FOUNDATION AND

RETAINING WALL DESIGN

About
A specialized professional course for civil engineering students in structural
engineering designed to understand the concepts, theories, and principles in the
design process of structural foundations and retaining walls.

Engr. Eloisa T. Sentillas, RCE

Instructor
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COURSE OUTCOMES
At the end of the course, the students must be able to:
Understand the concepts, principles and theories of structural foundation and retaining wall design;
Demonstrate how to design structural foundations and retaining walls.

COURSE OUTLINE
1. Spread Footings
• Common types of footings
• Depth of footings
• Design of footings
• Bearing capacity of soils under footings and mat foundations
• Footing size proportions
• Soil stresses in lower strata
• Settlement of footings
• Eccentric loading
• Inclined loading
• Footings on slopes
• Uplift of footings
• Structural design of footings
2. Strap Footings, Combined Footings, Mat Foundations
• Uses of strap footings, combined footings, and mat foundations
• Common types of arrangement of strap footings, combined footings, and mat foundations
• Design of strap footings
• Design of combined footings
• Design of mat foundation
• Coefficient of subgrade reaction
• Allowable bearing pressure for mat foundation
3. Pile Foundations
• Use of piles
• Types of piles
• Determination of type and length of pile
• Pile capacity - end bearing or skin friction
• Pile spacing and group action
• Design of pile foundations
• Stresses on lower strata
• Settlement analysis
• Design of pile caps
• Uplift
• Lateral Loads
• Batter piles
• Navigation skin friction
4. Retaining Walls
• Use of retaining walls
• Types of retaining walls
• Proportioning of retaining walls

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• Earth pressure computation

• Stability of retaining walls
• Design of structural components
• Backfill drainage
5. Sheetpiling walls
• Use of sheetpiling walls
• Common types of sheet piles
• Common types of sheetpiling walls
• Lateral pressure acting on sheetpiling walls
• Design of cantilever sheetpiling wall
• Design of anchored sheetpiling wall
• Stability of sheetpiling in cohesive soils
• Types of anchorage
• Location of anchorage

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Foundation and Retaining Wall Design

MODULE 01
SHALLOW FOUNDATION (SPREAD FOOTINGS)

INTRODUCTION
The lowest part of a structure generally is referred to foundation. Its function is to transfer the load of
the structure to the soil on which it is resting. A properly designed foundation transfers the load throughout the
soil without overstressing the soil. Overstressing the soil can result in either excessive settlement or shear failure
of the soil, both of which cause damage to the structure. Thus, geotechnical and structural engineers who design
foundations must evaluate the bearing capacity of soils.

Foundations are classified according to its depth — shallow and deep. Spread footings and mat
foundations generally are referred to as shallow foundations, whereas pile and drilled-shaft foundations are
classified as deep foundations. In a more general sense, shallow foundations are foundations that have a depth-
of-embedment-to-width ratio of approximately less than four. When the depth-of-embedment-to-width ratio of a
foundation is greater than four, it may be classified as a deep foundation.

FOOTINGS
A footing is an enlargement of the base of a column or wall for the purpose of transmitting the load to
the subsoil at a pressure suited to the properties of the soil. Footings and other foundation units transfer the
loads from the structure to the soil or rock supporting the structures.

Common Types of Footing:

1. Wall footing or Strip footing - is a continuous strip of concrete
that supports a bearing wall, cantilevering out on each side
of the wall.

2. Spread footing or Square footing - are pads that distribute the

column load in two directions to an area of soil around the
column.

3. Rectangular footings - is used to support loads on a single

column where sometimes the location of the footing is limited
to its property line on one of the sides.

4. Combined footings - are used to support two heavily loaded

columns are so spaced that normally designed single
footings would run into each other, it would be rectangular or
trapezoidal in cross section.

5. Cantilever or Strap footing - two footing joined by a beam

instead of a bearing portion of the footing. Each of the two
main parts of this footing supports a column load.

6. Floating or mat or raft foundation - which is a single thick mat

or slab that supports the entire structure. This type of
foundation is frequently used with poor soil conditions to equalize deformations.

7. Pile caps - are slabs of reinforced concrete used to distribute column loads to group of piles.
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SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS: ULTIMATE BEARING CAPACITY

To perform satisfactorily, shallow foundations must have two main
characteristics:
1. They have to be safe against overall shear failure in the soil that
supports them.
2. They cannot undergo excessive displacement, or settlement. (The term
excessive is relative, because the degree of settlement allowed for a
structure depends on several considerations.)

The load per unit area of the foundation at which shear failure in soil
occurs is called the ultimate bearing capacity.

TERZAGHI'S BEARING CAPACITY THEOREM

• Karl Terzaghi is a civil engineer who founded the branch of civil
engineering sciences known as soil mechanics, the study of the
properties of soil under stresses and under the action of flowing water.
• Terzaghi was the first to present a comprehensive theory for the
evaluation of ultimate bearing capacity of rough shallow
foundations.

Terzaghi's Bearing Capacity Theorem states that, a foundation is

shallow if its depth Df is less than or equal to its width.

𝐃𝐟 ≤ 𝐁 → 𝐬𝐡𝐚𝐥𝐥𝐨𝐰 𝐟𝐨𝐮𝐧𝐝𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧

Terzaghi’s Bearing Capacity (Rectangular Footing)

𝟎. 𝟑𝑩 𝟎. 𝟐𝑩
𝒒𝒖 = 𝒄𝑵𝒄 (𝟏 + ) + 𝒒𝑵𝒒 + 𝟎. 𝟓𝜸𝑩𝑵𝜸 (𝟏 − )
𝑳 𝑳

Strength due to strength due to strength due to

cohesion surcharge footing dimension

where:
𝑞𝑢 = ultimate bearing capacity
𝑐 = cohesion stength (kPa)
𝑞 = effective stress from the ground surface up to the bottom of the footing
𝛾 = unit weight below the footing
𝐵 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐿 = dimension of the footing (𝐵 being the shorter side)
𝑁𝑐 , 𝑁𝑞 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑁𝛾 = bearing capacity factors

Terzaghi’s Bearing Capacity (Strip/Wall Footing)

𝒒𝒖 = 𝒄𝑵𝒄 + 𝒒𝑵𝒒 + 𝟎. 𝟓𝜸𝑩𝑵𝜸
Terzaghi’s Bearing Capacity (Circular Footing)
𝒒𝒖 = 𝟏. 𝟑𝒄𝑵𝒄 + 𝒒𝑵𝒒 + 𝟎. 𝟑𝜸𝑩𝑵𝜸
Terzaghi’s Bearing Capacity (Square Footing)
𝒒𝒖 = 𝟏. 𝟑𝒄𝑵𝒄 + 𝒒𝑵𝒒 + 𝟎. 𝟒𝜸𝑩𝑵𝜸

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BEARING CAPACITY FAILURE:

1. General Shear Failure
- Involves total rupture of the underlying soil
- There is a continuous shear failure of the soil (solid lines) from below the footing to the ground
surface
- Occurs in soil that are in dense or hard state
- Tilting of the structure
When the foundation settles under
the application of a load, a
triangular wedge-shaped zone of
soil (marked I) is pushed down,
and, in turn, it presses the zones
marked II and III sideways and then
upward. At the ultimate pressure,
qu, the soil passes into a state of
plastic equilibrium and failure
occurs by sliding

2. Local Shear Failure

- Involves rupture of the soil only immediately below the footing
- Occurs in medium dense or firm state of soil

The triangular wedge-shaped zone

(marked I) below the footing moves
downward, but unlike general shear
failure, the slip surfaces end
somewhere inside the soil. Some
signs of soil bulging are seen,
however.

3. Punching Shear Failure

- Punching shear failure does not develop the distinct
shear surfaces associate with a general shar failure.
For punching shear, the soil outside the loaded area
remains relatively uninvolved and there is minimal
movement of soil on both sides of the footing.
- The process of deformation of the footing involves
compression of soil directly below the footing as well
as the vertical shearing of soil around the footing
perimeter.

EFFECT OF GROUNDWATER TABLE:

In developing the bearing capacity equations given in the preceding section we assumed that the
groundwater table is located at a depth much greater than the width, B of the footing. However, if the groundwater
table is close to the footing, some changes are required in the second and third terms of the following equations.
Three different conditions can arise regarding the location of the groundwater table with respect to the bottom of
the foundation. They are shown in the figures below Each of these conditions is briefly described next.
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Case I. If the groundwater table is located at a distance D above the

bottom of the foundation, the magnitude of q in the second term of
the bearing capacity equation should be calculated as

𝒒 = 𝜸(𝑫𝒇 − 𝑫) + 𝜸′ 𝑫

where 𝛾 ′ = 𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 − 𝛾𝑤 = effective unit weight soil. Also, the unit

weight of soil, 𝛾, that appears in the third term of the bearing capacity
equations should be replaced by 𝛾 ′ .

Case II. If the groundwater table coincides with the bottom of the
foundation, the magnitude of 𝑞 is equal to 𝛾𝐷𝑓 . However, the unit
weight, 𝛾, in the third term of the bearing capacity equations should
be replaced by 𝛾 ′ .

Case III. When the groundwater table is at a depth 𝐷 below the bottom of
the foundation, 𝑞 = 𝛾𝐷𝑓 . The magnitude of 𝛾 in the third term of the
bearing capacity equations should be replaced by 𝛾𝑎𝑣 .

1
𝛾𝑎𝑣 = [𝛾𝐷 + 𝛾 ′ (𝐵 − 𝐷)] (for 𝐷 ≤ 𝐵)
𝐵
𝛾𝑎𝑣 =𝛾 (for 𝐷 > 𝐵)

Sample Problem #01

A square footing has a dimension of 1.20 m has its bottom 1.0 m

below the ground surface. Determine the Ultimate Bearing
Capacity of the foundation if 𝛾 = 18.11 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚3 , 𝑐 = 15.75 𝑘𝑃𝑎,
𝛾𝑠𝑎𝑡 = 19.28 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚3 and the water table is: (𝑁𝑐 = 35, 𝑁𝑞 =
22, 𝑁𝛾 = 19)
a. 1.2 m below the ground surface
b. At the bottom of the footing
c. 0.5 m below the ground surface

Sample Problem #01

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Solution:
a.

b. c.

Sample Problem #02

A footing 3 m square carries a total load including its own weight of 2

MN. The base of the footing is at depth of 1.5 m below the ground
surface. The soil has a unit weight of 17 kN/m3 and cohesion of 50
kPa. (𝑁𝑐 = 8.02, 𝑁𝑞 = 1.94, 𝑁𝛾 = 0.24)
a. Determine the gross foundation pressure.
b. Determine the net foundation pressure.
c. Determine the factor of safety (both gross and net).

Solution:
a. When we say gross foundation pressure, it is the total stress that
the footing experiences. Sample Problem #02
Say that stress is 𝜎 (sigma). By the fundamental principle of stress,
it is just equal to the force over area. Therefore,
𝑃
𝜎=𝐴
2000 𝑘𝑁
𝜎 = 3 𝑚 (3 𝑚) = 222.22 𝑘𝑃𝑎

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b. On the other hand, when we say net foundation pressure,

we are only getting the stress caused by the structure
above (superstructure). Therefore, net foundation
pressure is just the total stress of the structure minus the
stress caused by the substructure which is the surcharge
due to soil.

c. Factor of Safety is the ration

between the ultimate stress or
load to that of allowable or the
actual stress or load of the
footing.

Sample Problem #03

For a certain soil, the cohesion is 50 kPa; the unit weight is 19.2 kN/m3. Assuming (𝑁𝑐 = 7.5, 𝑁𝑞 = 1.80, 𝑁𝛾 =
0.48) for local shear failure, (𝑁𝑐 = 9, 𝑁𝑞 = 2.50, 𝑁𝛾 = 1.20) for general shear failure
a. Calculate the net ultimate bearing capacity for a strip footing of width 1.25 m and depth of 4.5 m
consider local shear failure
b. Calculate the safe bearing capacity on a footing 6 m wide and a factor of safety of 2.5. Use 𝑞𝑠 =
𝑞𝑢(𝑛𝑒𝑡)
𝐹.𝑆
+ 𝛾𝐷𝑓 and consider general shear failure.
c. Calculate the safe load that the rectangular footing could carry.
Solution:
a.

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b.

c.

Sample Problem #04

A square footing carries an allowable axial load of 122,405 kg with its bottom resting on a ground water table at
a depth of 2 m below the ground surface. (𝑁𝑐 = 35, 𝑁𝑞 = 22, 𝑁𝛾 = 19). Take 𝜌𝑑𝑟𝑦 = 1846 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3 and 𝜌𝑠𝑎𝑡 =
1965 𝑘𝑔⁄𝑚3 , 𝑐 = 1605 𝑘𝑔/𝑚3.
a. Determine the dimension of the footing using a factor of safety of 3.
b. Compute the ultimate bearing capacity of the soil.
c. Compute the net soil pressure at the bottom of the footing.
Solution:

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SHALLOW FOUNDATIONS: SETTLEMENT OF FOOTINGS

Compressibility of Soil
The increase in stress caused by foundation and
other loads compresses a soil layer. This
compression is caused by:
1. Compaction
- It is the instantaneous process of
reducing the volume voids due to
expulsion of pore air.
2. Consolidation
- It is a time dependent process of reducing
the volume voids due to expulsion of pore
water and plastic readjustment of soil
solids.

Settlement
- is defined as the deformation of soil due to vertical stress
- is defined as the vertical movement of the ground due to
increased vertical stresses are applied to the ground surface

Soil Settlement may be divided into Three Categories:

1. Immediate Settlement
- Caused by the elastic deformation of dry, moist, and
saturated soils, without any change in moisture
content. Elastic settlement calculations generally are
based on equations derived from the theory of
elasticity.
2. Primary Consolidation Settlement
- Caused by a volume change in saturated cohesive
soils due to expulsion of excess water that occupies
the void spaces.
3. Secondary Consolidation Settlement
- Caused by plastic readjustment of soil fabrics. It is an
additional form of compression that occurs at constant
effective stress.
Leaning Tower of Pisa

PRIMARY CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT:

Let us consider a saturated clay layer of thickness H and

cross-sectional area A under an existing average
overburden pressure 𝑃𝑜 . Because of an increase of
effective pressure, ∆𝑃, let the primary settlement be 𝑆𝑐 .
By ratio and proportion, we have

1⁄
𝑆𝑐 𝐴 ∆𝑉𝑣 𝑉𝑠
= ∗
𝐻𝐴 𝑉𝑠 + 𝑉𝑣 1⁄
𝑉𝑠
∆𝑒
𝑆𝑐 = 𝐻
1 + 𝑒𝑜
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𝑆𝑙𝑜𝑝𝑒 = 𝐶𝑐 → compression index

∆𝑒
𝐶𝑐 =
log(𝑃𝑜 + ∆𝑃) − log 𝑃𝑜
∆𝑒
𝐶𝑐 =
𝑃𝑜 + ∆𝑃
log 𝑃
𝑜

Primary Consolidation Settlement for Normally Consolidated Soil:

𝐶𝑐 𝐻 𝑃𝑜 + ∆𝑃
𝑆= log [ ]
1 + 𝑒𝑜 𝑃𝑜

For undisturbed clay:

Compression Index (𝐶𝑐 ) 𝐶𝑐 = 0.009(𝐿𝐿 − 10)

The compression index for the calculation of field For disturbed clay:
settlement caused by consolidation can be 𝐶𝑐 = 0.007(𝐿𝐿 − 7%)
determined by graphic construction after one obtains
the laboratory test results for void ratio and pressure. **Note: These formulas are intended for normally
consolidated soils only.

Two Basic Definitions of Clay based on Stress:

1. Normally Consolidated
- Whose present effective overburden pressure is the maximum pressure that the soil was
subjected to in the past.
2. Overconsolidated
- Whose present effective overburden pressure is less that that which of the soil experienced in the
past. The maximum effective past pressure is called preconsolidation pressure.

Primary Consolidation Settlement for Overconsolidated Soil:

Case 1: (𝑷𝒐 + ∆𝑷) < 𝑷𝒄

𝑐𝑠 𝐻 𝑃𝑜 + ∆𝑃
𝑆= log [ ]
1 + 𝑒𝑜 𝑃𝑜

Case 2: (𝑷𝒐 + ∆𝑷) > 𝑷𝒄

𝑐𝑠 𝐻 𝑃𝑐 𝑐𝑐 𝐻 𝑃𝑜 + ∆𝑃
𝑆= log [ ] + log [ ]
1 + 𝑒𝑜 𝑃𝑜 1 + 𝑒𝑜 𝑃𝑐
1 1
Swell Index, 𝐶𝑠 = 5 𝑐𝑐 𝑡𝑜 𝑐
10 𝑐

𝑃𝑜
Overconsolidated Ratio, OCR = 𝑃
𝑐

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Sample Problem #05

A 4 m saturated clay layer is underlain by a rock and is overlain by a 3 m thick sand. The water table is 1 m
below the sand ground surface. The saturated unit weight of sand and clay are 20 kN/m 3 and 18 kN/m3,
respectively. The sand above the water table has a unit weight of 16 kN/m3. A uniform load of 70 kPa is applied
at the ground surface. Assuming 𝐶𝑠 = 0.20𝐶𝑐 , Initial void ratio is 0.80 and Liquid Limit is 50%, determine the
settlement of the clay layer caused by primary consolidation if
a. the clay is normally consolidated
b. the preconsolidated pressure is 150 kPa
c. the preconsolidated pressure is 90 kPa
Solution:

Sample Problem #06

A soil profile is shown in the figure. If a uniformly

distributed load, ∆𝑃 = 100 𝑘𝑁⁄𝑚2 , is applied at the
ground surface, what is the settlement of the clay
layer caused by primary consolidation if
a. the clay is normally consolidated
b. the preconsolidation pressure is 190 kN/m2
c. the preconsolidation pressure is 170 kN/m2
1
Use 𝐶𝑠 = 6 𝐶𝑐 .

Sample Problem #06

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Solution:

CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT UNDER A FOUNDATION

Assuming that the pressure increase varies parabolically, using
Simpson’s rule, we can estimate the value of ∆𝑃 as

∆𝑃𝑡 + 4∆𝑃𝑚 + ∆𝑃𝑏

∆𝑃 =
6

where ∆𝑃𝑡 , ∆𝑃𝑚 and ∆𝑃𝑏 represent the increase in the effective pressure
at the top, middle, and bottom of the layer, respectively.

Sample Problem #07

A 3 m thick clay layer shown in the figure with load from a footing measuring 5 m
x 3 m in plan (bottom of footing is 1.70 m below the surface). Assume the clay to
be normally consolidated and using the 2:1 method.
a. Solve for the initial effective stress at the mid-height of the clay layer.
b. Solve for the induced stress of the clay layer
c. Solve for the consolidation settlement of the clay layer if it is normally
consolidated

Sample Problem #07

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Solution:

IMMEDIATE AND SECONDARY CONSOLIDATION SETTLEMENT:

Immediate Settlement (Elastic), 𝑆𝑒

𝐵𝑞(1 − 𝜇𝑠 2 )𝐼𝑓
𝑆𝑒 =
𝐸𝑠
where:
𝑆𝑒 = immediate settlement
𝐵 = shortest footing dimension
𝑞 = bearing stress under the footing
𝜇𝑠 = Poisson′ s ratio
𝐼𝑓 = influence factor
𝐸𝑠 = Modulus of Elasticity of the soil

Secondary Consolidation Settlement, 𝑆𝑠

𝐶∝ 𝐻 𝑇2
𝑆𝑠 = log [ ]
1 + 𝑒𝑝 𝑇1
𝑒 −𝑒
𝑜 𝑝
Note: 𝐶𝑐 = log[𝑃𝑜+∆𝑃]
𝑃𝑜

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Sample Problem #08

A rectangular footing (2.0 m x 1.5 m) of a two-storied building and the properties of the clay layer is shown in the
figure
a. Solve for the overburden pressure.
b. Solve for the immediate settlement
c. Solve for the secondary consolidation settlement of the clay 6 years after the completion of the primary
consolidation settlement. The time for the completion of primary settlement is 2 years. The secondary
compression index is 0.020.
Solution:

TOTAL SETTLEMENT:

Total Settlement, 𝑆𝑇

𝑆𝑇 = 𝑆𝑒 + 𝑆𝑝 + 𝑆𝑠

Sample Problem #09

From Sample Problem #07,

compute the total consolidation
settlement of the clay 8 years after
the start of primary consolidation
settlement. The time for the
completion of the primary
settlement is 3 years. The
secondary compression index is
0.020. (Es=18 MPa, Poisson’s
Ratio=0.20, If=1.0)

Solution:

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DESIGN OF STRUCTURAL FOOTINGS

The major requirements of the design of foundation structures are the two as given below:
1. Foundation structures should be able to sustain the applied loads, moments, forces and induced
reactions without exceeding the safe bearing capacity of the soil.
2. The settlement of the structure should be as uniform as possible and it should be within the tolerable
limits. It is well known from the structural analysis that differential settlement of supports causes additional
moments in statically indeterminate structures. Therefore, avoiding the differential settlement is
considered as more important than maintaining uniform overall settlement of the structure.

For design and analysis, we have three

modes of failure to consider:
1. Wide Beam Shear (One-way
shear)
2. Punching Shear (Two-way
shear)
3. Bending Moment

NSCP Code Provisions 2001 Edition 2010/2015 Edition

1. Factored Loads, 𝑃𝑢 1.4DL+1.7LL 1.2DL+1.6LL
2. Strength Reduction Factors, ∅
- Shear 0.85 0.75
- Bearing 0.70 0.65
- Flexure 0.90 𝑓𝑦 ≤ 𝑓𝑠 ∅ = 0.65
𝑓𝑦 < 𝑓𝑠 < 1000 𝑀𝑃𝑎 0.65 < ∅ < 0.9
𝑓𝑠 > 1000 𝑀𝑃𝑎 ∅ = 090

Sample Problem #10

A column 400 mm x 400 mm square is supported by a 3 m x 3 m isolated

spread footing whose 𝑓 ′ 𝑐 = 21 𝑀𝑃𝑎 and is reinforced with 12-20 mm bars
with 𝑓𝑦 = 414 𝑀𝑃𝑎. The column carries a dead load of 800 kN and a live
load of 600 kN. The allowable soil bearing pressure is 200 kPa. The base
of the footing is 1.2 m below the grade. Assume weight of soil and
concrete to be 16 kN/m3 and 24 kN/m3, respectively. The total depth of
footing is 600 mm with concrete cover of 75 mm.
a. Investigate the adequacy of the dimension of the footing
b. Determine the wide beam shear stress at ultimate loads.
c. Determine the punching shear stress at ultimate loads.
d. Determine the ultimate bending moment.
e. Determine if the footing is safe from the three modes of failure. Sample Problem #10

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Solution:

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Sample Problem #11

A square footing is to support a 400 mm x 400 mm column

carrying 1400 kN live load and 1200 kN dead load. The
allowable soil pressure is 250 kPa. The bottom of the footing is
situated 1 m below the ground surface. Assume the average unit
weight of soil and concrete is 19 kN/m3. For footing, use fc’=21
MPa and for column, use fc’=28 MPa. For all steel bars, fy=414
MPa.
a. Determine the dimensions of the footing.
b. Determine the effective depth of the footing
c. Determine the number of 25 mm reinforcement.
d. Determine the number of 28 mm dowel at the base of
the column.

Sample Problem #11

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COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING INFORMATICS AND TECHNOLOGY

Solution:

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 ALDERSGATE COLLEGE
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING INFORMATICS AND TECHNOLOGY

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