spaces that are crafted through
optimal design and efficient engineering.

1.2. OBJECTIVES OF THE ORGANIZATION

➢ The first and foremost objective is to satisfy your needs by taking your inputs and
discussing with you.
➢ Your satisfaction is very important because it will be your dream house.
➢ It is essential to provide good quality work and quality service, no compromise in
quality.
➢ Supervised and inspected by qualified personnel.
➢ Standardisation of design and ensure zero design faults.
➢ Ensure completion of the given project within the allotted time
➢ Avoid all the possible errors and faults.
➢ Executing the given design at your work site.
➢ Skilled personnel at work.
➢ Keeping good homely relationship with the client.

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1.3. MILESTONES ACHIEVED BY THE COMPANY

Figure 1: Building 1 (Plan)

Figure 2: Building 1 (Constructed)

Figure 4: Building 2 (Constructed)

Figure 3: Building 2 (Plan)

Figure 5: Road Filling Figure 6: Road Construction

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CHAPTER II
OBJECTIVES OF INTERNSHIP
The main objectives of the internship are;

➢ Develop skills for interacting with practical professionals.

➢ To identify, formulate and solve engineering problems.
➢ The understanding of professional and ethical responsibility.
➢ An ability to communicate effectively.
➢ An ability to use the techniques, skills and modern engineering tools necessary for
engineering project.

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CHAPTER III
INTRODUCTION
3.1. BUILDING
The building is defined as “any structure for whatsoever purpose and of whatsoever
materials constructed and every part thereof whether used as human habitation or not and
includes foundations, plinth, walls, floors, roofs, chimneys, plumbing and building
services, fixed platforms, verandah, balcony cornice or protection, part of a building or
anything affixed thereto or any wall enclosing or intended to enclose any land or space and
signs and outdoor display structures” according to National Building Code of India.

As per National Code of India, buildings are classified into nine groups based on occupancy
as follows;

Group A: Residential Buildings

Group B: Educational Buildings

Group C: Institutional Buildings

Group D: Assembly Buildings

Group E: Business Buildings

Group F: Mercantile Buildings

Group G: Industrial Buildings

Group H: Storage Buildings

Group I: Hazardous Buildings

In this report, we shall study about the construction of residential building to some
extent.

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3.2. RESIDENTIAL BUILDINGS

Residential building means a building in which sleeping accommodation is
provided for normal residential purposes, with or without cooking or dining facilities, and
includes one or more family dwellings, lodging or boarding houses, hostels, dormitories,
apartment houses, flats and private garages of such buildings.

Usually building is divided into three parts namely;

i. Foundation
ii. Plinth
iii. Superstructure

Foundation:

Foundation is also known as Substructure of the building. It is the most critical part
of the building which transmits the entire load of the building to the subsoil in which it rests
in such a way that settlement of the soil does not fail in shear. Foundation of a building
should be designed very carefully as most of the failures are probably due to faulty design
of foundation rather than any other cause.

Plinth:

A part of superstructure located between the ground level and the floor level is
known as the Plinth. The height of the plinth should not be less than 45 cm. The height of
the plinth depends upon architectural elevation, ground level, highest flood level, etc.
Usually coping, plinth beam and damp-proof course are provided at the top the plinth.

Superstructure:

It is the part of the building constructed above the plinth level.

Following are the Structural Components of a Building

• Masonry or R.C.C. walls and columns in superstructure

• Basement, Ground floor and upper floors
• Sills, lintels and weather sheds
• Doors, windows and ventilators
• Roof Slabs

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• Staircase, lifts, ramps, etc.

• Building finishes like plastering, painting, whitewashing, flooring, etc.
• Utility fixtures

Fig. Components of the building

Masonry or R.C.C. walls and columns in superstructure:

Walls are used to enclose or divide the floor space. Load bearing walls should be
strong enough to take its own weight, superimposed weight and lateral pressure of wind.
They should provide stability, weather resistance, fire resistance, heat insulation, sound
insulation, sound insulation, privacy and security.
Basement, Ground floor and upper floors:
A floor provides support to the occupants, furniture, fixtures and equipment of a
building. Different floors divide the building into different levels to provide more
accommodation on a given plot of land. The floor of a building immediately above the
ground is known as ground floor. All other floors above the ground floor is known as upper
floors. The floor below the ground level is known as basement floor or lower level floor.
Sills, lintels and weather sheds:
Window sills are provided between the bottom of window frame and above the top
of the wall below. The lintel is provided above the openings of windows, doors and

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ventilators in the wall to support the weight of the wall above the openings. Weather sheds
or chhajjas are generally combined with lintels to protect doors, windows, or ventilators
from sun, rain, wind frost, etc.
Doors, windows and ventilators:
Doors are provided in a building to allow the free movement outside and to the
internal part of the building. It is an openable barrier secured in an opening left in a wall. It
consists of frame and shutter. Windows and ventilators are generally provided for proper
light, ventilation and vision. Their sizes and numbers should be properly determined as per
requirements. When windows are provided for light and ventilation only, they may be fixed
so that they cannot be opened. They are known ventilators.
Roof Slab:
A roof is the uppermost part of a building which is constructed in the form of a
framework to give protection to the building against rain, heat, snow, wind, frost, etc. A
roof basically consists of structural elements provided at the top of building for the support
of roof coverings. A roof consists of the following two components
➢ Roof decking: It is a structural component which supports the roof covering. It may
be flat, sloping, dome shaped, truss, etc.
➢ Roof covering: It is provided on the roof deck to protect the building against sun,
rain, wind, frost, etc.
Stairs, lifts, ramps, etc:
Stairs, lifts, ramps, escalators, etc. are the means of vertical transportation between
the floors. Out of these, a stair is the most common. It is defined as a sequence of steps
suitably arranged for the purpose of ascent and decent between the floors or landings. Stair
may be constructed of different materials like timber, stone, reinforced concrete, metal and
bricks, etc. It may be of different shapes like straight stairs, turning stairs, circular or helical
stairs, geometrical stairs, etc.
A ramp is a sloping surface and it is adopted as a substitute for staircase for easy movement
between floors. A slope of 1 in 10 is desirable.
Escalators are ever moving flights of eccentrically operated stairs. These escalators are kept
in motion by a revolving drum.
Building finishes like plastering, pointing, painting, whitewashing, flooring, etc:
To protect the exposed surface of walls and floors from the effects of atmospheric
actions, building finishes are used. They improve the appearance of the structure as a whole

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and give smooth surface. They also rectify the defective workmanship or conceal inferior
materials.
➢ Plastering as a thin plastic covering which is applied on the surface of walls and
ceilings. It removes the unevenness of the surface and the imparts decorative
effects.
➢ Pointing is the process of finishing of mortar joints of either stone masonry or brick
masonry. The joints are raked out to a depth of about 20mm and then these spaces
are filled up by a suitable mortar in the desired shape.
➢ Painting, varnishing and polishing are generally done on doors, windows,
cupboards and other exposed wooden and steel components.
➢ Whitewashing, colour washing and distempering are generally done on the
plastered surface to protect them against weathering effects and to give better
appearance.
➢ Flooring is the process of finishing of the upper surface of the floor in order to give
a pleasing appearance. The materials like asphalt, brick, concrete, wood, glass,
linoleum, marble stone, terrazzo, tiles, moorum, granite, ceramic tiles, etc., are used
as flooring materials.
Utility fixtures:
Utility fixtures are built in items in the building. They are immovable in nature.
Wooden cupboards made in walls, shelves, smokeless chula, etc., are utility fixtures.

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CHAPTER IV
CONSTRUCTION OF RESIDENTIAL BUILDING
The functional planning is a free requisite of any type of building. Good planning
imparts good environment for living, working and recreation. Good homes mean the houses
which are well built and well planned for efficient and comfortable living with an
environment required for building up of happy, healthy, beautiful, cheerful and peaceful
lives.

4.1. Principles of site selection

For good planning and designing of buildings, the site selection of the building is
the most important. The following general principles should be kept in mind while selecting
a site for a building;
1. The purpose of building and extent of privacy is desired.
2. The site should be located in fully developed or fast developing locality.
3. The site should be located in such a way that community services like police and
fire protection, clearing of waste and street cleaning, utility services like water
supply, electricity, drainage, etc., amenities, like school, hospital, market, cinema,
bank, etc., shopping facilities and means of transport are also available within short
distance.
4. Before selecting a site, one should study the bye-laws of the local authority, which
before restrictions regarding proportions of plots to built-up, open spaces and
margins to be left in front and sides, hights of building etc.
5. The site should be situated on an elevated place and also levelled with uniform
slopes from one end to the other to provide good and quick drainage of rain water.
6. The soil of the site should be good enough with high safe bearing capacity to
provide economical foundations.
7. The site should be situated in such a naturally beautiful environment that creates
healthy living and working conditions.
8. The site should be away from quarries, kills, factories, industries, rivers carrying
heavy floods, water logged areas, badly maintained drains and slums, etc.
9. The legal and financial aspects should also be given due consideration.

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4.2. Site Plan

The site plan is a layout showing location of area belonging to the building or
property under consideration. It should be prepared before construction of the building and
should include the following details;
1. The shape of the plot and the boundary of the plot with all exterior dimensions.
2. Setback line at the front, back and sides.
3. Any permanent boundaries or marks if any existing on site.
4. Type of existing street or road along with its name and width should be indicated.
5. Grade elevation at the centre line should also be indicated. Grade elevations at the
corners of the plot and at the corners of the house should be indicated by means of
contour lines.
6. Size and location of detached garage or toilet block if any.
7. North line and wind direction should be mentioned.
8. Width and type of footpaths, if any.
9. Zoning and restrictions for the building should be mentioned.
10. Location of fire hydrant should be shown.

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Fig.4.2.1. Plan of first floor building

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Fig.4.2.2. Plan of first floor building

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Fig.4.2.3. Visualization of the building

4.3. GRID LINE MARKING:

Gridlines belong to the labelling marks of a floor plan. For drafting the plan of a
large area, these labelling marks will allow the plans to be placed in separate sheets and the
grid lines will demonstrate the connection of the two framing plans. With grid lines, it
becomes easier to recognize specific locations on the floor plan for any structural member
in the floor plan. Grid lines are mostly provided in construction drawings known as working
drawings. They play an important role throughout the setting out process on site.
Setting up of grid and pillars with respect to boundary corner pillars horizontally
and vertically. Mark the pillar with respect to boundary using footing and column drawing
issued by the consultancy. Mark the excavation area with respect to grid line pillars. For
excavation an extra space of 6” each on all sides are given for shuttering for PCC.

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SOUTH ROAD

Fig.4.3.1. Grid Lines of Residential building

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4.4. EXPLORATION:
The nature and thickness of strata of soil may be estimated by studying the
excavation details of nearby constructions or by examining the open side of a nearby well,
etc. The general inspection of site of work serves as good guide for determining the type of
foundation to be adopted for the proposed work and in addition, it helps in getting the data
with respect to the following items;
➢ Behaviour of ground due to variations in depth of water table.
➢ Disposal of storm water at site.
➢ Nature of soil by visual examinations.
➢ Movement of ground due to any reason, etc.

Fig.4.4.1. Excavated area in the working site

The load of the structure is ultimately transferred to the soil. It becomes therefore
essential to know the quality and thickness of soil underground and such a study would
assist in selecting an economical but safe design for the foundation of the structure.
The sub soil exploration gives precise information with respect to the following
conditions at site of the proposed work;
i. Location of ground water and its variation.
ii. Nature and engineering characteristics of the soil and rock formation.

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iii. Order of occurrence and extent of different soil strata.

The depth of exploration will have to be decided very carefully. The general rules to be
adopted to decide the depth of exploration for various types of structures and site conditions
are given in below table.

Table.4.4.1. General rules to be followed while selecting the depth of exploration

No. Description Depth of exploration
1 Adjacent footings with clear spacing 1.50 times the length
less than twice the width
2 Base of retaining wall 1.50 times the base width or 1.50 times
the exposed height of face of wall
whichever is greater
3 Floating basement Depth of construction
4 Isolated spread footings or raft 1.50 times the width
foundations
5 Pile foundations 10m to 30m or more with minimum
equal to the 1.50 times the width of
structure
6 Weathering conditions 1.50m in general and 3.50m in black
cotton soil

The load of the structure is ultimately coming on the soil and hence it is of utmost
importance to know the strength and behaviour of the soil. The term bearing power or
bearing capacity of soil is used to indicate the maximum load per unit area which the soil
by a factor of safety, the safe bearing capacity of a soil is obtained. The soils have the
tendency to behave in a complex manner when loaded and it gets deformed when stressed
due to the loading. The resistance of soil to such deformation will depend on various factors
like bulk density, angle of internal friction, water content, manner of application of load on
soil, etc.

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4.5. FOUNDATION
Foundation is an important part of the structure which transfers the load of the
structure to the foundation soil. The foundation distributes the load over a large area. So
that pressure on the soil does not exceed its allowable bearing capacity and restricts the
settlement of the structure within the permissible limits. Foundation increases the stability
of the structure. The settlement of the structure should be as uniform as possible and it
should be within the tolerable limits. The size of the footing can be roughly calculated by
dividing the total load at the column base by the allowable bearing capacity of the soil.

MAIN FUNCTIONS OF FOUNDATION

✓ Distribution of loads
✓ Stability against sliding & overturning
✓ Minimize differential settlement
✓ Safe against undermining
✓ Provide level surface

Fig.4.5.1. Foundation constructed in the site

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DIFFERENT TYPES OF FOUNDATIONS

As there are different types of soil, and the bearing capacity of the soil is different
for each type of soil. Depending on the soil profile, size, and load of the structure, engineers
chose different kinds of foundation.
Foundations are mainly classified into two types as follows;
1. Shallow Foundations
2. Deep foundations
If depth of the footing is equal to or greater than its width, it is called deep footing,
otherwise it is called shallow footing.

Shallow Foundations
As the shallow foundation depth is low and it is economical, it is the most popular
type of foundation for lightweight structures.

Types of Shallow Foundation

1. Isolated Spread Footing
Isolated footing comprises a foundation directly at the base of the segment. They
straightforwardly transfer the loads from the column to the soil. It might be rectangular,
square, or roundabout. It can comprise both reinforced or non-reinforced material. For the
non-reinforced footing, however, the stature of the footing has to be more prominent to
give the vital spreading of the load. Spread footings are inadmissible for the orientation of
large loads.

It is economical when:
➢ The load of the structure is relatively low.
➢ Columns are not closely placed.
➢ The bearing capacity of the soil is high at a shallow depth.

2. Wall Footing or Strip footing

Wall footing is also known as continuous footing. This type is used to distribute
loads of structural or non- structural load-bearing walls to the ground in such a way that the
load-bearing limit of the soil isn't outperformed. It runs along the direction of the wall. The
width of the wall foundation is usually 2-3 times the width of the wall.

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The wall footing is a continuous slab strip along the length of the wall. Stone, brick,
reinforced concrete, etc. are used for the construction of wall foundations.
Wall footing is economical when:
➢ Loads to be transmitted are of small magnitude.
➢ It is placed on dense sand and gravel.

3. Combined Footing

The foundations which are made common to more than one column is
called combined footings. There are different types of combined footing, including slab
type, slab and beam type, rectangular, raft, and strap beam type. They may be square, tee-
shaped, or trapezoidal. The main objective is the uniform distribution of loads under the
entire area of footing, for this it is necessary to coincide with the centre of gravity of the
footing area with the centre of gravity of the total loads.

Combined foundations are economic when:

➢ The columns are placed close to each other.

➢ When the column is close to the property line and the isolated footing would cross
the property line or become eccentric.
➢ Dimensions of one side of the footing are restricted to some lower value.

4. Cantilever or Strap Footing

Strap footings are similar to combined footings. Reasons for considering or
choosing strap footing are identical to the combined one.
In strap footing, the foundation under the columns is built individually and
connected by a strap beam. Generally, when the edge of the footing cannot be extended
beyond the property line, the exterior footing is connected by a strap beam with interior
footing.

5. Raft or Mat Foundation

Raft foundation consists of a reinforced concrete slab or T-beam slab placed over
the entire area of the structure. In this type, the whole basement floor slab acts as the
foundation. The total load of the structure is spread evenly over the entire area of the

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structure. This is called raft because, in this case, the building seems like a vessel that floats
on a sea of soil.

Raft or Mat foundations are used where other shallow or pile foundations are not
suitable. It is also recommended in situations where the bearing capacity of the soil is
inadequate, the load of the structure is to be distributed over a large area or structure is
subjected continuously to shocks or jerks.

Raft foundations are economic when:

• The soil is weak and the load has to be spread over a large area.
• The structure includes a basement.
• Columns are closely placed.
• Other kinds of foundations are not feasible.
• Differential settlement is to be prevented

Deep Foundations
Types of Deep Foundations
1. Pile Foundation
Pile is a slender member with a small cross-sectional area compared to its length. It
is used to transmit foundation loads to a deeper soil or rock strata when the bearing capacity
of soil near the surface is relatively low. Pile transmits load either by skin friction or
bearing. Piles are also used to resist structures against uplift and provide structures stability
against lateral and overturning forces.

Pile is a common type of deep foundation. They are used to reduce cost, and when
as per soil condition considerations, it is desirable to transmit loads to soil strata which are
beyond the reach of shallow foundations.
Pile foundations are economic when
➢ Soil with great bearing capacity is at a greater depth.
➢ When there are chances of construction of irrigation canals in the nearby area.
➢ When it is very expensive to provide raft or grillage.
➢ When the foundation is subjected to a heavily concentrated load.
➢ In marshy places.
➢ When the topsoil layer is compressible in nature.

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➢ In the case of bridges, when the scouring is more in the river bed.

2. Pier Foundation

Pier foundation is a cylindrical structural member that transfer heavy load from
superstructure to the soil by end bearing. Unlike piles, it can only transfer load by bearing
and by not skin friction.

Pier, the underground structure which transmits more massive load, which cannot
be carried by shallow foundations. It is usually shallower than piles. The pier foundation is
generally utilized in multi-story structures.

Pier Foundation is economic when:

• Sound rock strata lie under a decomposed rock layer at the top.
• The topsoil is stiff clay which resists driving the bearing pile.
• When a heavy load is to be transferred to the soil.

3. Caisson Foundation

Caisson foundation is a watertight retaining structure used as a bridge pier,

construction of the dam, etc. It is generally used in structures that require foundation
beneath a river or similar water bodies. The reason for choosing the caisson is that it can
be floated to the desired location and then sunk into place.

Caisson foundation is a ready-made hollow cylinder depressed into the soil up to

the desired level and then filled with concrete, which ultimately converts to a foundation.
It is mostly used as bridge piers. Caissons are sensitive to construction procedures and lack
construction expertise.

Caisson foundations are economic when:

• The pile cap requirement is to be minimized.

• Noise and vibration needed to be reduced.
• It has to be placed beneath water bodies.
• Highly lateral and axial loading capacity is required.

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CONDITIONS FOR PROVIDING DEEP AND SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS

Foundations may be shallow or deep foundations depending upon the load and type
of foundation soil. If the load to be supported is very high and soil is of low bearing
capacity, deep foundations are provided. If the soil has adequate bearing capacity at
reasonable depth the shallow footings are provided.

FOOTING USUALLY SUPPORTS THE FOLLOWING LOADS

1. Dead loads from the substructure and superstructure.
2. Live load resulting from material or occupancy.
3. Weight of material used in back filling.
4. Wind loads.

4.6. COLUMN
A vertical structural member which can transmit the load from the slab, beam
along with its self-weight to the foundation is called column.
Why to provide column?
➢ Columns carry axial loads and therefore are designed for compression.
➢ Other loads from snow, wind or other horizontal forces can cause bending in the
columns.
➢ We shall build up a small size structure by RR masonry at a certain height but the
multi-story building cannot be constructed by RR masonry because the structure
can able to transmit the heavy load to the foundation.
➢ Basically, a column designed to distribute the compressive axial load & additional
forces like snow, wind to the foundation eventually & it could be sustained the
structure even in the earthquake or any other force majeure.

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Fig.4.6.1. Column constructed in the working site

Types of column:
Columns are classified based on the several conditions which includes:
1. Based on loading
2. Based on column ties
3. Based on shape
4. Based on construction material
5. Some other types

Based on loading:

✓ Axially loaded column

✓ Column with uniaxial eccentric loading
✓ Column with biaxial eccentric loading

Axially Loaded Column

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If the compressive vertical loads act along the centroidal axis of the column, it is
termed as an axially loaded column. This type of column without bending is not found
practically so much.

Eccentrically Loaded Column: Uniaxial

When the loads are acting at a distance ‘e’ from the centroid of the column cross-
section, the column is termed as an eccentrically loaded column. In a uniaxial eccentrically
loaded column this distance ‘e’ could be along x-axis or y-axis. These eccentric loads cause
moments along the x-axis or y-axis.

Eccentrically Loaded Column: Biaxial

In this type of column, loads are applied at any point of cross-section but not in
axes. Loads cause moments about both the x- and y-axes simultaneously.

Based on Column Ties

✓ Tied Column
✓ Spiral Column

Tied Column
In the tied column, the longitudinal bars are tied together with smaller bars. These
smaller bars are spaced at uniform intervals up the column. Steel ties in column confine the
main longitudinal bars. Over 95 percent of all columns in buildings in non-seismic regions
are tied columns.

Spiral Column
Spiral columns contain spirals to hold the main longitudinal reinforcement. Spiral
is spring type reinforcement. The main bars are placed in a circle and ties are replaced by
spirals. Spiral columns are used when high strength and/or high ductility are required.
Because the spiral acts to resist the lateral expansion of the column bars under high axial
loads. The main bars are placed in a circle and ties are replaced by spirals. Spiral columns
are used more extensively in seismic regions

Based on shape:
✓ Square or Rectangular column

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✓ Circular column
✓ L-Shape
✓ T-Shape

Square or Rectangular column: They are generally used in the construction of buildings.
It is easier to construct and cast the rectangular or square column.

Circular column: They are specially designed columns which are mostly used in piling
and elevation of buildings.

L-shape: L-shape column is utilized in the corners of the boundary wall and has similar
characteristics of square or rectangular column.

T-shape column: It is utilized based on design requirements of structure. It is widely used

in construction of bridges.

Based on construction material:

✓ RCC Column
✓ Composite column
✓ Steel
✓ Timber
✓ Brick

Reinforced Concrete Column

Reinforced concrete columns are the most widely used columns for framed
structure. This type of column is composed of concrete as a matrix. The steel frame is
embedded in concrete. Concrete carries the compressive load and reinforcement resists
tensile load. The reinforcing materials can be made of steel, polymers, or alternate
composite materials. For a strong, ductile, and durable construction the reinforcement
needs to have some properties such as thermal compatibility, high resistance to tensile
stress, good bond to concrete, anti-corrosive, etc

Composite Column

Composite columns are constructed using various combinations of structural steel

and concrete. The interactive and integral behaviour of concrete and the structural steel
elements makes the composite column a very stiff, more ductile, cost-effective, and

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consequently a structurally efficient member in building and bridge construction. This type
of column has great fire and corrosion resistance also.

Steel Column

Steel columns are made of steel entirely. These columns are used in aircraft
manufacturing warehouses, indoor shipyards, etc.

Timber Column

Timber columns are made of wood timber. They provide an aesthetic appearance
creating a feeling of space and openness. Timber columns are designed for housebuilders,
reception areas, and refurbishment properties.

Brick column
Brick columns are found in masonry structures. They can be reinforced with
concrete to increase strength or can be unreinforced. Brick columns can be a round-shaped,
rectangle, or square, or elliptical in cross-section.

Some Other Types of Column

Prestressed Concrete Column

Prestressed columns can be used as an extension of the reinforced concrete columns

when bending moments due to wind and earthwork forces, eccentric loads, or frame action
are applied to columns. Prestressing transforms a cracked section into a non-cracked one
and resists significant bending. This type can be found useful when the column is a high
slender column and precast column.

Greek And Roman Column

Classical Greek and Roman architecture made use of four major styles of columns
for their buildings and temples. These four types of columns were Doric, Ionic, Corinthian,
and Tuscan. These columns look straight and uniform from a distance. But up close, they
might actually tilt a bit, or lean left or right.

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4.7. BEAM
A beam is a horizontal structural member in a building to resist the lateral loads
applied to the beam’s axis. The structural member which resists the forces laterally or
transversely applied to the axis is called a beam. The loads are acting transversely to the
longitudinal axis, which produces the shear forces and bending moment. The lateral load
acting on beams is the main cause of the bending of the beam. They are responsible to
transfer a load from the slab to the column.

Beam that is connected with the column and this connection is called direct
support while the beam connected with beam and this connection is called indirect support.
Purpose of beams

▪ To resist loads
▪ To counter bending moment and shear forces.
▪ To connect the structure together.
▪ To provide a uniform distribution of loads.

Purpose of stirrups in the beam

▪ Stirrups are used to counter the shear force. It is also called shear reinforcement in
the beam.
▪ Shear force is maximum at the end supports (simply supported beams) and zero at
the mid of the span that’s why the spacing of stirrups or rings is closed to each end
supports as compared to the mid.
▪ Stirrups are made in a rectangular shape with reinforcement bars and which
is wrapped around the top and bottom bars of the beam.
▪ Sometimes, stirrups are placed diagonally and vertically to avoid shear failure in case
of cracks in beams.

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CLASSIFICATION OF BEAMS:

ACCORDING TO THE SUPPORT CONDITIONS:

1. SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAMS:

A simply supported beam is supported at both ends. These beams are mostly used in
general construction.

2. CONTINUOUS BEAMS:

A beam that has more than two supports which are similar to the simply supported beams
are called continuous beams. It is considered a more economical beam as compared to
others.

3. FIXED BEAMS:

A beam that is fixed at both ends is called a fixed beam. Fixed beams are not allowed for
the vertical movement or rotation of the beam. In this beam, no bending moment is
produced. Fixed beams are only under the shear force and are generally used in the
trusses and like other structures.

4. CANTILEVER BEAMS:

A beam that is fixed at one end and free at the other end is called an overhanging beam.
These beams carry loads of both shear stress and bending moment. These beams are
generally used in the bridge trusses and other structural member. In the cantilever, the
tension zone is located at the top and compression zone is in the bottom.

5. OVERHANGING BEAM:

A beam that is supported by two points but the third point which is hanging or not support
is called an overhanging beam. It is a combination of the cantilever and the simply
supported beam. The overhanging portion is unsupported.

TYPES OF BEAMS BASED ON LOADS

1. POINT LOAD OR CONCENTRATED LOAD

The point load is defined as a load applied on a single location of the whole of span
length which act over a small distance.

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2. DISTRIBUTED LOAD:

This load is divided into two main loads such as,

Uniformly distributed load (UDL)

The load whose magnitude remains the same to the whole span is called uniformly
distributed load.

Uniformly varying load (UVL)

The load whose magnitude is continuously varying throughout the span is called
Uniformly varying load. It is divided into two further types namely
Triangular or Trapezoidal Load.

3. COUPLE FORCES:

The force which act on the same span of the beam having the same load with opposite
direction of forces. In the case of unequal load, one force makes the other to rotate.

BASED ON REINFORCEMENT IN RCC BEAM

1. SINGLE REINFORCEMENT

The reinforcement which is provided at the tension zone known as single

reinforcement beam. Compression is countered by concrete.

2. DOUBLE REINFORCEMENT

The reinforcement which is provided at both the zones (Tension and compression)
is known as double reinforcement.

4.8. WALLS
Wall is a structural element which divides the space into two spaces (rooms) and
also provides safety and shelter. Generally, the walls are differentiated as a two types outer-
walls and inner-walls. Outer-walls gives an enclosure to the house for shelter and inner-
walls helps to partition the enclosure into the required number of rooms. Inner walls are
also called as Partition walls or Interior Walls and Outer walls are also called as Exterior
walls.

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Functional Requirements of Walls in Building Construction:

1. Strength

2. Stability

3. Weather and ground moisture resistance

4. Durability

5. Fire safety

6. Resistance to heat passage

7. Sound resistance

Fig4.8.1. Walls in the site

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CLASSIFICATION OF WALLS

1. Load bearing wall:

In general, the loads from slab transfers to the beams, from beams to the columns
and then spread to the foundation but some of the structures has beams and slabs but not
columns. In simple words, whether its exterior or interior walls, the wall which is bearing
the whole weight of the structure, including self-weight of structural elements is called
Load bearing wall. Strip foundation is adopted for the load-bearing type of wall.

2. Non-load Bearing wall or Drop Wall:

This type of wall doesn’t support floor or roof loads above them which means it
won’t carry any of the weight of the structure above it. Partition walls inside the building
are the best example of it, where these are constructed only to divide the rooms and these
walls don’t possess any structural integrity. The non-load bearing wall can be removed or
shortened without affecting the building structure. Non-Load bearing walls are also called
as Drop wall or Filling wall.

3. Shear wall:
Shear wall is the wall which is constructed around the lift pit, Water sump or
staircase to retain the soil. Any shear wall bears two pressures on it either it may be wind
pressure and soil pressure or wind pressure and water pressure. Shear wall is adopted to
resist these forces. These walls are used to carry the lateral force exerted on the structure
due to wind, earthquake or any other lateral load.

Let us take an example of the overhead water tank. Overhead tank is exposed to the
wind as it is constructed on heights which share Wind pressure on it. The water tank has
water in it which creates water pressure inside the tank. Shear wall resists these forces
without any deflection.

4. Retaining Wall:
The wall which is built to maintain the unequal level of the ground on its two faces
is called a Retaining wall. The wall which is constructed around the plot below ground
level to retain the soil at one end and land sliding after the earthwork on site are called
retaining wall.

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Retaining walls are further divided into the following types:

1. Gravity retaining wall
2. Reinforced Concrete retaining wall
3. Brick masonry retaining wall
4. Anchored earth walls
5. Stone made Retaining wall

5. Brick masonry wall:

The wall which is constructed with the help of bricks is called Brick masonry wall.
Masonry is used to join the bricks in the wall with the usage if mortar. The length of the
brick wall in a single stretch should not exceed more than 4m. If it exceeds, a column must
be constructed with RCC.

6. Course Rubble Stone masonry wall:

The wall which is constructed with regular size of stones which are well finished &
dressed is called Course Rubble Stone masonry wall. This type of wall is generally adopted
for abutments of bridges, compound walls or boundary walls.

7. Random rubble stone masonry wall:

The wall which is constructed with the irregular size of stones is called Random
rubble masonry wall. This type of wall consumes more masonry than Course rubble stone
wall.

8. Core wall:
Core wall is constructed from the foundation and it raised up to the height of the
building. In this type of wall, the wall itself acts as a column. Core wall is built to carry
the lateral force exerted on the structure due to wind, earthquake or any other lateral load.

9. Precast wall:
As the name itself proving that it is a ready-made wall where the wall is cast in the
factory and bought to site to install it. Many companies brought this to market. We need to
specify the length and height of the wall. The wall is cast and transported to the site. This
type of wall is preferred where there is limited space to work and where there is less chance

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of labour. The best part of Precast walls is companies themselves provide skilled labour to
install the walls at your site.

10. Parapet wall:

The wall which is constructed on the top floor of the building to prevent the falling
of anything from the roof. The height of the parapet wall is usually 3ft.

11. Curtain wall:

The wall which is constructed with glass, aluminium or with a steel frame is called
a Curtain wall. This type of walls is generally adopted in offices, Hospitals and other public
buildings.

12. Boundary Wall or Compound wall:

The wall which is constructed all around the building to show the limits of the plot
is called a boundary wall.

4.9. SLAB
Slabs are plate element having depth much smaller than its other two dimensions.
So, slab is a two-dimensional element. Slabs form roof or floor of the building. Slabs are
designed same as beam with unit width. A slab may be supported by beams or walls and
maybe used as the flange of a T-beam or L-beam. A slab may be simply supported or
continuous over one or more supports.

Purpose of providing a slab

➢ To Provide a flat surface.
➢ To support load.
➢ To act as sound, heat and fire insulator.
➢ The upper slab becomes the ceiling for the storey beneath it.
➢ Space between slab and ceiling can be used for placing building utilities.

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Fig.4.9.1. Roof slab

Classification of slabs
1. One-way slab
2. Two-way slab
3. Circular slabs
4. Flat slabs
5. Grid floor and ribbed slabs

One-way slab
One-way slabs are those slabs in which the longer span to shorter span ly/lx ratio
is greater than 2. This type of slab is also called as slab spanning in one direction as the
bending takes place only along the shorter span. Therefore, the main reinforcement is
provided along the shorter span. The one-way slab is analysed by assuming it to be a
beam of 1m width.

Two-way slabs
➢ When slabs are supported on four sides, two way spanning action occurs.
➢ Such slabs maybe simply supported or continuous on any or all sides. If the
➢ longer span to shorter span ratio ly\lx is less than 2, is called two-way slab.
➢ Two-way slab is also called as slab spanning in two directions because

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➢ bending takes place in both directions.

Purpose of bent bars in slab

➢ Cranked bars / Bent up bars are provided on top of the reinforcement to resist
negative bending moment/Hogging at the supports of the slab.
➢ To resist the shear force at the supports.
➢ To reduce the risk of a brittle failure of slab-column connection.
➢ When bent up bars are provided, the strength and deformation capacity of slabs
with bent up bars compared to slabs without bent up bars is sufficiently increased.

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CHAPTER V
CONCLUSION
The time I have spent in HI-TECH CONSTRUCTIONS as an intern was a
memorable one as it was rich in experience sharing and helped me to discover my potential.
I had so many opportunities that I personally believe will forever shape and influence my
professional life while fostering personal growth and development.

Having an experience of a reputed organization is one of the huge advantages which

makes us more professional. Professionalism is the key to success for handling the stressful
situation. Working with an excellent project added a great value to my skill knowledge and
abilities. Going through with varieties of problems in the working site made me learn how
to deal with present issues immediately within the limit of time. As I was introduced to
various departments and hence gave me a chance to relate my studies in the practical
working environment, my communication skills improved and I feel more confident than I
was and this experience helped me broadened my vision.

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