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FOUNDATION
• Every building consists of two basic components:
1. Superstructure(above ground)
2. Substructure or foundation (below ground level)
• The soil which is directly located immediately the base of
the foundation is called the sub-soil or foundation soil
while the lower most portion of the foundation which is in
direct contact with the sub-soil is called the footing.
• Functions of foundation:
 Reduction of load intensity
 Even distribution of loads
 Provision of level surface
 Lateral stability
 Safety against undermining
 Protection against soil movements
 TYPES OF FOUNDATION
A) Shallow Foundation System
i) Spread Footings ii)Combined Footings
iii)Strap footings iv) Mat Foundation
B) Deep Foundation System
i) Pile iii) Deep strip
ii) Pier or drilled cassion iv) Caissons
 SHALLOW FOUNDATION
Advantages:
a) Cost (affordable)
b) Construction Procedure (simple)
c) Material (mostly concrete)
d) Labour (doesn’t need expertise)
 SPREAD FOOTINGS
 Also known as a footer or footing
 It’s an enlargement at the bottom of a column/
bearing wall that spreads the applied
structural loads over a sufficiently large soil
area.
 Each column & each bearing wall has its own
spread footing, so each structure may include
dozens of individual footings.
SPREAD FOUNDATION
 The foundation consists of concrete slabs
located under each structural column and a
continuous slab under load-bearing walls.
 For the spread foundation system the
structural load is literally spread out over a
broad area under the building .
 Most common type of foundation used due
to their low cost & ease of construction.
 Most often used in small to medium size
structure with moderate to good soil condition.
 Spread footings may be built in different
shapes & sizes to accommodate individual
needs such as the following:
a) Square Spread Footings / Square Footings
b) Rectangular Spread Footings
c) Circular Spread Footings
d) Ring spread Footings
e) Continuous Spread Footings
a) Square Spread Footings / Pad Foundation
- support a single centrally located column
- use concrete mix 1:2:4 and reinforcement
- the reinforcement in both axes are to
resist/carry tension loads.
PAD FOUNDATION
b) Rectangular Spread Footings
- Useful when obstructions prevent
construction of a square footing with a
sufficiently large base area and when
large moment loads are present
c) Circular Spread Footings
- are round in plan view
- most frequently used as foundation for
light standards, flagpoles and power
transmission lines.
d) Ring Spread Footings
• continuous footings that have been wrapped into a
circle
• commonly used to support the walls above ground
circular storage tanks.
• The contents of these tanks are spread evenly across
the total base area and this weight is probably greater
than the tank itself
• Therefore the geotechnical analyses of tanks usually
treat them as circular foundations with diameters equal
to the diameter of the tank.
Ring Spread Footings
d)Continuous Spread Footings / Strip Foundation
- Used to support bearing walls
 COMBINED FOOTINGS
• support more than one column
• useful when columns are located too close
together for each to have its own footings.
It is of three kinds:
a. Rectangular
b. Trapezoidal
c. Combined-column wall
 STRAP FOOTINGS
• If the independent footings of two columns are
connected by a beam, it is called a strap footing.
• It is used where the distance between the
columns is so great that a combined trapezoidal
footings becomes quite narrow, with high
bending moments.
• In that case, each column is provided with its
independent footings and a beam is used to
connect the two footings.
• The strap beam doesnot remain in contact with
soil, and thus doesnot transfer any pressure to
the soil.
• The strap, assumed to be infinitely stiff,
serves to transfer the column loads on to the
soil with equal and uniform soil pressure
under both footings. The figure below
shows the strap footing for two columns:
 RAFT FOUNDATION
 A foundation system in which essentially the
entire building is placed on a large continuous
footing.
 It is a flat concrete slab, heavily reinforced
with steel, which carries the downward loads
of the individual columns or walls.
Raft foundations are used to spread the load
from a structure over a large area, normally
the entire area of the structure.
MAT/RAFT FOUNDATION
It is normally consists of a concrete slab
which extends over the entire loaded area.
 It may be stiffened by ribs or beams
incorporated into the foundation.
Raft foundations have the advantage of
reducing differential settlements as the
concrete slab resists differential movements
between loading positions.
They are often needed on soft or loose soils
with low bearing capacity as they can
spread the loads over a larger area.
Mat Foundation often considered to be
used when dealing with the following
conditions:
a) The structural loads are so high or the soil
condition so poor that spread footings would
be exceptionally large. As a general rule of
thumb, if spread footings would cover more
than 50% of the building footprint area, a mat
or some type of deep foundation will usually
be more economical.
b) The soil is very erratic & prone to
excessive differential settlements. The
structure continuity and flexural strength of
a mat will bridge over these irregularities.
The same is true of mats on highly
expansive soils prone to differential heaves.
c) The structural loads are erratic and thus
increase the likelihood of excessive
differential settlements. Again, the
structural continuity and flexural strength
of the mat will absorb these irregularities.
d) The lateral loads are not uniformly
distributed through the structure and thus
may cause differential horizontal
movements in spread footings and pile caps.
The continuity of a mat will resist such
movement.
e)The uplift loads are larger than spread
footings can accommodate. The greater
weight and continuity of a mat may provide
sufficient resistance.
f) The bottom of the structure is located below
the groundwater table, so waterproofing is
an important concern. Because mats are
monolithic, they are much easier to
waterproof. The weight of the mat also
helps resist hydrostatic uplift forces from
the groundwater.
 DEEP FOUNDATION
Extend several dozen feet below the
building.
a) Piles
b) Piers
c) Caissons
d) Deep strip, rectangular or square footings
 PILES?????

 A slender, structural member

consisting of steel or concrete or
timber.
 It is installed in the ground to transfer
the structural loads to soils at some
significant depth below the base of the
structure.
PILES
PILES FOUNDATION IS USED WHEN:
 The soil near the surface doesn’t have
sufficient bearing capacity (weak) to support
the structural loads.
 The estimated settlement of the soil exceeds
tolerable limits
 Differential settlement due to soil variability
or non-uniform structural loads is excessive
 Excavations to construct a shallow foundation
on a firm soil are difficult or expensive.
LOAD CAN BE TRANSFERRED BY PILE
TO THE GROUND BY 4 WAY THAT IS:
a) End Bearing Piles OR
- Pile will transmit load into the firm soil layer
of the ground such as rock, gravel, very
dense sand
b) Friction Piles
- Pile transmit the load from the structure to
the penetrable soil by means of skin friction
or cohesion between the soil & the embedded
surface of the pile.
There are 2 type of End Bearing Piles That is Preformed
Timber Pile & In-Site-Reinforced Concrete Pile
Friction Pile May Be Used To Support DownWard Load
c) Combined End bearing and friction pile:
• A pile which transfers the super imposed load both
through side friction as well as end bearing.
• When the end bearing pile pass through granular soils
these type of piles are commonly used.
d) Compaction Piles:
• These are used to compact loose granular soils,thus
increasing their bearing capacity.
• These piles donot carry load hence they may be of
weaker material such as timber, bamboo sticks, sands
etc.
• The pile tube, driven to compact the soil, is gradually
taken out and sand is filled in its place thus forming a
‘sand pile’
 TYPES OF PILES
Based on materias and composition
a) Concrete Piles
I) Precast Concrete Piles
II) Cast-In-Situ Concrete Piles (2 types)
i)Driven Piles: Cased or Uncased
ii)Bored Piles: Pressure piles, under-reamed piles
and bored compaction piles.
b) Steel Piles
i) H-Piles ii) Pipe Piles iii) Sheet Piles
c) Timber Piles
d) Composite Piles
i) Concrete and Timber
ii) Concrete and Steel
 PRECAST CONCRETE PILES
i. Usually have square/circular/octagonal
cross sections.
ii. Fabricated in a construction yard from
reinforced or pre-stressed concrete.
iii. Disadvantages of this pile are problems in
transporting long piles, cutting and
lengthening.
iv. It has higher capacity than timber piles.
v. Used for a maximum design load of about
800kN, except for large prestressed piles.
 CAST IN PLACE CONCRETE PILES
i. Formed by driving a cylindrical steel shell
into the ground to the desired depth and
cavity of shell is filled with fluid concrete.
ii. The steel shell doesn’t contribute to the load
transfer capacity of the pile.
iii. It’s purpose is to open a hole in a ground and
keep it open to facilitate the construction of
concrete pile. (same function as formwork)
iv. Vigilant quality control & good construction
practice are necessary to ensure the integrity
of cast-in-place piles.
v. Used for maxm design load of 750kN except
for compacted pedestal piles.
The Advantages of Cast-In-Place
Concrete are as follows:
 Can sustain hard driving
 Resistant to marine organism
 Easily inspected
 Length can be changed easily
 Easy to handle and ship
 STEEL PILES
i. It comes in various shapes & sizes
ii. Steel H-Piles are rolled steel sections
iii. Steel pipe piles are seamless pipes that can
be welded to yield lengths up to 70m.
iv. They are usually driven with open ends into
the soil.
v. A conical tip is used where the piles have to
penetrate boulders & rocks.
vi. However it needs to be treated before
embedded in corrosive environment.
 TIMBER PILES
i. Have been used since ancient times
ii. Length of timber piles depends on types
of trees used to harvest the piles,
iii. Common length are 12m
iv. It is susceptible to termites, marine
organisms and rot within zones exposed
to seasonal changes.
v. Eventhough it’s cheaper but it has low
capacity and can’t take hard driving.
 COMPOSITE PILES
Concrete and Timber
• These are suitable where the upper part of a pile
is to project above water table.Such a pile
consists of a lower portion of untreated timber
and an upper portion of concrete.
Concrete and Steel
• In other types of composite piles, steel piles are
attached to the lower end of cast-in-place
concrete piles. This type is used in case where
the required length of pile is greater than that
available for the cast-in-place type.
TYPES OF PILE CHOSEN DEPENDS
ON FOLLOWING FACTORS:
a) What type of pile is readily available
b) Location & type of structure (magnitude
of loading)
c) Ground Condition (soil type)
d) Cost
e) Durability
 METHOD OF INSTALLATION
a) Dropping Weight or Drop Hammers
- commonly used method of insertion of displacement
piles
b) Diesel Hammers
- Most suitable to drive pile in non cohesive granular
soil
c) Vibratory Hammers or vibratory method of pile
driving
- very effective in driving piles through non cohesive
granular soil
d) Jacking Method Of Insertion
e) Single Acting Hammer
f) Double Acting Hammer
 Diesel Hammer
 Rapid controlled explosions can be produced by the
diesel hammer.
 The explosions raise a ram which is used to drive the
pile into the ground.
 Although the ram is smaller than the weight used in
the drop hammer the increased frequency of the
blows can make up for this inefficiency.
 This type of hammer is most suitable for driving
piles through non-cohesive granular soils where the
majority of the resistance is from end bearing.
 Vibratory Method of Pile Driving
Vibratory methods can prove to be very
effective in driving piles through non cohesive
granular soils.
The vibration of the pile excites the soil grains
adjacent to the pile making the soil almost free
flowing thus significantly reducing friction
along the pile shaft.
However the large energy resulting from the
vibrations can damage equipment, noise and
vibration propagation can also result in the
settlement of nearby buildings.
Pile Driving Rig - raise and temporarily support the pile
that being driven and to support the pile hammer.
Pile Driving Rig
Dropping Weight / Drop Hammers
 A weight approximately half that of the
pile is raised a suitable distance in a guide
and released to strike the pile head.
 When driving a hollow pile tube the
weight usually acts on a plug at the bottom
of the pile thus reducing any excess
stresses along the length of the tube during
insertion.
Pile Installation Using Drop Hammer
 Jacking Method Of Insertion

 Jacked Piles are most commonly used in

underpinning structures
 By excavating underneath a structure short
lengths of pile can be inserted and jacked
into the ground using the underside of the
existing structure as a reaction.
Jacking Method Of Insertion
 Single Acting Hammer

• If the hammer is raised by steam,

compressed air or internal combustion, but
is allowed to fall by gravity along.
• The energy of such hammer is equal to the
weight of the ram times the height of fall.
• The weight of single acting hammer is
about 20kN,the fall is about 1metre and the
number of blows of the hammer may vary
from 50-60 per minute.
 Double Acting Hammer
• It employs steam or air for lifting the ram
and for accelerating the downward stroke.
• It operates with succession of rapid blows,
the number varying from 100 to 200 blows
per minute.
• The weight of the hammer is only (5 kN)
but because of accelerating effect of steam
pressure, it has an effect of a weight of 3
tonnes.
• For light hammers the number of blows
may be even as high as 300 per minute for
quick driving.
 PIERS
 It’s a vertical bridge support.
 It’s a foundation for carrying a heavy
structural load which is constructed in site
and the size and spacing of piers depends on
the depth of hard bed, nature of overlaying
soil and superimposed load.
It transfers the load only through bearing.
The term drilled caissons denote a
cylindrical foundation is a compressed
member subjected to an axial load at the top
and reaction at the bottom
Among the things to be taken in consideration
during construction of pier are as follows:
a) Drilling through wet or caving soils may
need use of temporary steel casing. May also
require the use of a tremie & a pump to
dewater the hole & place concrete. This is
more expensive and require a large diameter
hole.
b) For the purpose of reinforcing, it’s difficult
to get bars to the full depth of the pier with
the proper concrete cover in deep holes.Use
centralizes. Use large diameter bars versus
more bars.
c)Don’t leave holes open for any length of time even
in dry condition. Cuttings fall in or etc. Have
concrete on site and fill right after drilling and
cleaning.
Pier
Pier
Pier
Pumping Water Out Of The Hole For The Excavation
Of The Pier
Constructing The Pier Framing
 Completed Pier Framing

Post Footing & Detail

 Ramp Is Installed

Ramp Is Bolted
 Floor Decking
Installation

Completed Pier
WELL FOUNDATION/
CAISSONS
 WHAT IS CAISSONS?
 It’s a prefabricated hollow box or cylinder.
 It is sunk into the ground to some desired
depth and then filled with concrete thus
forming a foundation.
 Most often used in the construction of bridge
piers & other structures that require foundation
beneath rivers & other bodies of water.
This is because caissons can be floated to the
job site and sunk into place.
Basically it is similar in form to pile
foundation but installed using different way
used when soil of adequate bearing strength
is found below surface layers of weak
materials such as fill or peat.
It’s a form of deep foundation which are
constructed above ground level, then sunk to
the required level by excavating or dredging
material from within the caisson.
 A caisson foundation consists of concrete
columns constructed in cylindrical shafts
excavated under the proposed structural
column locations
 Caissons are drilled to bedrock or deep into
the underlying strata if a geotech eng. find the
soil suitable to carry the building load.
 It’s created by auguring a deep hole in the
ground.
 Then, 2 or more ‘stick’ reinforcing bar are I
inserted into and run the full length of the
hole and the concrete is poured into the
caisson hole.
 The caisson foundations carry the building
loads at their lower ends, which are often
bell-shaped.
Caissons
 TYPES OF CAISSONS
1. Box Caissons
• Open at top and closed at the bottom and is
made up of timber, reinforced concrete or steel.
• Built on land then launched and floated to pier
site where sunk in position
• Used where bearing stratum is available at
shallow depth and loads are not heavy.
• Closed box caissons are used for break waters
and sea walls.
2. Open Caissons(Well Foundation):
• An open caisson is a box of timber, metal, reinforced
concrete or masonry which is open both at the top and
at the bottom.
• Used for building and bridge foundations.
• It is a shell sunk by dredging inside of it and which
finally becomes a part of the permanent structure.
• The choice of a particular shape depends upon the
dimensions of the base of the pier or abutment, the
care and cost of sinking, the considerations of tilt and
shift during sinking and the vertical and horizontal
forces to which the well is subjected.
3.Pneumatic Caissons:
• These are closed at the top and open (during
construction) at the bottom.
• The essential feature of it is that compressed air is
used to exclude or remove water from the working
chamber at the bottom, and thus excavations are
carried out in dry conditions.
• In order to regulate the entry of subsoil water to the
working chamber , the pressure of air in the shaft is
kept just higher than that of water at the depth.
• Normally the tolerable air pressure under which a
man can work is limited to 0.35 N/sq.mm.
• Skilled personnel and high construction cost is
required.
Reinforced Concrete Caissons
Caissons
Caisson As One Of The Elements In This Structure
 COFFER DAMS
• A coffer dam is a temporary enclosure in a river,
lake etc. built round a working area for the
purpose of excluding water during construction.
• It may be made of earth materials, timber or steel
sheet piling or a combination thereof.
• Some common types of coffer dams are:
1. Cantilever sheet pile coffer dam:
• Suitable for small heights, since these are
susceptible to large leakage and flood damage.
2. Braced coffer dam:
• Economical for small to moderate height.
3.Embankment Protected Coffer dam:
• There is no height limitation, but they are
adopted only when the area to be excavated is
very large as they occupy large base area.
4.Double wall coffer dam:
• Suitable for moderate height.
5. Cellular coffer dams:
• Suitable for moderate and large heights.
• Consists of a series of adjoining cells of circular
or other curved shape made of sheet piling
• Each cell is huge cylinder of 9 to 12m lateral
dimension and filled with rock gravel and sand.