A

Summer training report

on
Engineering Aspects of Building Construction

Completed
at
United Global Info Service Pvt. Ltd.

Duration
15 July to 14 August 2021

Submitted
By

KARAN SINGH
Roll No - 1801000032
B. Tech. – 4rd Year

Department of Civil Engineering

United College of Engineering & Research, Prayagraj

Affiliated to

Dr. A. P. J. Abdul Kalam Technical University,

Lucknow

December, 2021
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

It is my pleasure to be indebted to various people, who directly or indirectly contributed in

the development of this work and influenced my thinking, behavior, and acts during the
course of study.

I express my sincere gratitude to Dr. H.P Shukla Sir Principal UCER

for providing me an opportunity for online summer training during the global pandemic
COVID 19.

I am thankful to Dr. Jitendra Kumar Sir HOD Civil Engineering Department for his
support, cooperation, and motivation provided to me during the training for constant
inspiration, presence and blessings.

I also extend my sincere appreciation to Mr. Shailendra Kr. Yadav Sir

Summer Training head CE Department UCER Prayagraj who provided his valuable
suggestions and precious time in accomplishing my project report.

Lastly, I would like to thank the almighty and my parents for their moral support and my
friends with who I shared my day-to-day experiences and received lots of suggestions that
improved my quality of work.

ii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE NO.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT ii

CERTIFICATE -

PREFACE vi

CHAPTER – 1 (INTRODUCTION) 1-3

1.1 Construction Engineering Definition 1

1.2 Construction Engineering Project 1

1.3 On- Site Management 1

CHAPTER – 2 (SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS) 4-14

2.1 Engineering Tape 4

2.2 Chain 4

2.3 Compass 5

2.4 Theodolite 7

2.5 Dumpy Level 8

2.6 Total Station 9

2.7 Center line Method 10

CHAPTER – 3 (TRANSPORTAION ENGINEERING) 15-24

3.1 Overview 15

3.2 Highway Engineering 15

3.3 Railway Engineering 16

3.4 Port and Harbour Engineering 16

3.5 Airport Engineering 16

3.6 Pipe line Engineering 17

3.7 Classification of Roads as per IRC 17

iii
 3.8 Road Development in India 18

3.9 Geometric Design of Roads 20

3.10 Road Materials 22

CHAPTER – 4 (FOUNDATION ENGINEERING) 25-29

4.1 Overview 25

4.2 Types of Foundation 25

4.3 Criteria for Selecting suitable foundation in Structural Design 26

CHAPTER – 5 (STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS) 30-41

5.1 Foundation 30

5.2 Plinth 31

5.3 Wall 32

5.4 Shear Wall 33

5.5 Column 33

5.6 Floor 34

5.7 Slab 34

5.8 Beam 35

5.9 Roof 35

5.10 Staircase 36

5.11 Lintel and weather shade 37

CHAPTER – 6 (ENVIROMENTAL ENGINEERING) 38-49

6.1 Overview 38

6.2 What are the types of water system 38

6.3 Concept of Green Building 39

6.4 Rain Water Harvesting 43

iv
 6.5 Plastering 43

6.6 Distemper 44

6.7 Painting 46

RESULT AND CONCLUSION 50

REFERENCES 51

v
 PREFACE

I have made this report file on the topic Engineering Aspects of Building Construction
(EABC); I have tried my best to elucidate all the relevant detail to the topic to be included in
the report. While in the beginning I have tried to give a general view about this topic.

My efforts and wholehearted co-corporation of each and every one has ended on a successful
note. I express my sincere gratitude to all who assisting me throughout the preparation of this
topic. I thank everyone for providing me the reinforcement, confidence and most importantly
the track for the topic whenever I needed it.

vi
 CHAPTER – 1
INTRODUCTION

1.1 Construction Engineering Definition

A construction engineer can be defined as a civil engineer who is tasked with the oversight and
management of a large-scale, complex construction project. Typically, these projects involve
both buildings and the infrastructure that supports them. Construction engineers may
collaborate with other engineers, and also manage building crews, to ensure the project is
successful.

1.2 Construction Engineering Projects

A construction engineer may work on many different types of projects.

 Large buildings. A construction engineer may be responsible for the strategic design
and completion of large, complex buildings, such as airports, commercial facilities, or
office complexes.
 Electrical systems. Construction engineers may also manage the development of large-
scale electrical systems to safely and reliably supply power to buildings or groups of
buildings.
 Mechanical systems. Additionally, construction engineers may oversee the completion
of mechanical systems, which can include elevators, escalators, indoor heating and
cooling systems, and plumbing systems.

A construction engineer may be tasked with building a new highway or tunnel, or with ensuring
that a new building or group of buildings is properly connected to main roads, ensuring
accessibility.

1.3 On-Site Management

It’s important to draw a distinction between the responsibilities of construction engineers, and
those of civil engineers. One of the main differences is that civil engineers typically focus on a
construction project’s design, analysis, and planning. A construction engineer may participate
in this process, but their responsibilities focus on the on-site management (i.e. execution) of
the project. Construction engineers coordinate, organize, and manage the day-to-day
construction process, ensuring compliance with designs and plans.
Some general areas of a construction engineer’s responsibility include the following.

 Creating budgets for the construction process

 Assembling necessary equipment and materials
 Building and supervising a team of construction and engineering professionals

1
  Overseeing progress and safety of the building process, and reporting back to
stakeholders
 Using machinery or other advanced tools
 Using computer software to confirm or modify design specifications
 Ultimately, the construction engineer manages most of what happens on-site, and thus
plays a critical, hands-on role in the successful completion of major construction
projects.

1.3.1 Civil Engineer

Civil engineers plan and design major transportation or infrastructure projects such as canals,
dams, roads, tunnels, airports, and various types of buildings. They may also assist in the
management, construction, and maintenance of these projects.
Some of the skills required for success in civil engineering include those listed here.

 Mathematical proficiency
 Written and oral communication abilities
 Organization
 Decision-making
 Team building and leadership
The BLS reports civil engineers made a median annual salary of $87,060 in 2019. Once again,
factors including education level and years of professional experience can affect compensation.

1.3.2 Environmental Engineer

Environmental engineers use engineering expertise in combination with knowledge of
chemistry and life science to develop solutions to environmental problems. For example,
environmental engineers may work to improve methods of waste management, recycling, and
air pollution control. This can be a highly rewarding career path for those who are technically
inclined and passionate about environmental stewardship.

Environmental engineering involves demonstrating defined essential skills.

 Creative problem solving

 Mathematical proficiency
 Strong project management abilities
 Clear communication skills
 Competency with drafting and engineering software, such as AutoCAD
According to BLS data, the annual median salary for this role was $88,860 in 2019. Education
and experience level can be determinative factors for compensation.

2
1.3.3 Structural Engineer
Structural engineers conduct analysis, research, design, and planning for major structures.
Their mission is to ensure the safety, durability, and accessibility of the structures they develop.
Below are some of the core skills related to structural engineering.

 Analytical skills
 Technical proficiency, including strengths in math and physics
 Problem-solving
 Critical thinking
 Clear communication skills

3
 CHAPTER – 2
SURVEYING INSTRUMENTS

2.1 Engineering Tape

On an engineering tape measure, the foot is not divided into inches, but into tenths, or larger
factors of 10, such as 1/20. 1/30, 1/50 or 1/60. With this type of tape measure, values greater
than 1 foot can be multiplied without first converting the value to another unit, particularly in
the case of tenths of a foot. A 1 1/2 feet times two would be expressed as 1.5 times two, which
equals three feet.

Though all tape measures measure distance, length, width or height, the graduations — or
markings — that subdivide the standard measurement of the foot are not the same on
engineering measuring tapes as on those used by carpenters or do-it-yourself enthusiasts.

With this type of tape measure, values greater than 1 foot can be multiplied without first
converting the value to another unit, particularly in the case of tenths of a foot.

Fig. 2.1 (Tape)

2.2 Chain
Chains are the measuring instrument used in surveying formed by the 100 links of 4mm
galvanized mild steel wire. These links are joined by 3 circular or oval wire rings. These rings
provide the flexibility to the chains. Every aspect of the life requires some measuring units.

4
Measurements are used to do the work precisely and accurately. Let it be from kitchen to office,
everywhere measurements are used. So as in engineering calculation or measurements holds a
very greater role in construction or surveying or any other aspect. There are various units of
measurements such as meters, centimeters, feets, inches, acre, yards and the list go on. Same
as units there are various instrument used in the measurements of any entity. One of the
instruments used in measurement are chains

Fig.2.2 (Chain)

2.3 Compass
Compass surveying is an important branch of surveying which is usually adopted in
determining the position of an object both by angular and linear measurements. Here angular
measurements are taken using a compass and linear measurements are determined using chain
or tape.
Some priorities for compass surveying are as following-

 If there is a large area to be surveyed such as the coastal areas or the course line areas
of the river.
 If the area is crowded with many details and has many obstacles for conducting chain
surveying as triangulation becomes impossible.
 If the surveyor has a specific time limit for conducting the surveying on a large and
detailed area.
But there are also some limitations to compass surveying. It is not recommended for the areas
that are avoiding public attention and have the presence of iron ore deposits, magnetic
substances like metallic or steel structures, electric cables conveying current, etc.

5
 Fig. 2.3 (Compass)
2.3.1 Types of Compass
Following are the types of compass:

1. Magnetic Compass
 Prismatic compass or Lensatic compass
 Surveyor’s compass
 Liquid compass
 Marine compass or Card compass
 Baseplate compass or Orienteering compass
 Thumb compass
 Solid-state compasses
 Qibla compass
2. GPS compass
3. Gyro Compass
4. Astro Compass
Following are the compass types used for surveying.

 Prismatic compass
 Surveyor’s compass
 Level compass

6
2.4 Theodolite
It is an electronic machine that looks at the type of a tiny telescope. It is greatly utilized for
the measurement of vertical and horizontal angles for scaling functions and within the
housing industry.

The precision with that these angles may be measured ranges from 5 mins to 0.1 secs. It is
used in triangulation networks.
Theodolites are used in every place from construction sites to major road points. It measures
angles utilizing age-old principles of pure mathematics and assists surveyors in defining
precise locations.

2.4.1 Types of Theodolite

Theodolite classified as follows,
A. Based on The Movement of The Telescope on The Horizontal Axis in A Vertical Plane

 Transit Theodolite
 Non-Transit Theodolite
B. Based on An Arrangement to Measure the Angles

 Vernier Theodolite
 Micrometer Theodolite
 Electronic digital Theodolite

Fig.2.4 (Theodolite)

7
2.5 Dumpy level
2.5.1 Principle of Dumpy Level Instrument:
The dumpy level operates on the principle by establishing a visual relationship between two
or more points, through an inbuilt telescope and a bubble level. The desirable level of
accuracy can be achieved through steps.

It is also called through various names such as Surveyors levels, Builders level, Dumpy level
or even its pre-historic version “Y(Wye) Level”.
Accuracy of Dumpy level over other levelling instruments:
The prime reason for using Dumpy level over other levelling instruments is its accuracy.

A dumpy level is known for high accuracy values for most of the Tacheometric methods. The
accuracy of a dumpy level can be within 1:4000 for every 100 m.

2.5.2 Use of Dumpy level in Surveying:

Dumpy level holds significant importance in the surveying of a construction site. The level of
accuracy and handiness of dumpy level has made it a prominent choice amongst surveyors.

 The prime reason for performing levelling on a construction site is to make the field
level and even.
 To determine the differences in height between two points.
 To measure the height and distance of different locations of surveying land through
the principle of relativity.
 To measure following distance amongst various point on the surveying land.
 Setting out levels and inclined surfaces for construction.
 To draw contours on land

Fig.2.5 (Dumpy Level)

8
2.6 Total station
A total station (TS) or total station theodolite (TST) is an electronic/optical instrument used for
surveying and building construction. It is an electronic transit theodolite integrated with
electronic distance measurement (EDM) to measure both vertical and horizontal angles and the
slope distance from the instrument to a particular point, and an on-board computer to collect
data and perform triangulation calculations.

2.6.1 Function
Angle measurement
Most total station instruments measure angles by means of electro-optical scanning of
extremely precise digital bar-codes etched on rotating glass cylinders or discs within the
instrument. The best quality total stations are capable of measuring angles to 0.5 arc-second.
Inexpensive "construction grade" total stations can generally measure angles to 5 or 10 arc-
seconds.

Distance measurement
Measurement of distance is accomplished with a modulated infrared carrier signal, generated
by a small solid-state emitter within the instrument's optical path, and reflected by a prism
reflector or the object under survey. The modulation pattern in the returning signal is read and
interpreted by the computer in the total station. The distance is determined by emitting and
receiving multiple frequencies, and determining the integer number of wavelengths to the target
for each frequency. Most total stations use purpose-built glass prism (surveying) reflectors for
the EDM signal. A typical total station can measure distances up to 1,500 meters (4,900 ft)
with an accuracy of about 1.5 millimeters (0.059 in) ± 2 parts per million.

Reflector less total stations can measure distances to any object that is reasonably light in color,
up to a few hundred meters.

Coordinate measurement
The coordinates of an unknown point relative to a known coordinate can be determined using
the total station as long as a direct line of sight can be established between the two points.
Angles and distances are measured from the total station to points under survey, and the
coordinates (X, Y, and Z; or easting, northing, and elevation) of surveyed points relative to the
total station position are calculated using trigonometry and triangulation.

To determine an absolute location, a total station requires line of sight observations and can be
set up over a known point or with line of sight to 2 or more points with known location, called
free stationing.

9
For this reason, some total stations also have a Global Navigation Satellite System receiver and
do not require a direct line of sight to determine coordinates. However, GNSS measurements
may require longer occupation periods and offer relatively poor accuracy in the vertical axis.

Fig. 2.6 (Total Station)

2.7 Center line method

Centre to center line method is one of the methods for preparing an estimate. In this method
first, calculate the centre line length of the wall, and then multiply it with the breadth and depth
of the wall to find out quantity. Center to centre line method is suitable for rectangular, circular
(polygonal, hexagonal, octagonal) buildings having no inter or cross walls (the cross wall is an
interior dividing wall of a building.).

Centre to centre line method is quick, but it requires special attention and consideration at the
junctions or meeting points of partition or cross walls, etc. For each junction, half breadth of
the respective item should be deducted from the total centre length for accurate quantity one
has to learn seriously as the accuracy is very important while preparing bills rather than
working out estimates.

In the case of building having different types of walls, for example, outer (main) walls are of
“X” and inner cross wall shall be “Y”, then all X type of walls shall be taken jointly first, and
then all Y type wall shall be taken together separately. In such cases, no deduction is required
for X type walls, but when Y type walls are taken, for each junction deduct half breadth of Y
type wall shall have to be made from the total centre length of walls.

10
 Fig.2.7 (Center line Method)
For more explanation, for above figure when we find the centre length of the wall, at the
junction, the portion of A and B shown by hatch lines and in figure A & B portion will come
twice times, and we get the quantity excess by these portions, and these excesses shall be
deducted. So, when we find the centre length of wall A and B portion (Twice times half
breadth) shall be deducted for accurate centre length.

Note: At the corners of the building where two walls are meeting no addition or subtraction is
required.
Here we give you three alternative method for finding out centre line.

01. First Method for Finding Out Centre to Centre Line

Here we give you a figure for single room building. In this figure centre line is indicated with
red dotted line.
Total centre to centre length of walls = 3.7+9.7+3.7+9.7= 26.80 m

11
 Fig.2.8
02. Second Method for Finding Out Centre to Centre Line
For finding out centre line length here, we find out the external perimeter (perimeter is the
continuous line forming the boundary of a closed geometrical figure) of the wall as shown in
the figure.
Total External Perimeter Length = (2 x 10) + (2 x 4) = 28 m

For accurate measurement adjust the length of each corner. Therefore, we need to deduct twice
time half of breadth at each of the 4 corners.

Fig.2.9
Second alternative method for finding out centre line
Total external perimeter length is 28 m.

12
So, Total centre line length = External perimeter – (4 x 2 x (half of original width/Breadth))
Second alternative method for finding out centre line
Total centre line length = 28 – (4 x (2 x 15/100) = 28 – 1.2 = 26.80 m
Therefore, centre line length of this building is 26.80 m.

03. Third Method for Finding Out Centre to Centre Line

Here we find out the internal perimeter of the building. You can see in the image with an inner
dimension. The centerline is indicated in red colour.
Dimension of Compacting Factor Apparatus Image
Total Internal Perimeter Length = (2 x 9.4) + (2 x 3.4) = 25.60m

For accurate measurement adjust the length of each individual corner. Therefore, we need to
add twice time half of breadth at each of the 4 corners.
Total internal perimeter length is 28 m.
Total centre line length = Internal perimeter + (4 x 2 x (half of original width/Breadth))
Total centre line length = 25.60 + (4 x 2 x (15/100))
= 25.60 + 1.2
= 26.80 m
Total centre line length of wall is 26.80 m.

13
 Fig.2.10
So, these are the three alternative methods that we may select for finding out centre line length.
You can choose any one for calculating the centre line of the building.

After finding out centre line length, we can find out quantity for various items, i.e. earthwork,
concrete, brickwork in foundation and brickwork in the superstructure.

Measurement Calculation of quantities

In conclusion, using the above centre to centre line method, you can prepare an estimate. When
using this method, everyone should know where addition or subtraction is required because it
affects the quantity. So, this is another simple method for finding out the quantity of various
construction items. As per your judgement, you can choose any method for finding quantity
and cost of various construction items.

14
 CHAPTER – 3
TRANSPORTATION ENGINEERING

3.1 Overview
Transportation engineering is a sub-discipline of civil engineering which deals with the
application of technology and scientific principles to the planning, functional design, operation
and management of facilities for any mode of transportation in order to provide the safe, rapid,
comfortable, convenient, economical, and environmentally compatible movement of people
and goods (transport).

As per American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE), there are six divisions related to
transportation engineering i.e. Highway, Air Transportation, Pipeline, Waterway, Port,
Aerospace, Coastal & Ocean and Urban Transportation out of 18 technical divisions within the
ASCE (1987).

3.2 Highway Engineering

Highway engineering is an engineering discipline which involves the design, construction and
maintenance of Highway Roads & Systems, urban streets as well as parking facilities.
Important aspects of highway engineering include overall planning of routes, financing,
environmental impact evaluation, and value engineering to compare alternatives. Traffic
engineering involves planning for the volumes of traffic to be handled, the methods to
accommodate these flows, the lighting and signing of highways, and general layout. Older
techniques include signs, signals, markings, and tolling. Newer technologies involve intelligent
transportation systems, including advanced traveler information systems (such as variable
message signs), advanced traffic control systems (such as ramp meters), and vehicle
infrastructure integration. Similarly, pavement and roadway engineering involve setting of
alignments, planning the cuts and fills to construct the roadway, designing the base course and
pavement, and selecting the drainage system. Whereas, bridge engineering involves the design
of highway bridges, retaining walls, tunnels, and other structures. Engineers in this
specialization:

Handle the planning, design, construction, and operation of highways, roads, and other
vehicular facilities as well as their related pedestrian realms.
Estimate the transportation needs of the public and then secure the funding for the project.
Analyze locations of high traffic volumes and high collisions for safety and capacity.
Use civil engineering principles to improve the transportation system.
Utilizes the three design controls which are the drivers, the vehicles, and the roadways
themselves.

15
3.3 Railway Engineering
It is a branch of civil engineering concerned with the design, construction, maintenance, and
operation of railways. Railway engineering includes elements of civil, mechanical, industrial,
and electrical engineering. Railway engineers handle the design, construction, and operation of
railroads and mass transit systems that use a fixed guideway (such as light rail or even
monorails). Typical tasks would include determining horizontal and vertical alignment design,
station location and design, construction cost estimating, and establishment of signaling &
controlling system. Railroad engineers can also move into the specialized field of train
dispatching which focuses on train movement control.

Railway engineers also work to build a cleaner and safer transportation network by reinvesting
and revitalizing the rail system to meet future demands. In the United States, railway engineers
work with elected officials in Washington, D.C. on rail transportation issues to make sure that
the rail system meets the country's transportation needs.

3.4 Port and Harbor Engineering

Port and harbor engineers handle the design, construction, and operation of ports, harbors,
canals, and other maritime facilities. A harbor (or haven) is a place for ships to enter and find
shelter from storms or other natural phenomena. The modern harbor is a place where ships are
built, launched, and repaired, as well as a terminal for incoming and outgoing ships. There are
four principal classes of harbors; commercial, naval, fishery, and refuge for small craft. Harbor
may be natural or artificial.

A port is a harbor with the necessary terminal facilities to expedite the moving of cargo and
passengers at any stage of a journey. A good harbor must have a safe anchorage and a direct
channel to open water, and must be deep enough for large ships. An efficient port must have
enough room for docks, warehouses, and loading and unloading machinery. Geographically, a
port or harbor is usually limited to a comparatively small area of usable berthing space rather
than an extended coastline. Some ports along exposed coastal areas, for example, the western
coast of South America, have little harbor area.

3.5 Airport Engineering

Airport Engineering encompasses the planning, design, and construction of terminals, runways,
and navigation aids to provide for passenger and freight service. Airport engineers design and
construct airports. They must account for the impacts and demands of aircraft in their design
of airport facilities. These engineers must use the analysis of predominant wind direction to
determine runway orientation, determine the size of runway border and safety areas, different

16
wing tip to wing tip clearances for all gates and must designate the clear zones in the entire
port.

3.6 Pipeline Engineering

Pipeline engineering embraces the design and construction of pipelines, pumping stations, and
storage facilities. Pipelines are used to transport liquids such as water, gas, and petroleum
products over great distances. Also, products such as pulverized coal and iron ore can be
transported in a water slurry.

3.7 Classification of roads as per IRC

Classification of roads as per IRC are:

3.7.1 National Highways

These are main highways running through the length and breadth of the country connecting
major ports, foreign highways, state capitals, large industrial and tourist centers etc.

3.7.2 State Highways

These are arterial routes of states linking direct headquarters and important cities within the
state and connecting them with National Highways or Highways of the neighboring states.

3.7.3 Major District Roads

These are important roads within a district serving areas of production and markets, and
connecting these with each other or with the main highways.

3.7.4 Other District Roads

These are roads serving rural areas of production and providing them with outlet to market
centers, taluka/tehsil headquarters, block development headquarters, or other main roads.

3.7.5 Rural Roads

These are roads connecting villages or groups of villages with each other and to the nearest
road of higher category.

17
 Fig.3.1 (Types of Roads)

3.8 Road Development in India

3.8.1 Jayakar Committee
In 1927 Jayakar committee for Indian road development was appointed. The major
recommendations and the resulting implementations were:

 Committee found that the road development of the country has become beyond the
capacity of local governments and suggested that Central government should take the
proper charge considering it as a matter of national interest.
 They gave more stress on long term planning programme, for a period of 20 years
(hence called twenty-year plan) that is to formulate plans and implement those plans
with in the next 20 years. Discuss about road construction and development. This paved
the way for the establishment of a semi-official technical body called Indian Road
Congress (IRC) in 1934
 The committee suggested imposition of additional taxation on motor transport which
includes duty on motor spirit, vehicle taxation, license fees for vehicles plying for hire.
This led to the introduction of a development fund called Central road fund in 1929.
This fund was intended for road development.

3.8.2 Nagpur road congress 1943

A twenty-year development programme for the period (1943-1963) was finalized. It was the
first attempt to prepare a coordinated road development programme in a planned manner.
The roads were divided into four classes:

 National highways which would pass through states, and places having national
importance for strategic, administrative and other purposes.

18
  State highways which would be the other main roads of a state.
 District roads which would take traffic from the main roads to the interior of the district.
According to the importance, some are considered as major district roads and the
remaining as other district roads.
 Village roads which would link the villages to the road system.
The committee planned to construct 2 lakh kms of road across the country within 20 years.
They recommended the construction of star and grid pattern of roads throughout the country.

One of the objectives was that the road length should be increased so as to give a road density
of 16kms per 100 sq.km

3.8.3 Bombay road congress 1961

The length of roads envisaged under the Nagpur plan was achieved by the end of it, but the
road system was deficient in many respects. Accordingly, a 20-year plan was drafted by the
Roads wing of Government of India, which is popularly known as the Bombay plan. The
highlights of the plan were:

 It was the second 20-year road plan (1961-1981)

 The total road length targeted to construct was about 10 lakhs.
 Rural roads were given specific attention.
 They suggested that the length of the road should be increased so as to give a road
density of 32kms/100 sq.km
 The construction of 1600 km of expressways was also then included in the plan.

3.8.4 Lucknow road congress 1984

Some of the salient features of this plan are as given below:

 This was the third 20-year road plan (1981-2001). It is also called Lucknow road plan.
 It aimed at constructing a road length of 12 lakh kilometers by the year 1981 resulting
in a road density of 82kms/100 sq.km
 The plan has set the target length of NH to be completed by the end of seventh, eighth
and ninth five-year plan periods.
 It aims at improving the transportation facilities in villages, towns etc. such that no part
of country is farther than 50 km from NH.
 One of the goals contained in the plan was that expressways should be constructed on
major traffic corridors to provide speedy travel.
 Energy conservation, environmental quality of roads and road safety measures were
also given due importance in this plan.

19
3.9 Geometric Design of Road
Geometric design of highway is the determination of layout and features visible on highway.
The emphasis is more on satisfying the need of the driver as well as to ensure the safety of the
vehicle, the comfort while driving and efficiency. Other related factors are also considered
based on the project. The main features considered for geometric design of highway are:

 Cross section elements

 The gradient
 The intersection
 The consideration of sight distance
 The geometric design of highway is influenced by:
 The characteristics of the vehicle
 The behavior of the driver
 The psychology of the driver Traffic characteristics
 Traffic Volume
 Traffic Speed
Severity of movement and accidents can be reduced largely by implementing a proper design.
The main objective of geometric design is to get optimum efficiency in the traffic operation
period and maximum safety. All these features must be attained with maximum economy in
the cost and construction. Unlike the construction of pavement, the planning process is carried
out in advance.

Fig.3.2 (Geometric Design of Highway)

20
3.9.1 Factors Affecting the Geometric Design of Highways
The various factors that govern the geometric design of highways are:

 The Design Speed

 The topography factors
 Other Factors

Design Speed of Highways

The most important factor affecting the geometric design of the highway is the design speed.
The design speed parameter affects the:

 Length of the vertical curves

 The horizontal curves
 The sight distances
Speed is a parameter that have huge variation will the person driving, the vehicle type, the
topography etc. This is the reason why the design speed is taken as a primary factor in the
geometric design of highways. The highest continuous speed, given that the weather conditions
are conducive, to facilitate safety travelling of the vehicles is called as the design speed. Legal
speed is different from the design speed. The legal speed is the speed at which the drivers tend
to travel beyond a safe speed. Desired speed is the maximum speed at which the driver can
travel when they are constrained by means of a local geometry or traffic. As mentioned before,
speed is a factor that bring variations of different types. This requires having different vehicle
design speeds to satisfy the requirement of all vehicle drivers. So, by standard: 85th percentile
design speed is the normally adopted design speed. 85th percentile design speed can be defined
as the speed which is higher than speed taken by 85% of the drivers on that road. For some
countries this value will be in the range of 95 to 98 percentile speed.

Topography Factors
Second important factor that affects the geometric design is the topography. For a plain terrain,
it is very easy to construct the highway as per the standards. As the terrain and the gradient
increases the construction cost will increase for a specific design speed. So, to keep the
construction cost and time under control, the geometric standards vary with different terrain or
topography. This is hence classified as steeper gradients and sharper curves.

Other Factors Affecting Geometric Design

Other miscellaneous factors that will affect the geometric design of highways are:

 Vehicle
 Human
 Environment and Economy
 Traffic
 Other Factors

21
Large variety of vehicles are now made which range from tiny to massive units. The weight of
the axle, the dimensions of the car and the characteristics of the vehicle influence greatly the
design aspects. The design aspects involve the pavement width, the clearances, the radii of
curve and the parking geometrics. To facilitate this requirement, a design vehicle is set which
own a standard weight, operating characteristics, and dimension. This helps to establish a
design controls so that vehicle of designated type is accommodated. The physical, mental and
psychological characteristics of the human affect greatly the geometric design of the highway.
Always a reasonable value of traffic is considered for the geometric design. The design for a
higher traffic value result in a design that is uneconomical. This value is collected from various
and previous traffic data collected and recorded. While developing a geometrical design, it is
very essential to give importance to the environmental concerns like noise and air pollution.
The design developed considering all the above factors have to be economical in nature. It
should come within the capital and the maintenance cost that is allotted. The highway
geometric design has to be such a way that the overall aesthetics of the environment is not
affected.

3.10 Road Materials

Road construction is a highly technical venture that requires a range of distinct materials to
ensure the motorways are durable and well able to support heavy loads and traffic.

These materials range from natural soils, aggregates, binders such as lime, asphalt, concrete,
and assorted products used as admixtures for improved quality of roads.
Here’s a list of the common types of road construction materials:

3.10.1 Soil
Soil naturally tops the list of materials used in road construction. It is the eventual point which
supports the complete structure of the road.

Indeed, soil is the primary material for the foundation, subgrade, or the pavement in the case
of low traffic rural roads. It provides the essential flat base that offers the vital support for the
road structure.

A process known as compaction, where soil particles are pressed together to reduce pore space
between them, is usually carried out on site to give the soil at the base some higher resistance
and greater stability.

Being a natural material, soils have different qualities that need to be studied carefully before
building a road. Soils with more clay and silt particles, for example, are prone to erosion and
contraction if they come into contact with water. Such soils require special treatment to avoid
poor workmanship.

22
3.10.2 Aggregate
Stone aggregate, also known as mineral aggregate, is easily the most important component of
road construction materials. It is made by breaking up naturally occurring rocks to form coarse
aggregate (like gravel) or fine aggregate (like sand).

Aggregates are used for granular bases, sub-bases, as part of bituminous mixes and cement
concrete. They are also used as the primary material for relatively cheaper road, known as
water-bound macadam.

Like soil, aggregates must be tested by a road engineer to ascertain that they are strong enough
and durable for a specific project. These properties are influenced by their origin, mineral
components and the nature of bond between the components.

3.10.3 Asphalt and Bitumen

Asphalt and bitumen are often mistaken as being one and the same thing. However, while
asphalt is a mixture of aggregates, binder and filler, used for constructing roads and their
associated furniture, bitumen is actually the semi-solid binder that holds asphalt together.

Bitumen, which is also known as mineral tar, is obtained through unfinished distillation of
crude petroleum. It contains 87% carbon, 11% hydrogen and 2% oxygen.

On the other hand, asphalt is manufactured in a factory that heats, dries and mixes aggregate,
bitumen and sand into a composite mix. The material is then applied on site using a paving
machine at a nominated or required thickness, depending on the type of project.

When used for road construction, asphalt comes in the form of a composite material known as
asphalt concrete. This road making material is 70% asphalt and 30% aggregate. Asphalt is
100% recyclable, which makes it one of the most popular materials for making roads.

3.10.4 Concrete
Concrete offers a lot of flexibility and ease of construction – making it an important road
construction material. It is created by mixing cement, coarse aggregate, fine aggregate, water,
and chemical admixtures (which make up 25-40% of concrete). In addition to reducing costs,
concrete is popular among road builders due to its ability to extend the service life of a road.
It can also be used to raise the bearing capacity of existing pavement layers.
A well-made concrete mixture sets and hardens because of the binding property of cement. It
forms a mix with slimmest void space.

On curing with water, it provides a strong, steady and long-lasting pavement for a road –
resisting repetitive impact from heavy commercial vehicles.

23
3.10.5 Composite Pavement
This is a type of pavement that uses both asphalt and concrete to form a ‘super’ pavement.

Composite pavements can potentially become a cheaper alternative to traditional pavements

thanks to their ability to provide higher levels of performance and durability, both structurally
and functionally.

The downside of concrete is that it is susceptible to problems such as reflective cracking and
rutting in the surface layer. However, these potential hitches can be resolved by applying a
premium asphalt surface or through some other (costly) mitigation techniques.

3.10.6 Eco Friendly Road Construction Materials

Road builders are increasingly under pressure to lower their carbon footprint. This is important
considering that cement, a key input material in road construction, contributes one tonne of
carbon for every tonne of cement produced.

Reduction of carbon emission can be achieved by use of alternative road construction materials
such as crushed concrete – a recycled material – which can generate enormous savings in
energy and production costs.

Sustainability can also be reached through the use of eco-friendly concrete, which cuts the
usage of Portland cement in road construction.

Besides, the use of recycled materials components, which are produced from industrial wastes,
can lower greenhouse gas emissions while cutting costs.

Other sustainable materials include reclaimed asphalt pavements, recycled concrete aggregate,
and coal combustion products obtained from coal-fired power plants.

24
 CHAPTER – 4
FOUNDATION ENGINEERING
4.1 Overview
Foundation is a structural part of a building on which a building stand. Foundation transmits
and distributes its own load and imposed loads to the soil in such a way that the load bearing
capacity of the foundation bed is not exceeded.

The solid ground on which the foundation rests, is called foundation bed. There are various
types of foundation. They can be categorized into two types.

4.2 Types of Foundation

Foundations are mainly two types.

 Shallow Foundation, and

 Deep Foundation.

4.2.1 Shallow Foundation

Shallow foundation is a type of foundation that transfers loads to the very near the surface.
Shallow foundations typically have a depth to width ratio of less than 1.
Shallow foundation itself can be various types.

Types of Shallow Foundation

Follow are the types of shallow foundation –

 Pad footing or column footing

 Cantilever or strap footings
 Mat/Raft footings
 Wall Footings
 Pad Footing or Column Footing

This type of footing can be two types –

 Isolated footing and

 Combined footing.
 Isolated footing
These are most economical. They are usually in square or rectangle size with the column sitting
in the middle of the square. It’s a kind of pad footing.

 Isolated Footing
 Combined Footing

25
A footing, either rectangular or trapezoidal, that supports two columns. It’s also a pad footing.

 Combined Footing
 Cantilever or Strap Footings
Consist of two single footings connected with a beam or a strap and support two single
columns.

 strap footing
 Mat/Raft Footings
Consist of one footing usually placed under the entire building area. They are used when soil
bearing capacity is low, column loads are heavy, single footing can’t be used, piles are not used
and differential settlement must be reduced.

 Raft Foundation
 Wall Footings
Wall footings are used to distribute the loads of structural load-bearing walls to the soil.

4.2.2 Deep Foundations

Deep foundations are those founding too deeply below the finished ground surface for their
base bearing capacity to be affected by surface conditions, this is usually at depths of 3 meter
below finished ground level. Deep foundations can be used to transfer the load to a deeper,
more competent strata at depth if unsuitable soils are present near the surface.

Type of Deep Foundation

Pile foundations are common type of deep foundation. These are relatively long, slender
members that transmit foundation loads through soil strata of low bearing capacity to deeper
soil or rock strata having a high bearing capacity. They are used when for economic,
constructional or soil condition considerations it is desirable to transmit loads to strata beyond
the practical reach of shallow foundations.

In addition to supporting structures, piles are also used to anchor structures against uplift forces
and to assist structures in resisting lateral and overturning forces.

Thick slabs are used to tie a group of piles together to support and transmit column loads to the
piles.

4.3 Criteria in Selecting Suitable Foundation in Structural Design of

Buildings
Selecting the suitable type of foundations to use in the design of buildings and other structures
is one of the tasks of a structural engineer. Different factors and criteria should be kept in mind

26
and consider to achieve a favorable design. In this aspect, the geotechnical investigation report
or a soil report is the required reference before deciding as such.

The geotechnical investigation report is consisting of actual field studies and laboratory
analysis. A series of boring tests, geophysical and primary investigative techniques, or
chemical analysis in some cases were performed on selected samples and boreholes to
determine the characteristic of the soil from which the project will be built.

Here are the lists of criteria that a structural engineer should be considered to come up for
suitable foundations in buildings and other structures.

4.3.1. Topographic Location

Before anything else, the topographic location of the proposed project should be considered in
selecting a suitable foundation. The designer should know the general characteristics of the site
like the ground surfaces, ground features and description of the ground. This may include
changes in the ground surface, for example, if mountains are present or have an uneven slope
and or the general site layout is near the bodies of water or part of reclamation area and if the
site had existing buildings and other structures. This is important at first because it gives a
designer an idea of his/her consideration during the design process according to his/her
previous experience.

Fig. 4.1 (Topographic Location)

4.3.2 Prevailing Weather Conditions

The prevailing climate condition is also one of the important considerations in selecting the
right foundations. A hot climate, for example, has an unfavorable effect on the concrete
structures and it is characterized by evaporations that exceed precipitation. High temperature
may lead to high seasonal changes and dry wind condition. On the other hand, cold weather
has a major impact on the concrete foundation as well as if the ground freezes, may cause the
soil to contract that can result in the instability of underlying soils. A concrete mixture capable
of resisting the climatic effect is recommended to use in concrete foundations that are usually

27
available in your area. Or in the case of excessive soil settlement and liquefaction, soil
improvement is available if necessary.

4.3.3 Previous Use of the Site

The designer should also be aware of the history of the previous structure that was built on the
proposed location if any. Like if it is previously used for residential, industrial, mining,
infrastructure, etc. Due to these, it may be obstructions, ground contamination or not safe for
immediate excavation. So, factors like these should be considered.

4.3.4 Groundwater Table

The level of the groundwater table should also be considered in selecting the appropriate
foundations as the groundwater table is subjected to variations due to tidal weather seasonal
changed. If the groundwater table is located below the formation level of the foundation, then
a shallow footing like isolated or combined footing can be proposed otherwise dewatering is
required if it is above the foundation level. The possible heavier type of foundation like a RAFT
or Mat footing is necessary in the case of the higher groundwater table. This is to resist the
hydrostatic or the uplift pressure and counter the effect caused by water to avoid any
overturning moments at the early stage of construction. If in the event that the above option
shall not be met, then deep foundations like micro piles or bored piles should be considered to
provide the necessary uplift resistance.

Fig. 4.2 (Ground Water Table)

4.3.5. Soil Bearing Capacity
Perhaps the most common consideration in the selection of the appropriate type of foundation
is determining the soil bearing capacity. Soil Bearing Capacity usually dictates which type of
foundation to use. Depending on the soil bearing pressure, we can safely conclude if we will
go for a shallow type or deep foundations. An allowable bearing pressure of at least
100kN/m2 or higher is effective for shallow foundations up to 4 stories. But higher structures

28
can consider a raft foundation provided that the modulus of subgrade reaction shall not be
exceeded when calculated.

Fig. 4.3 (Bearing Capacity)

4.3.6. Design Loadings & Seismic Characteristics

Design loadings in the building according to the type of occupancy plays a vital role in
selecting a suitable foundation. It is also the basis of the required foundation settlements
calculations and can dictate the type of foundation to use. For the heavily loaded structure, it
is recommended to use a cast in situ bored pile to support the structural loads.

Seismic characteristic also affects the suitable choice for the foundation as soil profile types
determine which type of seismic zone factor to consider in the design. The soil profile type
reflects the effect of soil conditions at the site on ground motion. The seismic coefficient to
use is depending on the type of soil profile in a given location. These are specified in ASCE
and UBC-97 seismic provisions. The vertical and horizontal component of an earthquake is
also a factor to look at.

4.3.7. Economic Design

Having described the above geotechnical criteria above, perhaps the last thing to consider of a
Structural Engineer in selecting the suitable foundation type is the most economical design.
Sometimes, this factor may also affect our choice. But whatever it may be this basis is always
a factor. Having said that choosing an economical design, should not compromise the safety,
workmanship, strength, and durability of the foundation.

29
 CHAPTER – 5
STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS
5.1 Foundation

Fig.5.1 (Foundation Image)

The foundation is the most critical structural component of any structure and many failures are
probably due to faulty foundations rather than any other cause. A good foundation must remain
in position without sliding, bending, overturning or failing in any other way. To achieve this,
the designer must make sure that the superstructure, foundation and soil act together. It is also
important to study the nature, strength and likely behaviour of soils under loads along with the
knowledge of materials for foundations and superstructure. The main function of foundation is
to transfer load of entire building to the underlying soil. The foundations of any structure should
be laid much below the surface of the ground, for these four purposes

 To secure a good natural bed

 To protect the foundation courses from atmospheric influences and, and
 To increase the stability of structure against overturning due to wind uplift.
 To reduce risk of failure due to settlement of soil

Foundation is the lowest part of a structure below the ground level which is in direct contact
with the ground and transfers all the dead, live load and other loads to the soil on which the
structure rests. The provision of foundation is made in such a manner that the soil below the
foundation is not stressed beyond its safe allowable bearing capacity. Depending upon the type
of soil existing at site, its safe bearing capacity and the type of building which is required to
constructed, a structure may need shallow or deep foundations. In case of load bearing walls,

30
the foundation could be in the form of spread footings. For framed structures, the foundation
could be in the form of independent column footings, combined footing, rafts or piles.

5.2 Plinth

Fig. 5.2 (Plinth)

The portion of the structure between the surface of the surrounding ground and surface of the
floor, immediately above the ground known as a plinth. The level of the surrounding ground is
known as formation level or simply ground level and the level of the ground floor of the
building is known as a plinth level.

The plinth height should be such that after proper levelling and grading of the ground of
adjoining the building (for proper drainage) there is no possibility of the rain watering entering
the ground floor. The built covered area measured at the ground floor level is termed as plinth
area.

31
5.3 Wall

Fig. 5.3 (Walls)

Walls are provided to enclose or divide the floor space in desired pattern. In addition, walls
provide security, privacy, and give protection against sun, rain, cold and other adverse effects
of weather. The division of floor space varies depending on the functions required to be
performed in the building. In a well-planned layout, the walls divide the space in such a manner
so as to achieve maximum carpet area and minimum area of circulation. Walls are constructed
by use of building units like bricks, stones, concrete blocks (hollow or solid) etc. The building
units are bonded together with mortar in horizontal and vertical joints and construction is
termed as masonry. When bricks are used as building units it is known as brick masonry and
when stones are used as building units it is termed as stone masonry.

Walls can be broadly divided in two categories:

(i) Load bearing walls and

(ii) Non-load bearing walls.

A load bearing wall supports its own weight as well as the super-imposed loads transfer it
through floors/roofs.

A non-load bearing wall on the other hand carries its own weight and is not designed to carry
super-imposed load from the structure. They are normally provided as partition walls.

32
5.4 Shear Wall

Fig.5.4 (Shear Walls)

Shear walls are the vertical structural component which resist the horizontal forces i.e. wind,
earthquake acting on a building structure. Shear wall can also be defined as a wall which are
reinforced and made of braced panels to carry lateral forces. Shear wall must provide lateral
shear strength to the building to resist the horizontal earthquake loads, wind loads and transfer
these loads to the foundation. Shear Walls provide great stiffness to building in the direction
of their orientation, which reduces lateral sway of the building and thus reduces damage to
structure during earthquake or cyclone.

5.5 Column

Fig. 5.5 (Column)

A column may be defined as vertical load bearing member the width of which is neither less
than its thickness nor more than four times its thickness. Pier is a vertical load bearing structural
component similar to a column except that it is bonded into load bearing wall at the sides to
form an integral part of the wall and extends to full height of the wall. A pier is introduced to

33
increase the stiffness of the wall to carry additional load or to carry vertical concentrated load.
Pier also strengthens the wall to resist pressure without buckling.

5.6 Floor

Fig. 5.6 (Floor)

Floors are flat supporting structural components of a building. They divide a building into
different levels so that creating more accommodation on a given plot of land. The basic purpose
of a floor is to provide a firm and dry platform for people and for other items like furniture,
stores, equipment etc. Floor is generally referred to by its location.

A floor provided for accommodation below the natural ground level is termed as basement
floor. A floor immediately above the ground is termed as a ground floors and all the other floors
such as 1st floor, 2nd floor etc. are termed as upper floors. A floor basically consists of two parts
namely (i) sub floor (ii) Flooring

The sub-floor is the structural component of the floor which supports all the loads (dead and
super-imposed) and flooring is the covering layer of desired specification (cement concrete,
terrazzo, tiles etc.) provided over the sub-floor as a finishing layer for aesthetics.

5.7 Slab

Fig. 5.7 (Slab)

34
A Slab is used as a base as well as a ceiling/ roof to transfer the load of the structure to the
beams/walls. The ceiling or roof of the structure is a slab. A slab is a structural component that
is used to create flat horizontal surfaces such as floors, roof decks and ceilings. A slab is usually
several inches thick and supported by beams, columns, walls, or the ground. It is a horizontal
structural component, with top and bottom surfaces parallel and near. Depth of slab is small as
compared to its length and breadth.

5.8 Beam

Fig. 5.8 (Beam)

A beam is a horizontal structural element/member spanning a distance between one or more
supports, and carrying vertical loads across (transverse to) its longitudinal axis that is capable
of withstanding load primarily by resisting against bending. A beam is a laterally loaded
member, whose cross-sectional dimensions are small as compared to its length. Beams are
structural components on which the slabs rest. The beams transfer load of the slab to the
columns.

5.9 Roof

Fig.5.9 (Roof)
It is uppermost component of a building and its main function is to cover the space below and
protect it from rain, snow, sun, wind etc.

35
A roof basically consists of two components namely

(i) The roof decking

(ii) The roof covering

A roof can be either flat, curved or pitched in shape. The choice of the type of roof is made
keeping in view the location of the building, weather conditions, funds available and functional
and aesthetics requirement. The structural components of roof decking in case of pitched roof
is generally a truss, in case of curved roof it is a shell or dome and in case of flat roof it is a flat
slab. The roof covering or roofing which is provided over pitched roof could be in the form of
tiles, slates, A.C. sheets, G.I. sheets, etc. In case of flat roofs, the roof covering is termed as
terracing, which could comprise of a layer of varying thickness of material like lime, concrete,
mud phuska etc.

The terracing serves dual purpose i.e. (i) Providing suitable slopes on the roof top for
draining of rain water. (ii) of acting an insulation layer for providing thermal comfort to the
users of the space below.

5.10 Staircase

Fig. 5.10 (Stair case)

A stair may be defined as a structure comprising of a number of steps connecting one floor to
another. The stair should be constructed in such a manner that it is safe and comfortable to use
and it should be so located as to permit easy communication. The selection of the type of
material to be used depends upon the aesthetical importance, funds available, durability and
fire resisting qualities desired.

36
5.11 Lintel, and Weather Shade

Fig.5.11 (Lintel)
The openings are provided in the wall of a building to accommodate the doors or windows.
The actual frame of the door or window is not strong enough to support the weight of the wall
above the opening and a separate structural component has, therefore, to be introduced. This is
known as a lintel, and is similar in character to beam.

Weather Shades or chhajjas are generally combined with lintels of windows to protect them
from the weather elements such as sun, rain, frost etc.

37
 CHAPTER – 6

ENVIROMENTAL ENGINEERING

6.1 Overview

Municipal water supply systems complex pipe networks that carry potable, treated water to
industrial, residential, and commercial consumers. Various distribution and treatment methods
are used in water supply systems in order to successfully satisfy the requirements of homes,
businesses, and plants.

If you want to learn about water supply systems and utility equipment, you’ve come to the right
place. Blair Supply Corp. is a long-standing name in the utility distribution industry, carrying
top-quality piping materials, fire hydrants, and water main clamp solutions for municipal
systems and shipping them across the nation.

6.2 What are the types of water supply systems?

The water distributed via municipal water supply systems should reach the end-user with
sufficient pressure and flow rates. In order to achieve this, four main water distribution system
types are used:

6.2.1 Gridiron systems

In gridiron systems, the main water supply line goes through the central part of the area, while
sub mains branch out perpendicular to the main line. This system has no dead-ends, as all of
the individual pipes are interconnected. This type of water supply system is great for cities that
have a rectangular layout that resembles a gridiron.

6.2.2 Ring systems

Circular or ring systems feature a supply main that forms a circle or ring around the area of
distribution. In this system, the branches are cross-connected to the supply mains and each
other. This type of system has similar advantages and disadvantages to gridiron systems and is
suitable for towns and cities with well-planned roads and streets.

6.2.3 Radial systems

In radial systems, the distribution area is divided into different distribution districts or zones.
Each zone has an elevated distribution reservoir in the middle from which supply lines run in

38
a radial pattern towards the distribution district periphery. Radial systems offer swift
distribution and allow for simpler design calculations.

6.2.4 Dead-end systems

Dead-end water supply systems are the best choice for cities and towns without definite road
patterns. In this type of system, there is one main line that runs through the town or city with
sub-mains branching off from left and right. These sub-mains then divide into a number of
branch lines that provide service connections.

6.2.5 What are the components of a water supply system?

A municipal water supply system is made up of pipelines, pumps, water storage facilities, and
other distribution accessories. The main components include:

 Water source: The sources of drinking water can come from groundwater, lakes,
reservoirs, rivers, canals, rainwater, and saltwater.
 Water purification & treatment facilities: Different treatment systems are used
depending on the source of the water.
 Transmission & distribution systems: The treated water is transported from the source
via water mains and sub-mains to the end-users.
 Storage systems: these may include water tanks, reservoirs, and water towers. In smaller
systems, pressure vessels and cisterns may be used.
 Pumping stations: in order to maintain optimal water pressure, additional pressurizing
components, called pumping stations, are often used.
 Accessories: these may include support components such as valves, service lines,
generators, meters, fire hydrants, and other accessories needed to ensure a smoothly
running system.

6.3 Concept of Green Building

Green building is a whole-systems approach for designing and constructing buildings that
conserve energy, water, and material resources and are more healthy, safe, and comfortable.
Many think of solar panels when they think of “green” building.

The reality is that environmentally sustainable building goes far beyond energy consumption.
Building materials and use of landfills during construction can have detrimental effects on
volunteers, home owners and the environment.

39
Green building offers a response to the realization that the way we have been building
everything from houses to skyscrapers is not sustainable. Many health problems today stem
from, or are aggravated by poor indoor air quality and exposure to toxic substances contained
in commonly used building products. Green building practices can eliminate these health
damaging conditions.

6.3.1 Benefits:

Adopting even one or two green strategies can have significant benefits for the home owner as
well as for the environment:

a. Energy efficiency is one of the primary advantages of green building. Energy consumption
can be dramatically slashed. Below are a few of the strategies that go into making a house
exceptionally energy efficient.

b. Orient the house to reduce solar gain in summer and capture the sun’s light and warmth in
winter.

c. Carefully sized overhangs or awnings will protect windows from the summer sun while
admitting the sun’s warming rays in winter when it is at a lower angle known as a ground-
source heat pump system, consumes no fossil fuels at all, and provides outstanding
performance year-round with an extraordinarily low operating cost.

d. Maximize natural light to reduce the need for electrical usage during the day

e. Compact fluorescent lights (CFL’s) are big energy savers. Incandescent bulbs are highly
inefficient, converting just 10% of the energy they use into light — the other 90% produces
only heat. GEL’s are up to six times more efficient and last up to ten times longer. Choose
CFL’s with warm colour temperatures (around 2, 7000 to 3,000° Kelvin) which are
indistinguishable from incandescent lights.

f. Cut energy consumption further with clean, renewable energy from photovoltaic panels.
During periods when the panels produce more power than the house is using, the electric meter
will actually run backwards. In some locales, wind generated electricity is also an option

g. All newly built homes to produce more energy than they consumed by 2020. Renovate all
existing buildings to save energy. Ban incandescent light bulbs by 2010. Reduce greenhouse-
gas emissions by 20% by 2020.

h. Increase renewable energy from 9% to 20-25% of total energy consumptions by 2020.

40
i. Bring transport emissions back to 1990 levels. Reduce vehicle speed limits by 10 kilometres
per hour. Taxes and incentives to favour clean cars. Shift half of haulage by road to rail and
water within 15 years. Develop rail and public transport.

j. Reduce air pollutants quantitatively.

k. Create a national network of green corridors and nature reserves.

l. Increase organic farming from 2% to 6% of total acreage production by 2010 and to 20% by
2020.

m. Ecological groups to be stakeholders, like trade unions, in government negotiations.

n. Create a body to review planting of genetically modified crops on a case- by-case basis

6.4 Rain Water Harvesting

It is a technique or strategy for the collection of rainwater and storing it in the right way for
future use. The water can be collected from various surfaces and platforms and stored for later
use. In most cases, the water is usually collected from rooftops and other hard surfaces.
Rainwater harvesting is considered a very reliable way to conserve water.

This technique has been around for a very long time, practiced in ancient times. Over the past
years, this ancient method of water storage has grown quite popular. It plays a vital role in
reducing the use of potable water and increase reliability on rainwater. In simple words,
harvesting rainwater means utilising every single drop to recharge the groundwater, by simply
directing it to the well or under the ground.

Fig.6.1 (Rain Water Harvesting)

41
Shockingly, India uses only 10-20% of its annual rainfall. When rainfall occurs, only a little of
this water infiltrates and touches the groundwater aquifers. This indicates that the majority part
of the rain all goes to the drain and fallow into the ocean. Also, lack of adequate storage
facilities demands water being let to flow down to the sea to prevent folding and breaching.
Not forgetting the unrestricted use and rapidly adding numbers and depth of borewells that
impose a great threat to our country’s groundwater resources.

The global threat of depleting ground water can be best tackled by harnessing every single drop
of rainwater for artificial recharge of the water tables.

6.4.1 Advantages of Rainwater Harvesting

In both urban and rural settings, harvesting can be done by the use of infrastructure. One of the
simplest ways of storing water from the collection is storage tanks. In most cases, the harvested
water is usually redirected to storage tanks, cisterns, or reservoirs. The water is usually stored
for later use. The roof of buildings is the best way to harvest rainwater. There are numerous
advantages in doing so.

1. Easy to Maintain
The use of rainwater harvesting system provides ideal merits to any community. First and
foremost, the collection offers a better and efficient utilisation of energy resource. It is
important because potable water is usually not renewable, thus reducing wastage. The systems
used for water collection is based on simple techniques that are very easy to maintain. The
overall expenses used in setting up harvesting methods are much cheaper compared to other
purifying or pumping means. Also, its maintenance is feasible on the economic front as it does
not require deep pockets.

2. Reducing Water Bills

Water that has been stored from harvesting water can be used for several non-drinking
purposes. It will immediately reduce one’s utility bills. It is ideal for both residential and
commercial properties.

3. Suitable for Irrigation

Harvesting allows the collection of large amounts of water. Most rooftops provide the
necessary platform for collecting water. Rainwater is usually free from harmful chemicals,
which makes it ideal for irrigation purposes.

4. Reduce demand on Ground Water

Another important advantage is that it reduces demand for potable water. It is important
especially in areas with low water levels. These are some of the significant advantages of
harvesting rainwater.

42
6.5 Plastering
Plastering is the process of covering rough walls and uneven surfaces in the construction of
houses and other structures with a plastic material, called plaster, which is a mixture of lime
or cement concrete and sand along with the required quantity of water.

6.5.1 Requirements of Good Plaster

It should adhere to the background and should remain adhered during all climatic changes.
It should be cheap and economical.
It should be hard and durable.
It should be possible to apply it during all weather conditions.
It should effectively check the entry or penetration of moisture from the surfaces.
It should possess good workability.

6.5.2 Objective of plastering

To provide an even, smooth, regular, clean and durable finished.

6.5.3 Types of Plaster

Lime Plaster
Lime mixture consists of sand and line that are mixed by 1 sand to 3 of lime by volume. Not
only this mixture is used for under coat but also used as finish coat. Lime plaster might be
shrinking after drying so animal hair of about 5 Kg is used for 1 m2 to avoid lime plaster
cracking and shrinking. Lime plaster could be used for ancient structure restoration and
rehabilitation.

Cement Plaster
Grey powder Portland cement is mixed with water by the ratio of 1cement to 3 or 4 clean
washed sand by volume as an under coat for hard background for example brick block walls
and partitions. Mixture of sand and cement might be plastic and require experienced and skill
labor therefore plasticizer or lime is added to the mixture usually by volume ratio of
1cement:0.25 lime: 3 sand or 1 cement to 4 sand with plasticizer. Plasticizer is a liquid that
added to the mixture to ease plaster spreading over the surface.

Gypsum Plaster
Gypsum plaster is widely used plaster materials that could be mined naturally or produced as
a by-product. So, important gypsum plaster that is employed as under coat, finish coat, and

43
replaced lime and cement broadly. Moreover, small expansion of gypsum is considered
significant propertied that prevent shrinkages and cracks. There are various types of gypsum
plaster that are produced by heating gypsum to a specific degree for example anhydrous
gypsum manufactured by heating gypsum up to 170 Co, hemihydrates gypsum produced by
heating gypsum more than 170 Co. Furthermore, depending on applications for walls or
ceilings gypsum plasters can be categorized such as casting, undercoat, finish, one coat and
machine applied plaster.

6.5.3 Types of Plaster Finishes used in Building Construction are:

Different types of plaster finishes with different appearances are available as follows.

 Smooth cast finish

 Rough cast finish
 Sand faced finish
 Pebble dash finish
 Scrapped finish
 Depeter finish
 Textured finish

6.6 Distemper
The main object of applying distemper to the plastered surfaces is to create a smooth surface.
The distempers are available in the market under different trade names. They are cheaper
than paints and varnishes and they a present a neat appearance. They are available in a variety
of colors.

6.6.1 Properties of distempers:

Following are the properties of distempers:

(1) On drying, the film of distemper shrinks. Hence it leads to cracking and flaking, if the
surface to receive distemper is weak.

(2) The coatings of distemper are usually thick and they are more brittle than other types of
water paints.

(3) The film developed by distemper is porous in character and it allows water vapour to pass
through it. Hence it permits new walls to dry out without damaging the distemper film.
(4) They are generally light I colour and they provide a good reflective coating.
(5) They are less durable than oil paints.
(6) They are treated as water paints and they are easy to apply.

44
(7) They can be applied on brickwork, cement plastered surface, lime plastered surface,
insulating boards, etc.
(8) They exhibit poor workability.
(9) They prove to be unsatisfactory n damp locations such as kitchen, bathroom, etc.

6.6.2 Ingredients of a distemper: A distemper is composed of base, carrier, colouring

pigments and size. For base, the whiting or chalk is used and for carrier, the water is used.
Thus, it is more or less a paint in which whiting or chalk is used as base instead of whit lead
and the water is used as carrier instead of linseed oil.

The distempers are available I powder form or paste form. They are to be mixed with hot
water before use. The oil-bound distempers are a variety of an oil paint in which the drying
oil is so treated that it mixes with water. The emulsifying agent which is commonly used is
glue or casein. As the water dries, the oil makes a hard surface which is washable.

It should be remembered that most of the manufacturers of readymade distempers supply

completely directions for use of their products. These directions are to be strictly followed to
achieve good results.

6.6.3 Process of distempering:

The application of distemper is carried out in the following way:

(1) Preparation of surface: The surface to receive the distemper is thoroughly rubbed and
clay

Whitewashing:
The fresh lime is slaked at site of work and mixed thoroughly with sufficient quantity of
water in a tub. It is then screened through a clean cloth. The clan gum dissolved in hot water
is then added at the rate of 20 N per m3 of lime. The rice may be used in place of gum.

The surface to be whitewashed should be cleaned before the work is started. For
whitewashing walls which are whitewashed before, the old loose whitewash is to be first
removed and repairing to the plaster is carried out, if necessary.

The lime is toxic for germs. It reflects light and thus it increases the brightness of the surface.
The whitewashing therefore is extensively used for interior wall surfaces and ceilings of
houses.

The pr0ocess of whitewashing is sometimes used for exterior wall surfaces also. A
satisfactory work gives an opaque smooth surface with uniform white colour and does not
readily come off on the hand, when rubbed.

45
Color washing:
This is prepared by adding the colouring pigment to the screened whitewash. It should be
seen that the colouring pigment is not affected by the presence of lime. Ordinarily, the yellow
earth is popular of colour washing. Generally, the walls are colour washed and ceilings are
whitewashed. The mixture is to be kept constantly stirred during use.

The colour wash is applied in the same fashion as the whitewash. A satisfactory work does
not give out powder when the finished surface is rubbed with the fingers.

The process of colour washing imparts cleanliness and pleasant appearance of the surfaces
which are treated.

6.7 Painting
painting enhances the look of buildings, it is a common element of renovation projects.
However, paints have additional uses beyond improving appearance. Knowing the
performance features of each type of paint is important to select the best product for each
application.

6.7.1 Painting is normally carried out for the following reasons:

 Protecting surfaces from insects, rain, solar radiation and other external factors
 Simpler maintenance: Well painted surfaces are easier to keep clean and safe
 Increasing the visual appeal of a surface
 Waterproofing
 Increasing surface durability
Before selecting the type of paint for a specific application, its physical properties must be
considered.

6.7.2 A good paint will offer the following benefits:

 Ease of application
 Reasonable drying period
 Forming a thin film without cracking
 Forming a hard and durable coating
 Its performance should not be affected by the weather
 Not harmful for users

46
6.7.3 Types of Paint
Oil Paint
Oil paints use white lead as a base, and are applied in three coats: primer, undercoat and
finish coat. Oil paints can achieve mat and glossy finishes, while being durable and
affordable. They are characterized by their ease of application, and painted surfaces are easy
to clean. Oil paint is commonly used in walls, doors, windows and metal structures.
Note that oil paint is not suitable for humid conditions, and it takes time to dry completely.
Also, before applying oil paints, linseed oil and pigments must be added.

Enamel Paint
This type of paint is produced by adding lead or zinc to varnish. Pigments are added to
achieve a wide variety of colors. Enamel paints form hard and glossy coatings, which are
easily cleaned. They are characterized by being waterproof and chemically resistant, offering
good coverage and color retention.

The following are some common uses of enamel paint:

 Interior and exterior walls

 Wood trims, doors, and flooring
 Windows
 Stairs
 Surfaces like wicker, masonry, concrete, plaster, glass, and metals.

The main limitations of enamel paint are slow drying, and requiring a titanium coating before
application.

Emulsion Paint
Emulsion paints use polyvinyl acetate and polystyrene as binding materials, and they contain
driers like cobalt and manganese. They can be water or oil based, and pigments are used to
achieve the desired color. Emulsion paints are characterized by their fast drying and
hardening, and surfaces can be cleaned easily with water. Once applied, enamel paints offer
durability, good color retention, and alkali resistance.

Emulsion paints are commonly used for interior walls, ceilings and masonry work. Some
specialized types of emulsion paints can be used for woodwork.

47
Cement Paint
Cement paint is available in powder form, which is mixed with water to achieve paint
consistency. The base material is white or colored cement, and it may also contain pigments,
accelerators and other additives. Cement paint is durable and waterproof, and it is commonly
used in rough internal and external surfaces.

Consider that cement paint has a long drying time, typically 24 hours. It must also be applied
in two coats to prevent dampness issues.

Bituminous Paint
This type of paint is made from dissolved asphalt or tar, which gives it a characteristic black
color. It is waterproof and alkali-resistant, but not suitable for applications where it will be
exposed to the sun, since it deteriorates.

Bituminous paint is commonly used in underwater ironworks, concrete foundations, wooden

surfaces and iron pipes. It also helps provide rust resistance when applied in metals.

Aluminum Paint
This type of paint is produced by mixing aluminum particles with oil varnish. It is resistant to
corrosion, electricity and weather exposure. Aluminum paint is commonly used for metals
and wood, and some specific applications are gas tanks, oil tanks, water pipes and radiators.

Anti-Corrosive Paint
Anticorrosive paint is characterized by its chemical resistance, as implied by its name. It is
made from linseed oil, zinc chrome and fine sand. Anticorrosive paint has a black color, and
it is durable and affordable. It is normally used for metallic surfaces and pipes.

Synthetic Rubber Paint

This paint is made from dissolved synthetic resins, and can include pigments. It has a
moderate cost and its main benefits are chemical resistance, fast drying and weather
resistance. Synthetic rubber paint is used for concrete surfaces in general, and this includes
fresh concrete.

Cellulose Paint
Cellulose paint is produced from celluloid sheets, amyl acetate and photographic films.
Adhesion can be improved by adding castor oil, and surfaces can be easily cleaned and
washed once the paint has dried. This type of paint is characterized by its quick drying,

48
smooth finish and hardness, while offering resistance to water, smoke and acids. Thanks to its
properties, cellulose paint is commonly used in cars and airplanes.
The main disadvantage of cellulose paint is its high price.

Plastic Paint
This paint uses water as a thinner, and it is available in a wide range of colors. It dries very
quickly and offers high coverage. The following are some common applications:

 Walls and ceilings of auditoriums, showrooms, display rooms, etc.

 Slabs
 Decks

Silicate Paint
Silicate paint is made from a mixture of silica and resinous substances. Its performance
benefits include good adhesion, hardness, heat resistance, and being chemically unreactive
with metals. Therefore, this type of paint is commonly used in metal structures.

Casein Paint
This paint is made from casein mixed with white pigments. It is available in powder and
paste form, and pigments can be added. Casein paint is commonly used to paint walls,
ceilings and wood.

49
 RESULT AND CONCLUSION

The Engineering Aspects of Building Construction deals with the different aspects of the
building construction.

After reading the above certified course we have learned that what are the necessary aspects
to construct a building.

50
 REFRENCES
 www.google.co.in
 https://theconstructor.org/
 Wikipedia.co.in

51