INTERNSHIP REPORT

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It gives me an immense pleasure in presenting this report on ‘Internship at ArC TECH

BUILDERS AND DEVELOPERS’.

I would like to record my gratitude to Mr. ALI MURTUZA H (managing director) to giving
opportunity to work with their company, who guided me throughout this project. I would like
to thank ArC TECH BUILDRES AND DEVELOPERS for giving me an opportunity to
work as an intern.

Sincere thanks to HOD, department of civil engineering for her

immense support and guidance.

It is my privilege to thank the college management and the honourable principal, Dr. K S
SHRIDHAR for introducing this course, which in a way enhanced my knowledge. Without
the insight and support of all of them, neither this project would have kick started nor would
it have reached the fruitfulness.

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CONTENTS
CHAPTERS PAGE NO

CHAPTER 1: ABOUT THE COMPANY 5

1.1 MISSION OF THE ORGANIZATION 5

1.2 VISION OF THE ORGANIZATION 5
1.3 PRODUCTS AND SERVICES OFFERED 6
1.4 RANGE OF SERVICES 6

CHAPTER 2: ABOUT THE DEPARTMENT 7

CHAPTER 3: LEARNING OBJECTIVES 8

CHAPTER 4: CONSTRUCTION OF RESIDENTIAL BUILDING 9

4.1 PRINCIPLES OF SITE SELECTION 9

4.2 SITE PLAN 10
4.3 PREPARATION OF PROJECT SITE 12
4.4 GRID LINE MARKING 12
4.5 EXCAVATION 13
4.5.1 PROCEDURE FOR EXCAVATION 13
4.6 PLAIN CEMENT CONCRETE 15
4.6.1 PCC GRADES 15
4.6.2 LAYING OF PLAIN CEMENT CONCRETE 15
4.6.3 CURING OF PLAIN CEMENT CONCRETE 16
4.7 FOUNDATION 17
4.7.1 FUNCTIONS OF FOUNDATION 17
4.7.2 TYPES OF FOUNDATION 18
4.8 FOOTIING AND COLUMN MARKING 20
4.9 REINFORCEMENT WORK OF FOOTING 20
4.10 CONCRETE WORK OF FOOTING 22
4.11 PLINTH BEAM 22
4.12 COLUMN 23
4.13 PROCESS OF CONSTRUCTION OF COLUMN 23
4.13.1 BRICK MASONRY 26

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4.13.2 BRICK WORK IN CEMENT 26
4.13.3 TYPES OF BRICKS 27
4.13.4 GENERAL PRINCIPLES IN BRICK MASONRY CONSTRUCTION 28
4.14 SLAB 29
4.14.1 TYPES OF LOADS ON SLAB 29
4.14.2 MATERIALS USED IN SLAB 30
4.14.3 SLAB LAYING PROCESS 30
4.15 MATERIALS USED FOR CONSTRUCTION 33
4.15.1 CEMENT 34
4.15.2 AGGREGATE 35
4.15.3 GRADING OF CONCRETE 35
4.15.4 REINFORCEMENT 35
4.15.5 WATER 35

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LIST OF FIGURES
Fig.1 Ground floor plan of Residential building 11
Fig.2 Construction site 12
Fig.3 Grid line marking 13
Fig.4 Excavation 14
Fig.5 PCC for bed concrete 16
Fig.6 Footing and column marking 20
Fig.7 Reinforcement of footing 21
Fig.8 Construction of footing 22
Fig.9 Plinth beam construction 23
Fig.10 Column reinforcement work 25
Fig.11 Column formwork 25
Fig.12 Curing of column 26
Fig.13 Brick masonry 28
Fig.14 Binding steel bars 31
Fig.15 Spacing of steel bars in slab 31
Fig.16 Laying of cement concrete 32
Fig.17 Curing 32

LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Concrete grades and Mix ratio 15
Table 2: Diameter of steel reinforcement bar for footing 21
Table 3: Bars specification 24
Table 4: Different classes of bricks work in cement and their descriptions 27
Table 5: Composition of Portland cement 33

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CHAPTER 1
ABOUT THE COMPANY

Arc TECH BUILDERS AND DEVELOPERS

ISO 9001:2015
#537, Opp. Amrita Vidyalayam, Nijalingappa Layout
Davangere 577004, INDIA
ArC TECH BUILDERS AND DEVELOPERS is an ISO certified growing construction and
infra-structure company. With a dream to “share the joy of living” across all sections of
society. It has completed several projects maintaining time schedule, quality and presently
having multiple projects in hand viz. Community health centres, Taluk and District level
hospitals, Development of housing board sites, Residential and commercial buildings. It has
the recognition in construction industry due to good governance and timely completion of
projects.

1.1 MISSION OF THE ORGANISATION

To maintain the customer needs maintaining quality and timely completion of projects
ensuring conservation and developing eco-friendly environment. To maintain cordial
relations with the suppliers/ service providers. Continuous improvements in the
process by minimizing wastage and adopting enhanced safety norms. The dedicated
services of experienced and qualified engineers and professionals to meet the
challenge in different fields and achieve the target.

1.2 VISSION OF THE ORGANISATION

Our vision is, “to provide value homes with best amenities and share the joy of
living”. Driven by a passion to serve; we are inclined towards understanding our
customers’ needs and wants to make their lives sweeter by adding value to their
investments on our properties.

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1.3 PRODUCTS AND SERVICES OFFERED

ArC Tech Builders and Developers in Davangere has a wide range of products and
services to cater to the varied requirements of their customers.

1.4 RANGE OF SERVICES

Civil Engineers
Civil Contractors, Builders,
Interior Designers,
Building Material Dealers,
Building Contractors,
Architects for Residential.

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CHAPTER-2

ABOUT THE DEPARTMENT

➢ In every organization, the most important asset is the people that play essential role in
the performance of the company’s functions and responsibilities. Thus, the
organization is fortunate to have highly qualified and experienced personnel.
Reciprocally, the organization has aimed to provide its employ all the basic
necessities while performing their assigned task and at the same time equip them
through training and seminar to enhance their capabilities.

➢ The company as organization and employees because of the mutual benefits that
simultaneously being enjoyed, as grown tremendously and as blazed a track record of
fulfilling its obligation and commitment both the customer and the community. They
would like to be on the level where they should be having confidence in the
organization, they aim high.

➢ The firm is capable if furnishing well coordinating Architectural Civil Engineering

design services by utilizing its in house staff as well as its professional associates. All
Engineering services carry the quality control assurance and guarantee of the
company firm.

➢ The team work that has been developed through the years of hard work as reaped a
harvest of opportunities and wealth. They will continue to improve and develop new
concept both in management and technology.

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CHAPTER-3
LEARNING OBJECTIVES OF INTERNSHIP
The main objective of the internship course is to facilitate reflection on experiences
obtained in the internship and to enhance understanding of academic material by
application in the internship setting. Internship will provide students the opportunity to
test their interest in a particular career before permanent commitments are made. Apart
from that, it is most important because:

1. Internship will help the trainees to develop skills and techniques directly application
to their careers.
2. Internship will provide students the opportunity to develop attitudes conductive to
effective interpersonal relationship.
3. Internship will provide students with an in-depth knowledge of the formal functional
activities of a participating organisation.
4. Internship program will enhance advancement possibilities of graduates.

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CHAPTER 4
CONSTRUCTION OF RESIDENTIAL BUILDING
The functional planning is a free requisite of any type of building. Good planning imparts
good environment for living, working and recreation. Good homes mean the houses which
are well built and well planned for efficient and comfortable living with an environment
required for building up of happy, healthy, beautiful, cheerful and peaceful lives.

4.1. PRINCIPLES OF SITE SELECTION

For good planning and designing of buildings, the site selection of the building is the
most important. The following general principles should be kept in mind while
selecting a site for a building;
1. The purpose of building and extent of privacy is desired.

2. The site should be located in fully developed or fast developing locality.

3. The site should be located in such a way that community services like police and fire
protection, clearing of waste and street cleaning, utility services like water supply,
electricity, drainage, etc., amenities, like school, hospital, market, cinema, bank, etc.,
shopping facilities and means of transport are also available within short distance.
4. Before selecting a site, one should study the bye-laws of the local authority, which
before restrictions regarding proportions of plots to built-up, open spaces and margins
to be left in front and sides, hights of building etc.
5. The site should be situated on an elevated place and also levelled with uniform slopes
from one end to the other to provide good and quick drainage of rain water.
6. The soil of the site should be good enough with high safe bearing capacity to provide
economical foundations.
7. The site should be situated in such a naturally beautiful environment that creates
healthy living and working conditions.
8. The site should be away from quarries, kills, factories, industries, rivers carrying
heavy floods, water logged areas, badly maintained drains and slums, etc.
9. The legal and financial aspects should also be given due consideration.

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4.2 SITE PLAN
The site plan is a layout showing location of area belonging to the building or
property under consideration. It should be prepared before construction of the
building and should include the following details;
1. The shape of the plot and the boundary of the plot with all exterior dimensions.

2. Setback line at the front, back and sides.

3. Any permanent boundaries or marks if any existing on site.

4. Type of existing street or road along with its name and width should be
indicated.

5. Grade elevation at the centre line should also be indicated. Grade elevations at
the corners of the plot and at the corners of the house should be indicated by
means of contour lines.
6. Size and location of detached garage or toilet block if any.

7. North line and wind direction should be mentioned.

8. Width and type of footpaths, if any.

9. Zoning and restrictions for the building should be mentioned.

10. Location of fire hydrant should be shown.

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FIG.1 GROUND FLOOR PLAN OF RESIDENTIAL BUILDING

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4.3 PREPARATION OF PROJECT SITE
This is the first stage of construction work. It involves cleaning, levelling, fixing the
boundary corners of the site and Dewatering if any water exists.

FIG.2 CONSTRUCTION SITE

4.4 GRID LINE MARKING

Gridlines belong to the labelling marks of a floor plan. For drafting the plan of a
large area, these labelling marks will allow the plans to be placed in separate sheets
and the grid lines will demonstrate the connection of the two framing plans. With
grid lines, it becomes easier to recognize specific locations on the floor plan for any
structural member in the floor plan. Grid lines are mostly provided in construction
drawings known as working drawings. They play an important role throughout the
setting out process on site.

Setting up of grid and pillars with respect to boundary corner pillars

horizontally and vertically. Mark the pillar with respect to boundary using footing
and column drawing issued by the consultancy. Mark the excavation area with
respect to grid line pillars. For excavation an extra space of 6” each on all sides are
given for shuttering for PCC.

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FIG.3 GRID LINE MARKING

4.5 EXCAVATION
Excavation is the process of removing of soil from the construction site to specified
depth to provide space for the intended work. It is the preliminary activity of the
construction project.
4.5.1 PROCEDURE FOR EXCAVATION:
➢ Site cleaning.
➢ Levelling the site.
➢ Fixing the boundary corners.
➢ Setting up of grid and pillars with respect to boundary corner pillars horizontally
and vertically.
➢ Mark the pillar with respect to boundary using footing and column reinforcement
drawing issued by structural consultant GOOD FOR CONSTRUCTION.
➢ Using mason thread and plumb bob transfer the centrelines to foundation.
➢ Mark the excavation area with respect to grid line pillars.
➢ For excavation an extra space of 6” each on all sides are given for shuttering for
PCC.
➢ Calculation of depth of excavation is 1.5m from ground level
➢ Comparing both ROAD TOP LEVEL and GROUND LEVEL whichever is least
consider that as depth of foundation.

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If we did not get HARD STRATA at 1.5m continue the excavation until we get hard strata.

Excavation is done by two means:

1. Manually (smaller areas)

2. Mechanically (larger area) and this is used for speed in construction.

ANTI TERMITE (CHLOROPHIRIPHOS) is applied for whole excavated area to prevent

insects before installing of PCC of ratio 1:49, 1 litre of chemical and 490 litres of water.

Excavated soil is stored at 1m far from pit, and stored soil helps in landscaping or backfilling.

FIG.4 EXCAVATION

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4.6 PLAIN CEMENT CONCRETE
Plain cement concrete is the mixture of cement, fine aggregate(sand), and coarse
aggregate without steel. PCC is an important component of a building which is laid on
the soil surface to avoid direct contact of reinforcement of concrete with soil and
water.
4.6.1 PCC Grades
Based on the load-carrying capacity different PCC grades are used such as M5, M7.5,
M10, M15. Where M stands for Mix while the number represents the compressive
strength of particular grade testing after 28 days curing, a detailed tabular is provided
below.
Table 1: Concrete grades and Mix ratio

Type of Concrete Grades Mix Ratio Compressive strength of

concrete concrete @ 28 days in
N/mm2
Ordinary M5 1:5:10 5 N/mm2
concrete M7.5 1:4:8 7.5 N/mm2
M10 1:3:6 10 N/mm2
M15 1:2:4 15 N/mm2

4.6.2 Laying of Plain Cement Concrete

1. The PCC is laid in the layers of not more than 150mm thick and thoroughly vibrated
by the means of mechanical vibrators till a dense concrete is obtained.
2. Wherever needed, hand compaction shall be done with the help of wooden tamping
rods so that concrete is thoroughly compacted and completely walked into the corners
of the formwork.
3. Compaction shall be completed before the initial setting starts that is within thirty
minutes of addition of water to the dry mixture.

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FIG.5 PCC FOR BED CONCRETE

4.6.3 Curing of Plain Cement Concrete

1. After the concrete has begun to harden that is about one to two hours after it has
been laid it shall be protected with moist gunny bags, sand or any other materials
against quick drying.
2. After 24 hours of laying of concrete, the surface shall be cured by flooding with
water of about 25mm depth or by covering with weight absorbent materials.
3. Curing shall be done for a minimum period of 14 days.

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4.7 FOUNDATION
Foundation is the lowest part of the building or the civil structure that is in direct
contact with the soil which transfers loads from the structure to the soil safely.
➢ The strength and durability of any structure depends upon the strength of its
foundation.
➢ Foundation is generally built of bricks, stones, concrete, steel, etc. The selection of
the material and type of foundation depends upon the type of the structure above
and the underlying soil.
➢ The foundation is designed in such a manner that soil below does not fail in shear,
and the settlement is within a safe limit.

4.7.1 Functions Of Foundation

1. Reduction of load intensity
Foundation distributes the loads of the super structure, to a larger area so that the
intensity of the load at its base does not exceed the safe bearing capacity of the soil.
2. Even distribution of load
Foundation distributes the non-uniform loads of the super structure evenly to the sub
soil.
3. Provision of level surface
Foundation provides levelled and hard surface over which the super structure can be
built.
4. Lateral stability
It anchors the super structure to the ground, thus imparting lateral stability to the
superstructure.
5. Safety against under mining
It provides the structural safety against undermining due to burrowing animals and
food water.
6. Protection against soil movements
Special foundations prevent or minimizes the distress (or cracks) in the super
structure, due to expansion of the sub soil because of moisture movement in same
problematic soils.

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4.7.2 Types Of Foundation
As there are different types of soil, and the bearing capacity of the soil is different for
each type of soil. Depending on the soil profile, size, and load of the structure,
engineers chose different kinds of foundation.
There are two types of foundation used in constructing buildings:
1. Shallow foundation
2. Deep foundation

1. Shallow foundation: Shallow foundations are constructed where soil layer at

shallow depth (up to 1.5m) is able to support the structural loads. The depth of
shallow foundation is generally less than its width. These are used for small and
light buildings.
There are four types of shallow foundation:
i. Isolated footing or individual footing
ii. Combined footing
iii. Strap foundation
iv. Raft or mat foundation

i. Isolated footing:
The isolated footing is used to support individual columns. They can be either of
steeped type or have projections in the concrete base. In the case of heavily loaded
columns, steel reinforcement is provided in both the direction in a concrete bed.
They may be square, rectangular or circular plan.

ii. Combined footing:

A common footing provided for two or more columns is known as a combined
footing. This footing may be rectangle or trapezoidal in plan. Generally, they are
constructed of reinforced concrete.

This footing is provided under the following circumstances:

➢ When columns are very near to each other and their individual footings
overlap.
➢ When bearing capacity of the soil is less, requiring more area under
individual footing.

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➢ When the end column is located at or near the property line and its footing
cannot be extended on the side of the property line.

iii. Strap foundation

If the independent footings of two columns are connected by a beam, it is
called a strap footing. A strap footing may be used where the distance between
the column is so great that a combined trapezoidal footing becomes quite
narrow, with high bending moment. In that case, each column is provided with
its independent footings and a beam is used to connect the two footings.
iv. Raft foundation
A raft or mat is a combined footing that covers the entire area beneath a
structure and supports all the walls and columns. This foundation is found
most suitable when heavy structured are to be constructed on soft made up
ground or marshy sites having low bearing capacity and also heavy
concentrated structural loads are generally supported by providing raft
foundation.

2. Deep foundation: When the depth of foundation is more than its width, it is
defined as Deep foundation. These are used for large structures. There are two
main types of deep foundation:
I. Pile foundation
II. Pier foundation

I. Pile foundation
Pile foundation are deep foundations, which are formed by long, slender,
columnar elements typically made from steel or reinforced concrete, or
sometimes timber. Pile foundations are usually used for large structure and in
situations where the soil at shallow depth is not suitable to resist excessive
settlement, resist uplift, etc.
II. Pier foundation
A pier foundation consists of a cylindrical column of a large diameter to
support and transfer large super imposed loads to the firm strata below. Pier
foundation is preferred in a location where the top strata consist of
decomposed rock overlying strata of sound rocks.

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4.8 FOOTING AND COLUMN MARKING

With reference to boundary and grid pillars transfer the centre lines from grid pillars
to the PCC top by using mason thread and plumb bob.
As per column and footing drawing mark the shape and size of the footing and
columns. Check the diagonals and orientation of the footing and columns.

FIG.6 FOOTING AND COLUMN MARKING

4.9 REINFORCEMENT WORK OF FOOTING

➢ Place the footing mat with reference to footing drawing.
➢ Place the column reinforcement with respect to column drawing.
➢ Check the diameter of rod, spacing, cut length, development length of the footing
and column.
➢ Check the sizes of the stirrups and its diameter, spacing hook length.
➢ Generally, diameter of steel reinforcement bar used for footing is 10mm, 12mm,
16mm.

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Table.2 Diameter of steel reinforcement bar for footing

Type of Diameter of Diameter of Spacing of Spacing of

building main rebar distribution main rebar distribution
rebar rebar
One storey 10mm 10mm 150mm 150mm
building /
G+0
Two storey 12mm 12mm 150mm 150mm
building /
G+1
Three storey 12mm 12mm 150mm 150mm
building /
G+2
Four storey 16mm 16mm 150mm 150mm
building /
G+3

FIG.7 REINFORCEMENT OF FOOTING

4.10 CONCRETE WORK OF FOOTING

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➢ Before concreting reinforcement should be checked.
➢ Check the grade of concrete.
➢ Check the pouring of concrete, it should be less than 1.5m depth to avoid segregation.
➢ Vibration should be done properly.
➢ Avoid over vibration of concrete to avoid segregation.

FIG.8 CONCRETING OF FOOTING

4.11 PLINTH BEAM

Plinth beam is a reinforced concrete beam constructed between the wall and its
foundation. Plinth beam is provided to prevent the extension or propagation of cracks
from the foundation into wall above when the foundation suffers from settlement.
➢ A minimum depth of plinth beam is 20cm, whereas its width should match the
width of final course of the foundation.
➢ Formwork used for plinth beam construction should be properly installed and
adequately secured prior to concrete placement.
➢ It is recommended to provide two bars with minimum diameter is 12mm at the
bottom of the beam.
➢ Similarly, two bars with minimum diameter of 10mm shall be provided at the
top of the plinth beam.
➢ Reinforcement bars should be protected by 25mm concrete cover.

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➢ Diameter of stirrups should be at least 6mm and a spacing of 15cm should be
sufficient.

F
I
G
.
9

P
L
FIG.9 PINTH BEAM CONSTRUCTION

4.12 COLUMN
Column is a vertical structure member. It transmits the load from ceiling/roof slab and
beam, including its self-weight to the foundation. Column may be subjected to a pure
compressive load.
Material used in columns:
➢ Cement
➢ Coarse aggregate
➢ Fine aggregate
➢ Steel bar
➢ Water
➢ Shuttering
4.13 Process of construction of column

Constructing RCC Column involves following five stages of works.

1. Column layout work

2. Column reinforcement work
3. Column formwork
4. Pouring concrete into column

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5. Curing
1. Column layout work
In this stage of works the location of columns are determined practically in field. It
is done by laying rope according to grids and then mark the location of column
related to rope.
2. Column reinforcement work
➢ Check the numbers and diameter of vertical bars.
➢ Spacing between vertical bars.
➢ Check Development length which depends on diameter of bar.
➢ Lapping should not come inside beam or slab.
➢ Lapping in alternate bars should come at same height.
➢ Spacing between stirrups is as per the drawing.
➢ Hook should be bend properly at right angles.
➢ Check the stirrups corner. Vertical bar should come at right angle edge of
stirrup properly bound with binding wire.
Table.3 Bars specification

Column Type Minimum Minimum Diameter of

numbers of diameter of stirrups
Longitudinal bar Longitudinal bar
Square column 4 12mm 8mm (150mm c/c
distance)
Rectangular 4 12mm 8mm
column
Circular 6 12mm 8mm
column

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FIG.10 COLUMN REINFORCEMENT WORK

3. Column Formwork
After completion of footing work or construction, column formwork is carried up to
the plinth by using steel or plywood sheets. But one thing to be considered in that,
dropping concrete from above 1.5m height is not suggested as it leads to
segregation. To avoid this small window is kept at 1.5m level of full height
formwork. After casting up to that level close the window and cast the rest of the
column.

FIG.11COLUMN FORMWORK

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4. Pouring concrete into column
Casting column for small quantity of concrete volume normally depends on machine
mix concrete and for large quantity of concrete ready-mix concrete is preferred.
➢ Check the pouring of concrete, it should be less than 1.5m depth to avoid
segregation.
➢ Vibration should be done properly.
➢ Avoid over vibration of concrete to avoid segregation.

5. Curing
➢ Curing for concrete is done to maintain the optimum moisture content i.e., to
prevent the loss of water which is required for the hydration of cement, to avoid
shrinkage cracks and premature stressing or disturbance in concrete.
➢ Curing is a process of spraying water over the set concrete.
➢ Curing plays an important role on strength development and durability of
concrete.
➢ Curing can start immediately after its final setting time of about 10 hour for 28
days.

FIG.12 CURING OF COLUMN

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4.14 BRICK MASONRY
Brick masonry is a highly durable form of construction. Brick masonry is made of
brick units bonded together with mortar. The strength of brick masonry mainly
depends upon quality of bricks, quality of mortar, and method of bonding used.

4.14.1 Brick work in cement:

This type of brick masonry is construction by laying bricks in cement mortar rather
than mud which is used in brick work in mud. There are three major classes of brick
work in cement which are summarize in Table 4

Table 4 Different classes of bricks work in cement and their descriptions

Class Description
First class 1. Cement of lime mortar is used
2. 2. The surface and edges of bricks
are sharp
3. 3. The thickness of mortar joint
doesn’t exceed 10mm

Second Class 1. Ground moulded bricks are

used
2. Bricks are rough and shape is
slightly irregular
3. The thickness of mortar joint is
12mm
Third Class 1. Bricks are not hard, rough
surface with distorted shape
2. Used for temporary structures
3. Used in places where rainfall is
not heavy

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4.14.2 Types of bricks
There are different types of brick used in the construction of brick masonry which
include:
1. Common Burnt Clay Bricks
2. Concrete Bricks
3. Sand Lime Bricks (Calcium Silicate Bricks)
4. Fly ash Clay Bricks
5. Engineering Bricks

4.14.3 General principles in brick masonry construction

1. A good brick masonry should utilise bricks which are sound, hard, well burnt
and tough with uniform colour, shape, and sizes.
2. The bricks should be compacted, homogeneous, free from holes, cracks, flaws,
air-bubbles and stone lumps.
3. The brick should be saturated with water so as to prevent absorption of moisture
from the mortar.
4. The faces of wall should be constructed truly vertical and their vertically should
be tested at regular intervals by means of a plumb-bob.
5. Generally, the height of brick masonry construction in a day should be less than
1.5m.
6. After construction, the brickwork should be well-water for a period of about one
to two weeks.

FIG.13 BRICK MASONRY

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4.15 SLAB
A slab is a structural element, made of concrete, that is used to create flat horizontal
surface such as floors, roofs, and ceilings. A slab is generally several inches thick and
supported by beams, columns, walls, or the ground.
4.15.1 Types of loads on a Slab:
Types of loads acting on a slab include:
1. Dead load of the slab
2. Live load
3. Floor finish load
4. Earthquake loads

In the building component, there are two major types of slabs used in building
construction i.e.one way slabs and two-way slabs.

1. One Way Slab

➢ One Way Slabs carry load along one direction which is supported by beam
on two opposite sides.
➢ The condition for one way slab is the ratio of longer span to shorter span
of slab should be equal to and greater than 2.
➢ The main bars are placed along the shorter direction, and distribution bars
are placed along longer direction and they are cranked to resist formation
of stresses in slab.
2. Two-Way Slab
➢ Two-Way Slabs carry load along both direction and is supported by beams
on all four sides.
➢ The condition for two-way slab is the ratio of longer span to shorter span
of slab should be less than 2.
➢ The Distribution bars are provided in both directions, so the bars are
cracked in both directions.
➢ The two-way slab requires more formworks.

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4.15.2 Materials used in slab
➢ Cement
➢ Coarse aggregate
➢ Fine aggregate
➢ Steel bar
➢ Binding wire
➢ Water
➢ Shuttering materials (wooden Planks, and Iron Plates).

4.15.3 Slab laying process

According to work arrangement laying of RCC slab can be done in 4 stages such as:
1. Formwork
2. Bending and binding steel bars
3. Spacing of steel bars
4. Laying of cement concrete
5. Curing

4. Formwork:
The formwork should be as per (IS:14687-1999). To retain concrete, formwork or
cantering and shuttering is required, which provides the support to the wet concrete
until it has gained sufficient strength to be self- supporting.

5. Bending and binding steel bars:

At the time of designing the slab, it is considered that concrete is strong in
compression strength but week in tensile strength, so make the structure safe against
the tensile stress, steel bars are provided.

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FIG.14 BINDING STEEL BARS

3. Spacing of steel bars:

Steel bars diameter and its spacing in the RCC slab is calculated by designing the
slab according to load and span of the slab. In general, 12mm, 10mm and 8mm
diameter steel bars are used in RCC slab according to the length of span of the slab
and similarly spacing is from 4.5” to 6” in the main bars and 6” to 8” in
distribution bars.

FIG.15 SPACING OF STEEL BARS IN SLAB

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4. Laying of cement concrete:
Make walking way on steel bars by placing wooden plates to avoid disturbance in
steel bars. Now start to lay the cement concrete mix as per design but not below
the 1:2:4 ratio. The mix should be mechanically mixed and vibrated after laying
on the slab.

FIG.16 LAYING OF CEMENT CONCRETE

5. Curing
After laying the RCC slab it should be cure for 21 days for getting full strength.
After 21 days formwork is removed. Final curing shall be done by ponding and
stacking water for minimum period of 7 days.

FIG.17 CURING

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4.16 MATERIALS USED FOR CONSTRUCTION
Building material is any material used for construction purpose such as materials for
house building. Wood, cement, aggregates, metals, bricks, concrete, clay are the most
common type of building material used in construction. The choice of these is based
on their cost effectiveness for building projects.
4.16.1 CEMENT
Cement was first discovered by an English brick layer named Joseph Aspdin in 1824.
He called it Portland cement for the reason that the cement he discovered resembled
the limestone found in Portland. There are many other types of cement. The
approximate composition of Portland cement is given below
Table 5: Composition of Portland cement
Material Composition
1. Lime (Cao) 60-70%
2. Silica (SiO2) 17-25%
3. Ferric Oxide (Fe2O3) 0.5-6.0%
4. Alumina (Al2O3) 3-8.0%
5. Magnesium oxide (MgO) 0.1-4.0%
6. Alkalies (K2O, Na2O) 0.4-1.3%
7. Sulphur trioxide (SO3) 1.3-3.0%

The function of cement is to combine with water and to form cement paste. This paste
first sets i.e., it becomes firm and then hardens due to chemical reaction called
hydration, between cement and water. On setting and hardening, the cement binds the
aggregate together into a stone like hard mass and thus provides strength, durability
and water-tighten to the concrete. Quality of cement of based on grade of cement.
There are different types of grades which used is used in construction work. These are
given below:
➢ 33 Grade OPC is used for general construction works like plastering and
finishing works in normal environmental conditions. However, its use is
virtually phased out today.
➢ Coming to the 43 Grade OPC, it is the most commonly used grade for house
construction. It has its application in plastering, finishing works, precast

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items, foundations, brick work, and compound wall and so on. It has more
strength development than the 33 Grade cement.
➢ 53 Grade OPC develops strength very fast. High rise building construction
use 53 grade cement. This is applicable for use in structures where high-
Grade concrete is required.
4.16.2 AGGREGATE
Aggregate are the inert materials that are mixed in fixed proportions with a binding
material to produce concrete. These act as fillers or volume increasing components on
the one hand and are responsible for the strength, hardness, and durability of the
concrete on the other hand.
There are two types of aggregates
1. Fine Aggregate
2. Coarse Aggregate

Fine Aggregate (Sand):

Fine aggregates are the particles that passes through 4.75mm IS sieve and retain on
75mm IS sieve.

Function of fine aggregate:

The function of using fine aggregate in a concrete mix is to fill up the voids existing
in the coarse aggregate and to obtain a dense and strong concrete with less quantity of
cement and increase the workability of the concrete mix.

Coarse Aggregate:

Coarse aggregates are the particles which retain on 4.75mm IS sieve.

Function of coarse aggregate:

The coarse aggregates are used in mixing of concrete. These aggregates increase the
strength of bonding in aggregates. Coarse aggregates are used in construction of PCC,
foundation, beams, columns etc.

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4.16.3 GRADING OF CONCRETE
Concrete for construction work is defined by different grades as the ratio of cement:
sand: coarse aggregate. The principle of grading is that the smaller particle will fill up
the voids between large particles. This results in the most economical use of cement
paste for filling the voids and binding together the aggregate in the preparation of
concrete. Thus, proper grading of fine and coarse aggregate in concrete mix produces
a dense concrete with less quantity of cement.

4.16.4 REINFORCEMENT
The material which is used to develop a good bond with concrete in order to increase
its tensile strength is known as reinforcement. Steel bars are highly strong in tension,
shear, bending moment, torsion. So, steel bars are used in reinforcement.
Function of reinforcement:
Reinforcement works as a tension member because concrete is strong in compression
and weak in tension so reinforcement resist tensile stresses in the concrete members.
The diameter of reinforcement available in the market are 8mm, 10mm, 12mm,
16mm, 20mm, 25mm, 32mm, 40mm.

4.16.5 WATER
It is an important ingredient of concrete because it combines with cement and forms a
binding paste. The paste thus formed fills up the voids of the sand and coarse
aggregate bringing them into close adhesion. We should check pH value of water,
TDS, sodium potassium carbonate and bicarbonates, chloride content, calcium
chloride, sodium sulphide, sodium hydroxide and should be perform various test
before using it in construction work.

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