CHAPTER ONE

1.0 INTRODUCTION TO TRAINING PROGRAM

1.1 BACKGROUND

The Student Work Experience Programme (SWEP) was introduced to enable students
acquire practical knowledge and experience in the Engineering field. It was aimed at
bridging the gap between the theoretical knowledge acquired in classes and technical
knowledge in the industry by providing students with the opportunities to apply their
educational knowledge in real work situations.

This program was accepted and brought up to enlighten students on the accepted practical
skills training program approved by the National University Commission (NUC) as part
of minimum academic requirement for the award of degree in Engineering. The
introduction of SWEP has contributed immensely to building up the technical and
engineering skills available in Nigeria.

It also prepares students for employment and makes the transition from school to the
industry easier after graduation.

1.2 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF SWEP PROGRAM

The aims and objectives of the Student Work Experience Programme include the
following:

i. To build personal experience for student

ii. To enables student to get familiar with different engineering equipment
iii. To enables student to get fast hand experience using these equipment and tools

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1.3 OBJECTIVES OF THIS REPORT

The main objectives of this report include:

i. Suitable procurement of human resources and materials

ii. Appropriate selection of machinery and equipment
iii. The efficient design of all the structural components and elements

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 CHAPTER TWO

2.0 INTRODUCTION

Building construction is an ancient human activity. It began with the purely functional
need for a controlled environment to moderate the effects of climate. Constructed shelters
were one means by which human beings were able to adapt themselves to a wide variety
of climates and become a global species.

The history of civil construction was begun from the period of primitive human. From the
protection against cold, rain, heat etc they made “cave” as their shelter. But that was not
enough, cave didn‟t remained safe for long, so huts from the straws and leaves.

But for better comfort, civil construction got evolved and still evolving.

Today, we have every comfort and facility, but we have to face the future upcoming
challenges as the shortage of land etc.

Types of buildings

 Residential buildings: Building in which sleeping arrangements are provided

with or without cooking arrangement. It includes single or multi – family
dwelling, apartments, hostels, hotels, lodgings, and restaurants.
 Educational buildings: These include any building used for school, college,
education purpose.
 Institutional buildings: These buildings are used for different purposes, such as
medical or other treatment. They include hospitals, sanatorium, jails and asylum.
 Assembly buildings: These are the buildings where group of people meet or
gather for amusement, social, religious, political, civil, travel and similar
purposes.
 Industrial buildings: These are buildings where products or materials of all
kinds and properties are fabricated, assembled, manufactured or processed.

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2.1 AIMS AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

The main objectives of this report include:

i. Suitable procurement of human resources and materials

ii. Appropriate selection of machinery and equipment
iii. The efficient design of all the structural components and elements

2.2 SCOPE OF THE STUDY

This report is centered on the design and construction of buildings and highways

2.3 LIMITATION OF THE STUDY

The major limitation of this project is that the parapet collapsed due to low reinforcement
bar and also the downside of the officer mesh project is a waterlogged area, so ground –
beam was placed there for support to the brick wall.

2.4 SIGNIFICANT OF THE STUDY

Construction provides real solutions for human needs. Job security is relatively high
compared to other industries as there are so many projects developing at one a time. Most
roles are well paid and the industry as a whole is always changing, so work remains
exciting and fulfilling.

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 CHAPTER THREE

3.0 LITERATURE REVIEW

3.1 ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN

Architectural design is a discipline that focuses on covering and meeting the needs and
demands, to create living spaces, using certain tools and especially, creativity.

Building construction is the engineering deals with the construction of building such as
residential houses. In a simple building can be define as an enclose space by walls with
roof, food, cloth and the basic needs of human beings.

Architectural Plan

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Aesthetics and architecture

Aesthetics is a branch of philosophic study that relates to the nature and expression of
beauty and taste; in other words, the appearances of things. As aesthetics concerns an
appreciation of beauty, it is influenced by the subjective taste of an individual.

Like painting and sculpture, architecture can be considered a visual art to which the
philosophy of aesthetics can be applied. However, this application
of aesthetics to buildings and architecture is complicated by the physical requirements of
the brief, budget, structure, regulations, climate, weather, and so on, meaning
that building design is driven by form and function as well as aesthetics.

When architects design buildings, they use a creative process to rationalize these different
requirements to create a unified whole.

3.2 DESIGN PROCESS

The ideal process of design starts from a problem to solution with the following stages:

i. Requirement: Problem definition with details for which solution is desired.

ii. Specifications: List down the additional constraints which influence the
performance of the product system to obtain solution.
iii. Basic design: It is the best overall solution possible under the specified
constraints.
iv. Detail design: It is the refinement of the solution with respect to the points
required for the manufacture of equipment system.

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v. Development: Improvement of the obtained design which is now possible
through computer aided design (CAD)

3 . 3 PHASES OF ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN

i. Schematic Design: The first phase of architectural design involves the coming
together of the designer and the client to come to a conclusion regarding the
project vision and overall goals. This initial discussion covers a few crucial
elements of the project including its scope, purpose, and functionality. To help you
better visualize the finished building, these options are provided in the form of
professionally created sketches. The schematic design phase of architectural
design also includes a rough cost estimate for each option we provide to help you
make your choice keeping your budget in mind.

ii. Design Development: An extension of the schematic design phase, the design
development phase takes the designs and results of the first phase a step further.
During this phase, the architectural designer finalizes the design selected by the
client and starts working on general structural details of the building, like the
placement of the doors and windows, and the materials to be used..

The design development process begins with the revision of the schematic design
chosen by you based on the requested changes. The cost estimate for the project is
also updated to incorporate the changes made to the initial design.

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iii. Construction Documents: When the construction document phase begins, the
design has been finalized by the designer and approved by the client. In the
construction documents phase, the architectural designer starts working on
construction blueprints, technical specifications required for bidding, construction,
permit application, and other project-related notes. These documents are created
keeping the overall vision for the project and the client‟s specifications in mind.
The construction documents phase most prominently involves an architect as they
are responsible for creating blueprints.

iv. Bidding: The fourth phase of architectural design is bidding. Arguably the
simplest step of all the design phases, the goal of bidding is to identify a
construction company to work on the project. It‟s part of the designer‟s job to help

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 their clients find the best-suited construction company based on their expertise and
cost. For clients, having an architectural designer by their side during the bidding
process is a great advantage. This is because even though the final decision is the
client‟s alone, the architectural designer is responsible for compiling a list of
suitable construction contractors and submitting bid packages to bidders.

v. Construction Administration: The fifth phase begins with the completion of the
project documentation and selection of the construction contractor. Since the
construction work is well underway, the client needs to ensure that the building is
being constructed per the design specifications. Construction administration, like
the name suggests, involves the architectural designer providing construction
oversight. Typically, during the final stage, the designer will oversee the
construction work to ensure that the final design is being adhered to. This involves
site visits during construction to address any deviations from the plan and find
ways to course correct.

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 CHAPTER FOUR

4.0 METHODOLOGY (DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION)

4.1 STRUCTURAL DESIGN

Structural design is the process of creating a safe and functional structure under any load that it
may experience. During this process, the structural engineer will determine the structure's
stability, strength, and stiffness (rigidity). The basic objective in structural design and analysis is
to produce a structure capable of resisting all applied loads without failure during its intended
life.
4.2 STEPS FOR STRUCTURAL DESIGNS
There are mainly 5 essential steps to be followed for the design of any structure:
i. Modeling: The first step is to model the structure‟s mechanical skeleton, including its
foundations, columns, beams, frames, trusses, and other elements. The start point is the
architectural model. An architectural model shows what the structure will look like in
reality, but it is not suitable for calculations due to the high level of detailing. The
architectural model needs to be stripped until only the load-bearing structure remains.
The load-bearing structure will transfer the applied loads to the ground.
Translating the load-bearing structure to a model ready for calculations is called
schematization or creating the wireframe model, the mechanical model, or the plan
of the model.
Schematization is a very important step: it is essential that that the mechanical
model can anticipate loads since it would be the basis for the whole process.
The most used structural elements which can be included in the structural model
are: beams, columns, struts and ties, slabs, shear walls, membranes.

ii. Load analysis: The structural engineer must identify all possible loads that the structure
may experience during its lifetime. Examples of loads on structures are:
 Dead loads, meaning the self-weight of the structure

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  Live loads: occupancy of people in buildings, moving equipment, and the
movement of cars on bridges
 Wind loads: any horizontal, uplift or shear pressures or forces that the wind exerts
on a building
 Snow loads: only applicable for structures expected to receive snowfall
 Earthquake loads: when the structure is in a seismic region
 Earth pressure: to be applied for tunnels, retaining walls, cellars
 Water and ice: for some structures such as bridges, offshore platforms, and coastal
structures
 Thermal loads: Unequal heating or cooling of parts of the structure create high
stresses
 Dynamic loads: for example, induced by machinery.

So, depending on where your structure is, you must consider the various kinds of loads.
The values of these loads can be identified using appropriate structural design codes and
references.
In real life, different loads act simultaneously with the structure. The combination of the
various loads should be evaluated. For instance, a simultaneous action between dead load
(weight of the structure) and live load (use of the building by people) can be a load
combination. But also, dead loads and wind loads can be a combination. Finding which is
the worst load combination for your structure is a part of the loads analysis process.

iii. Structural analysis: In this step, we perform the analysis on the structural members. The
goal is to investigate how the structural model behaves with the different load
combinations made. The analysis of a whole structure is also known as the global
analysis.

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 The results of the analysis include the internal forces diagrams (shear, bending moment,
normal, torsion and stresses), reactions, deformations/ deflections produced by the
different load combinations.
For simple structures, like a single beam or column, this analysis can be done by hand.
However, for 2D or 3D structures, the analysis requires many detailed computations,
mostly in matrices, in which errors are quickly made in case of hand calculations.
Computer Structural Design Software has now replaced manual computation. Most
structural engineering software, such as BuildSoft‟s Diamonds, use FEA – Finite Element
Analysis to solve the complex equilibrium equations. A great structural analysis software
should be fast and user-friendly to make life easier for beginners and advanced users.
iv. Structural design: Structural design is, perhaps, the most crucial step in the process. It
involves dimensioning the different parts of the building based on the analysis results.
Structural design is material related.
The initially estimated dimensions are verified for the design requirements on the field of
the stability, strength and stiffness (rigidity/deflection). These requirements can be found
in the design code.
If these design requirements are satisfied, the chosen dimensions are OK. One can
consider playing with the element sizes to achieve a more economical design.
If the design requirements are not satisfied, then the engineer should repeat all these
steps. The initial element dimensions should be increased, and we loop again through the
structure analysis and structural design verifications. This is repeated until the design
requirements are met.
The result of the structural design represents the dimensions of each element in the
model, complying with the design requirements, together with material related details,
such as the required area of reinforcement to be provided for concrete elements.
Many countries have their structural design codes, codes of practice or technical
documents. It is necessary for a structural designer to become familiar with local
requirements and recommendations concerning correct practice.

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 v. Detailing: Once the global analysis and design are finished, the structural engineer can
start detailing.
Structural detailing consists of two parts:
 Where the details should be placed and where should structural connections and
overlaps be made? For example, beam or column splices. For other details like
beam-column or column base connections, the placement cannot be discussed.
 The specifications of reinforcement, bolts, and welds, that is the number of
reinforcement bars, bolt grade, number of bolts, weld throat thickness, end plates
etc.

The detailing goes hand in hand with the ductility of the structures. In the case of
concrete, for example: If we provide the reinforcement in a balanced way in beam and
columns, we can increase the ductility of a structure.
If we plan steel connections strategically, the costs can be highly reduced. The overlap
between 2 beam parts should not be at the center of the beam but rather near the column
edges, where the bending moment is 0 (hinged joint). That way, only a shear connection
is required, which is easier to construct and more cost-effective.
4.3 STRUCTURAL DEFECTS
Structural defects can be caused by a number of things. Initially, defects may appear as a minor
crack in the wall but in the long term defects can lead to the collapse of the entire wall.
Structural defects in buildings can be categorized as:
i. Cracks in foundation (substructure)
ii. Cracks in floors and slabs (superstructure)
iii. Cracks in walls (superstructure).
These building defects can be caused by the following factors:
i. Improper soil analysis
ii. Improper site selection
iii. Use of defective materials
iv. Substandard work

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4.4 IMPORTANCE OF STRUCRTURAL DESIGN
Structural design is a fundamental part of civil engineering as it is directly related to the
structural integrity and strength of structures or building. It involves the planning, designing as
well as structural analysis of all kind of structures such as buildings, bridges, towers, tunnels,
and off-shore structures including oil rigs.
The importance of structural design includes:
i. Ensures that the structure design is safe by giving all the vital information regarding
foundations, floors, walls, beams, roof types and the quality of materials to ensure that
any of the structures built meet all the safety requirements.
ii. Provides an in-depth analysis by making sure that the structure meets all the required
safety codes and design criteria. With a detailed analysis of the structure, it can help the
civil engineer to obtain more data on the load that the structure or building is able to
withstand.

4.5 CONSTRUCTION
4.5.1 STAGES OF CONSTRUCTION
Stages of building construction are divided into two, namely: pre-construction stage and
construction stage.
i. Pre-construction stage
 Building plan: This is the most crucial aspect of building construction. When you
are about to embark on a large-scale project such as constructing a building, it is
vital that you lay out a plan for your building. The reason is that it helps you to
anticipate the features and functions of different parts of your construction
process. You need a team of professionals to carry out this task to achieve the best
results. Architects, Civil engineers, Electricians and plumbers play an essential
role in planning a successful building construction project.
 Budget estimation: Constructing a building is a considerable investment,
which involves setting aside a specific budget. After planning is done, the
details are given to a building estimator to carry out a survey and estimate

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 the cost of materials, types of machinery, and labor required to complete
the building project. The cost of materials will be determined by the
quantity and quality of fabric needed. At this stage, if the financial
capability is limited, it is advised not to proceed further or get a loan from
financial firms. Otherwise, there might be a cash crunch situation.
 Land acquisition: Another essential requirement in setting up a building is
to acquire a piece of land. Since science and evolution haven‟t innovated
ways to defy gravity and build houses and factories on air, we stick to the
old ways of constructing a building on the land. It‟s important to put several
factors in mind; the size of the building, location, and so on. The size will
determine how large the required piece of land should be. As for the
location, it is important to build a factory or industry closer to where its raw
materials are available – to save the cost of production.
 Documentation: Thousands of buildings are demolished every day due to a
lack of appropriate evidence and documents as proof of ownership. To
avoid circumstances like this, secure the authorities' permission and get
registered when you‟re about to embark on a building construction project.

Ensure that you obtain a document showing the transfer/purchase of the

acquired piece of land acquired adequately appended by the transferor and
legal authorities in your locale.

Documents required might include but are not limited to, land survey
report, land soil test report, land purchase/transfer document, architecture
drawings, structural report, and certificate of undertaking by a civil
engineer.

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ii. Construction stage
 Site clearing: The designated land area meant for constructing a particular
building is known as a „site.‟ In situations where the piece of land has been
abandoned for a long time, it‟s likely to have trees, weeds, and debris on the land.
The first thing to do here is to get rid of such items that might obstruct
construction. On a large piece of land that cannot be cleared using crude
implements, you can hire companies in charge to operate bulldozers, excavators,
or land mowers to do the job.

 Setting Out: A building is set out in order to clearly define the outline of the
excavation and the centre line of the walls, so that construction can be carried out
exactly according to the plan. The centre line method of setting out is generally
preferred and adopted.
Setting out can be a very complex engineering process but with need
experience its quite easy. Experienced engineer and surveyors are those
involved in setting out of structures, in large projects, services of land
surveyors are required for more accurate transfer of levels and angles in
setting out with the aid of a Theodolite to decided point around the building
area.

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 STEPS

1. Site clearance
2. Obtain the architect or building plan
3. Get the necessary materials ready i.e. pegs, nails, rope or line, hammer, tape,
marking tool etc.
4. Firstly, take note of the four corners where we have the proposed columns/pillars
or as case might be.
5. Establishing the four corners in relation to the dimension of the building floor plan
by pegging it.
6. After establishing these four corners insert nails at the centre- top of each peg and
then run rope round the 4 pegs.
7. Taking just one side measure the setback from back of fence to the end of building
lines in that particular angle, then come to the front and measure the setback also
as given on your drawing plan.
8. After this go back to the rear or you may use the front as a point mark depending
on which setback is more important to you. Measure the setback from fence
establish this two points with pegs then put a rope to cross both pegs and make
them form a right angle or 90 degrees. To determine if your rope are at right angle
put a checker popularly called „square‟ by bricklayers, this will direct you if you
need to shift the other rope that can be varied since one is already fixed to form a
base mark (i.e. the rope running through two pegs from the rear to the front either
on left side or the right side.
9. After establishing a right angle, do your measurement to correspond with what is
on plan and then use the square at the other end to now establish the other two
points. When establishing these points be conscious to place your peg at 1m or 3
½ ft behind your building line i.e. where blocks will actually pass through.
10. After this, nails peg at 3m interval round under the rope marking your building
line, then nail tie rods (flat thin wood) on top round the entire area.

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11. Establish each room measurement by nails ( you require four nails at each
measurement, two to establish the two sides of block you are going to place
later on then the other two at both ends to serve as the points where you will
excavate ,the length of this is usually three times the width of the block you are
using that is if you are using a 9“ block then expect to excavate or dig a trench of
27” wide.
12. From the plan details, the width of excavation to be done is also marked by line
with pegs at appropriate positions. However the excavation width is then marked
by lime or by with furrow with spade.
13. The digging or excavated depth depends on the type of foundation as
recommended by your structural engineer.
14. Next is casting of concrete bed/base.
15. After casting of foundation, use the nails on your profile board to determine where
your blocks will follow Set blocks, 3-4 or more coaches/courses and partitions in
reference to site topography.
16. Filling and backfilling of the trenches and inside trenches.
17. Casting the ground floor slab or German floor

Materials used during Setting up of Layout

 Leveling Instrument
 Long Nails
 Hammer
 Iron square
 Steel Tape
 Line
 Bricks
 Theodolite

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4.5.2 FOUNDATION

In engineering, a foundation is the element of a structure which connects it to the ground,

and transfers loads from the structure to the ground. Foundations are generally considered
either shallow or deep. Foundation engineering is the application of soil mechanics and
rock mechanics (Geotechnical engineering) in the design of foundation elements of
structures.

Procedure for construction of foundation starts with decision on its depth, width and
marking layout for excavation and centerline of foundation. Foundation is the part of
structure below plinth level in direct contact of soil and transmits load of super structure
to soil. Generally it is below the ground level. If some part of foundation is above ground
level, it is also covered with earth filling. This portion of structure is not in contact of air,
light etc., or to say that it is the hidden part of the structure.

Depth of Foundation

Depth of foundation depends on the following factors:

 Availability of adequate bearing capacity

 Depth of shrinkage and swelling in case of clayey soils, due to seasonal
changes which may cause appreciable movements.
 Depth of frost penetration in case of fine sand and silt.
 Possibility of excavation nearby
 Depth of ground water table
 Practical minimum depth of foundation should not be less than 50 cm. to
allow removal of top soil and variations in ground level.

Hence the best recommended depth of foundation is from 1.00 meter to 1.5 meter from
original ground level.

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Width of Foundation / Footings

The width of footings should be laid according to structural design. For light loaded
buildings such as houses, flats, school buildings etc. having not more than two storeys,
the width of foundation is given below:

 The width of footing should not be less than 750mm for one brick thick wall.
 The width of footing should not be less than 1 meter for one and half brick wall.

Processes involved in Construction of Foundation

The processes executed in the foundation works are given below:

 Excavation of earth work in trenches for foundation.

 Laying out concrete blinding.
 Laying the footing in case of raft or column construction.
 Laying Anti termite treatment (DPC).
 Laying Brick work up to datum level.
 Laying Damp proof course on the walls.
 Refilling of earth around the walls.
 Refilling of earth in the building portion up to the required height according to
datum level.

Precautions while designing a Foundation

i. A foundation should be designed to transmit combined dead load, imposed load

and wind load to the ground.
ii. Net loading intensity of pressure coming on the soil should not exceed the safe
bearing capacity.
iii. Foundation should be designed in such a way that settlement to the ground is
limited and uniform under whole of the building to avoid damage to the structure.
iv. Whole design of the foundation, super structure and characteristics of the ground
should be studied to obtain economy in construction work.

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Ratio of Cement Concrete and Mortar for Foundation

i. The cement concrete 1:8:16 is generally used in the foundation of walls in

construction work.
ii. In case of column raft cement concrete 1:4:8 is the best recommended ratio for it
in the foundation.
iii. For brick masonry cement mortar 1:4 to 1:6 is used as loading condition.

4.5.3 TYPES OF FOUNDATION AND THEIR USES.

The following are different types of foundations used in construction:

i. Shallow foundation
 Individual footing or isolated footing: Individual footing or an isolated
footing is the most common type of foundation used for building
construction. This foundation is constructed for single column and also
called as pad foundation.

The shape of individual footing is square or rectangle and is used when

loads from structure is carried by the columns. Size is calculated based on
the load on the column and safe bearing capacity of soil.

 Combined footing: Combined footing is constructed when two or more

columns are close enough and their isolated footings overlap each other. It
is a combination of isolated footings, but their structural design differs.

The shape of this footing is rectangle and is used when loads from structure
is carried by the columns.
 Strip footing: Strip footings are those whose base is wider than a typical
load bearing wall foundations. The wider base of this footing type spreads

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 the weight from the building structure over more area and provides better
stability.

Strip footings and wall footings are used for individual columns, walls and
bridge piers where the bearing soil layer is within 3m (10 feet) from the
ground surface.

 Raft or mat foundation: Raft or mat foundations are the types of

foundation which are spread across the entire area of the building to support
heavy structural loads from columns and walls.

It is suitable for expansive soils whose bearing capacity is less for

suitability of spread footings and wall footings. Raft foundation is
economical when one-half area of the structure is covered with individual
footings and wall footings are provided.

These foundations should not be used where the groundwater table is above
the bearing surface of the soil. Use of foundation in such conditions may
lead to scour and liquefaction.

ii. Deep foundation

 Pile foundation: Pile foundation is a type of deep foundation which is used
to transfer heavy loads from the structure to a hard rock strata much deep
below the ground level.

Pile foundations are used to transfer heavy loads of structures through

columns to hard soil strata which is much below ground level where
shallow foundations such as spread footings and mat footings cannot be

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 used. This is also used to prevent uplift of structure due to lateral loads such
as earthquake and wind forces.

Pile foundation resists the loads from structure by skin friction and by end
bearing. Use of pile foundations also prevents differential settlement of
foundations.

 Drilled shafts or caissons: Drilled shafts or caissons, is a type of deep

foundation and has action similar to pile foundations discussed above, but
are high capacity cast-in-situ foundations. It resists loads from structure
through shaft resistance, toe resistance and / or combination of both of
these. The construction of drilled shafts or caissons are done using an
auger.

4.5.4 FACTORS THAT DETERMINES THE CHOICE OF FOUNDATION

i. Loads from building

ii. Type of soil
iii. Type of structures in neighborhood
iv. Type of foundations

 Loads from Building: The first factor considered is loads from building on
the foundation. This load is a combination of dead load and imposed loads
on the buildings. Other loads such as wind loads, earthquake loads, snow
loads etc. are also considered based on location.

The quantity of loads depends on the type of structure, number of floors

and material of construction. As the number of floors increases, the dead
load and imposed loads also increase.

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 Type of Soils: Soil is a mixture of solid particles, moisture and air. The soil
near surface is called as top soil and below a depth of 300mm is called as
sub soil. Generally subsoil is used as base for foundation for small
buildings.

However, soil investigation should be carried out to know the nature of soil,
depth of water table, type of soil, depth of different layers of soil and to
know the bearing capacity of soil at different levels for large structures.

When the load is transferred from the structure to soil through foundations,
the soil tends to consolidate and settlement of foundation occurs.

 Type of Structure in Neighborhood: The selection of foundation for

building construction can also be done based on the type of foundation
selected for the buildings in the neighboring buildings for the same types.
Based on the success or failure of foundations for such buildings, decision
can be taken for the selection of foundation.
 Types of Foundations: Types of foundation such as isolated foundations,
combined footings, pile foundations and raft or mat foundations etc. based
on the type of soils and loads from the buildings can be selected based on
suitability and requirement.

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4.5.5 SUPERSTRUCTURE

The superstructure is that part of the building which is above the ground and which
serves the purpose of buildings intended use.

i. Datum level
ii. Wall and columns
iii. Beams
iv. Arches
v. Roofs and slabs
vi. Lintel
vii. Parapet
viii. Stairs
ix. Floor
 Datum level: It is the level of ground surface where substructure of
building is end and superstructure of building work is starts. This implies
that plinth level of building construction work divide the superstructure
and substructure of building ,so we can says that plinth level is top most
part of ground level.
 Wall and columns: Walls are vertical surfaces constructed in continuance
that divide the enclosed spaced. Walls can be constructed either by means
of masonry or by means of concrete. Walls take up the load from the
beams, the slabs or the roof above.
The column is a vertical structural element that carries compressive loads.
This is one of the critical structural elements in any building structure
whose failure can result in progressive collapse. The column transfers
loads from the slab or the beam to the foundation below.

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27
 Beams: A beam is a horizontal structural element with a specific depth
and width running with a span. It withstands vertical loads, bending
moments and shear forces. The loads coming on the beams are transferred
to the beam endpoints where it is supported. This is then transferred to the
columns or the beam supporting structural elements.

 Arches: An arch is an opening in a structure that is curved on the top and

designed to distribute weight. Arches are used in structural engineering
(a branch of civil engineering that deals with large buildings and similar
structures) because they can support a very large mass paced on top of
them.

 Roofs and Slabs: Roof is the exterior and the uppermost part of any
building structure. This structure is a covering that is provided to protect
the building from rain, snow, wind, sun and other adverse effects.

A roof deck and roof cover form the two main parts of a roof structure.
The structural component that supports the roof cover is called a roof deck.
This can be either constructed flat or sloped in the form of truss, shell,
dome or flat slab based on the type of building the structure. The roof
cover is laid over the roof deck. The roof cover can be either tiles, slates,
shingles, corrugated sheets, asbestos cement or thatch coverings.

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Slabs are horizontal structural elements that serve the purpose of floor,
roofs or ceilings. These are flat surfaces with top and bottom face parallel
to each other.
Slabs are supported mainly by columns, beams, walls or the ground. The
depth of the slab is very small when compared to its depth.

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 Lintel: A lintel is a type of beam structure constructed above all the wall
openings to support the load coming over it and transfers safely to the side
walls. The width of the lintel is the same as that of wall width and it ends
into the masonry wall.

 Parapet: Parapet is a short wall barrier that is constructed at the edge of a

terrace roof, balcony or walkway as a means of protection. This can be
constructed by means of steel, aluminum, reinforced concrete or glass.

 Stairs: A stair is a series of steps or flight that is constructed to move from

one floor to another in a building structure. A staircase is a room or an
enclosure where the stair is constructed. The space occupied by the stair is
called as a stairway. There are different types of stairs like continuous
stairs, straight stairs, turning stairs etc.

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  Floor: The floor is defined as a finished horizontal surface of a building or
a room where people walk. Any floor has two main components- sub-
floor and floor cover. The sub-floor is constructed to support the imposed
loads coming over it. This component imparts strength and stability for the
floor structure. A floor cover or flooring is a suitable floor finish provided
in the form of tiles, granite, marbles, concrete, etc.

4.6 HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION

Highway Construction work is defined as all work ordinarily included in public or private
highway construction contracts, whether inside or outside private property lines, such as,
for example, bridges, sewers, curb setting, sidewalks, parking lots and work connected
therewith, etc., any concrete slab work, sound barrier walls and vehicular and rail
transportation construction which is built in accordance with Highway or Bridge
Construction methods. Any construction work not related to Highway Construction work
as defined above and the construction of buildings shall not come under the jurisdiction
of this agreement.

Highway work is defined as work performed to provide a facility to accommodate

vehicular or pedestrian traffic (except as limited herein) and includes the construction of
all streets, roads, expressways, turnpikes, bridges, drainage structures, grade separations,
parking lots, rest areas, alleys, sidewalks, guardrails, highway lighting, signal lighting,
sound barriers, bridge rails and fences.

4.6.1 IMPORTANCE OF HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION

The following are the importance of highway construction:

i. Highway connects two or more places and ensures that industries, employment,
and development follow.
ii. Highway networks are very important for the growth of a region.
iii. Highways open new trade routes and almost every industrial region in the world is
connected to the major highway network system of that particular country.
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 iv. Bridges, traffic lights, pavements, bike paths, and lane dividers make up a safe
highway.
v. In addition, providing access to employment, social, health and education services
makes a road network crucial in fighting against poverty.

4.6.2 CHARACTERISTICS OF HIGHWAY CONSTRUCTION

The following are the characteristics of road transport:

i. It can be used by all types of vehicles including cycles, rickshaws, automobiles,

passenger cars, buses, trucks, etc.
ii. It is nearest mode of transport for people or public.
iii. It offers flexibility of changes in direction of travel as per need, comfort and
convenience.
iv. It saves time of travel especially for short distances and light traffic because the
road vehicles can be taken up to or very near to the point of destination.
v. It requires small investments and maintenance costs as compared to railways,
airports, docks and harbors.
vi. Road transport save time particularly for short distance travel.

4.6.3 DRAINAGE SYSTEM

Drainage is a natural or artificial removal of a surface‟s water and sub-surface water from
an area with excess of water. The internal drainage of most agricultural soils is good
enough to prevent severe waterlogging, but many soils need artificial drainage to improve
production or to manage water supplies.

4.6.4 IMPORTANCE OF DRAINAGE SYSTEM

i. Drainage ensures that the soil is properly aerated.

ii. Drainage reduces soil and nutrient loss from runoff and can help avoid soil
erosion.
iii. Drainage on hill slopes helps to reduce the risk of soil slippage.

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4.6.5 FUNCTIONS OF DRAINAGE SYSTEM

One of the drainage system‟s functions is to collect surface water and/or ground water
and direct it away, thereby keeping the ballast bed drained. The drainage system must
also protect the substructure from erosion, from becoming sodden, and from losing its
load-bearing capacity and stability.

Where there changes in the terrain of water flow (e.g. where streams are diverted), the
drainage system must be planned with particular care. Overloading can result in major
damage in the form of erosion and landslides.

4.6.6 STEPS IN CONSTRUCTING A BOX DRAINAGE

i. Marking of Alignment
ii. Digging/Excavation
iii. Placement of the reinforcement bar for the drainage. Main bar used was 8mm and
distribution bar was 8mm.
iv. Blinding of the drainage of width 750mm.
v. Arrangement of the formwork for the casting of the drainage.
vi. Casting of the drainage walls of 150mm thickness and 600mm height.
vii. Removal of the formwork.

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4.6.7 MAJOR ROADS IN NIGERIA

i. Trunk ‘A’ Road: Trunk „A‟ road also known as Federal Highway System of
Nigeria, connects economic and political centers within the country, in addition it
links Nigeria with its neighboring countries. These roads are constructed and
maintained by the Federal Government of Nigeria through the Federal Ministry of
Works and the Federal Roads Maintenance Agency.
ii. Trunk ‘B’ Road: Trunk „B‟ road is the second category of main roads in Nigeria.
It links the major cities within states. These roads are financed by the state
governments. They are tarred roads.
iii. Trunk ‘C’ Road: Trunk „C‟ road are local feeder roads constructed and
maintained by the Works Department of local government authorities in Nigeria.
This class of road is usually untarred and seasonal in nature.

4.7 ELECTRICAL AND PLUMBING

What is Plumbing?

Plumbing is a system of pipes or conduits used to carry water from its source to the
desired destination. Heating and cooling fluids can help regulate the temperature in a
house or building, making it more comfortable for occupants.

PIPING

When constructing a new building or adding an addition to an existing building, new

piping will need to be laid and installed. These pipes include the water pipes, gas pipes,
drainage pipes, and even connecting to the municipal water mains. With a plumbing
construction company‟s help, you can ensure that your pipes are installed properly to
decrease future plumbing catastrophes. They will also ensure that your pipes can be
accessed as easily as possible for future plumbing maintenance.

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 CHAPTER FIVE

5.0 OBSERVATION, CONCLUSION AND CHALLENGES FACED

5.1 OBSERVATION

The observations made on the site include:

i. The contractor makes sure he understand and able to interpret the structural
drawing as planned by the structural engineers.
ii. The contractor makes sure the correct mixing ratio was used
iii. The brick mason makes sure the blocks are aligned when laying it.
iv. There is regular supervision for efficient work on the site

5.2 CONCLUSION

It is with great enthusiasm that we present this report for the work done with the
Nigerian Airforce Research and Development Centre at Oke – bale and we have no
doubt our enthusiasm, attention-to-detail, experience gathered will enable us to deliver an
exceptional project outcome in constructing a residential building in the future.

5.3 CHALLENGES FACED

i. The downside of the officer mesh project is a waterlogged area, so ground – beam
was placed there for support to the brick wall.
ii. During rainfall workers have to wait for the rain to stop before continuing working
iii. Material shortage which caused project delay
iv. Excess bleeding of drainage to create balanced
v. The parapet collapsed due to low reinforcement bars used.

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