Assignment -1

ME 5022

Instrumentation and Experimental Techniques

Admission Marks
Name
No.
219646T Gayan Radhishka Hettiarachchi

Lecturer Dr. Asitha L. Kulasekera

MEng/PG Diploma in Energy Technology

Department of Mechanical Engineering

University of Moratuwa
Sri Lanka
Acknowledgement

The success and final outcome of this Instrumentation and Experimental Techniques
Assignment required a lot of guidance and assistance from many people and I extremely
fortunate to have got this all along the completion of my assignment work. Whatever I have
done is only due to such guidance and assistance and I would not forget to thank them.
I respect and thank our lecturer Dr. Asitha L. Kulasekera for giving me an opportunity to do
this assignment work and providing me all support and guidance which made me complete the
assignment on time. I am extremely grateful to him for providing such a nice support and
guidance. Last but not least, I would like to express my gratitude to Miss. Udari of the
University of Moratuwa for the great support given.

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Table of Contents
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................ 5
Question 1) ................................................................................................................................. 7
A) Sensor ............................................................................................................................... 7
Definition I ......................................................................................................................... 7
Definition II ........................................................................................................................ 7
B) Transducer ......................................................................................................................... 9
Definition I ......................................................................................................................... 9
Definition II ...................................................................................................................... 11
Types .................................................................................................................................... 11
Active vs passive sensors ................................................................................................. 13
Applications ......................................................................................................................... 14
1. Electromagnetic ......................................................................................................... 14
2. Electrochemical ......................................................................................................... 14
3. Electromechanical ..................................................................................................... 14
4. Electroacoustic .......................................................................................................... 14
5. Electro-optical ........................................................................................................... 15
6. Electrostatic ............................................................................................................... 15
7. Thermoelectric .......................................................................................................... 15
8. Radio acoustic ........................................................................................................... 15
C) Converter ........................................................................................................................ 16
Examples of converter usage ............................................................................................ 16
Different types of converters ............................................................................................ 17
Classification of converter types ...................................................................................... 17
DC to AC converters – Inverters ...................................................................................... 17
AC to AC converters – Frequency converter ................................................................... 18
DC to DC converters ........................................................................................................ 19
Question 2) ............................................................................................................................... 20
Half Power Bandwidth ......................................................................................................... 20
Question 3). The Maximum Power Transfer Theorem ............................................................ 21
Thevenins Equivalent Circuit ............................................................................................... 22
Maximum Power Transfer Example - No1 ............................................................... 23
Calculate the circuit's current and power for various load resistance levels. ....................... 23

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 Table of Current against Power ........................................................................................ 23
Graph of Power against Load Resistance ......................................................................... 24
Transformer Impedance Matching ................................................................................... 25
Maximum Power Transfer - Example No2 ................................................................... 26
Question 4) ............................................................................................................................... 28
Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) ................................................................. 28
LVDT Advantages ............................................................................................................ 30
Definition II ...................................................................................................................... 30
Types of (LVDT) ................................................................................................................. 32
How does the LVDT function? ............................................................................................ 35
Analyses of the oscillator ..................................................................................................... 36
Description of the demodulator ............................................................................................ 36
Measurements of Tensile Tests Perform Better with LVDT Rig ..................................... 37
Other Applications ............................................................................................................... 38
Rotary variable differential transformer (RVDT) ................................................................ 39
Definition II ...................................................................................................................... 40
RVDT Construction and Its Working .................................................................................. 41
When the Core is at Null Position .................................................................................... 42
When the Core Rotates in Clockwise Direction ............................................................... 42
How to Choose RVDT? ....................................................................................................... 43
The advantages of RVDT include the following. ................................................................ 44
The disadvantages of RVDT mainly include the following................................................. 44
RVDT Applications.............................................................................................................. 44
Question 05) Sensors in Industrial Setting............................................................................... 45
a) Optical Proximity Sensors................................................................................................ 45
Applications of Optical Sensors ........................................................................................... 47
1. Ambient Light Sensors .............................................................................................. 47
2. Biomedical Applications ........................................................................................... 47
3. Industrial/Commercial ............................................................................................... 48
4. Consumer Electronics ............................................................................................... 48
Types of Optical Sensors...................................................................................................... 49
b) Inductive Proximity Sensors ............................................................................................ 49
Applications of Inductive Proximity Sensors in Industrial Settings .................................... 50
1. Panasonic................................................................................................................... 50
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 2. Position Detection on a Mechanical Moving Part ..................................................... 50
3. Valve Position Control during Processing ................................................................ 51
c) Capacitive Proximity Sensors .......................................................................................... 51
Applications and Industries .................................................................................................. 52
1. Process Industry ........................................................................................................ 52
2. Wind Turbines ........................................................................................................... 52
3. Warehousing and Material Handling ........................................................................ 53
4. Printing Industry ........................................................................................................ 53

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List of Figures
Figure 1 - Input Transducer ....................................................................................................... 7
Figure 2 - IR Sensor (Transceiver) ............................................................................................ 8
Figure 3 - Light Sensors ............................................................................................................. 8
Figure 4 - A.C Tachometer Generator ....................................................................................... 9
Figure 5 - Linear Potentiometer ............................................................................................... 10
Figure 6 - Analog Encoder Transducer .................................................................................... 10
Figure 7 - Digital Encoder Transducer .................................................................................... 11
Figure 8 - Mechanical Transducer ........................................................................................... 12
Figure 9 - Half Power Bandwidth ............................................................................................ 20
Figure 10 - Maximum Power Transfer .................................................................................... 21
Figure 11 - Thevenins equivalent circuit ................................................................................. 22
Figure 12 - Maximum Power Transfer Example No1 ............................................................. 23
Figure 13 - Ohm’s Law equations ........................................................................................... 23
Figure 14 - Table of Current against Power............................................................................. 23
Figure 15 - Maximum power against load ............................................................................... 24
Figure 16 - Transformer impedance matching......................................................................... 25
Figure 17 - Equation for Finding the Maximum Power Transfer ............................................ 26
Figure 18 - Maximum Power Transfer Example No2 ............................................................. 26
Figure 19 - The Load Impedance ............................................................................................. 27
Figure 20 - Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) .................................................. 28
Figure 21 - Operation ............................................................................................................... 28
Figure 22 - LVDT Equivalent Circuit ...................................................................................... 29
Figure 23 - Typical Operating Curve of an LVDT .................................................................. 29
Figure 24 - LVDT Operation ................................................................................................... 30
Figure 25 - LD400: Miniature DC output Displacement Transducers with acetal Bearing .... 33
Figure 26 - RVDT .................................................................................................................... 39
Figure 27 - Linear range .......................................................................................................... 40
Figure 28 - Measuring Angular Displacement......................................................................... 40
Figure 29 - Rotary Variable Differential Transformer ............................................................ 41
Figure 30 - RVDT Construction .............................................................................................. 42
Figure 31 - Fiber Optical Proximity Sensors .......................................................................... 45
Figure 32 - Optical Proximity Sensor ...................................................................................... 45

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Figure 33 - Ambient Light Sensor in a Mobile Phone ............................................................. 47
Figure 34 -Optical Heart Rate Sensor ...................................................................................... 47
Figure 35 - Ambient Light Sensor IC Block Diagram ............................................................. 48
Figure 36 - Internal Elements of an Inductive Proximity Sensor ............................................ 49
Figure 37 - Capacitive Proximity Sensors ............................................................................... 51

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Question 1)
A) Sensor
Definition I
A sensor is an instrument that generates a meaningful signal in response to a measured quantity.
A physical parameter is measured and converted into an electrical signal by a sensor. When a
physical quantity like pressure or temperature changes, a sensor can be thought of as an input
transducer, a device that changes those changes into an electrical signal.

Examples include a microphone, a speaker, and the human body's own senses of hearing, sight.

and scent.
Figure 1 - Input Transducer

Definition II
A sensor is a device that generates an output signal to sense a physical occurrence. A sensor is,
in the broadest sense, a device, module, machine, or subsystem that recognizes events or
changes in its surroundings and transmits the data to other electronics, typically a computer
processor. Always utilize sensors in conjunction with other electronics.

Sensors are employed in a variety of commonplace items, including touch-sensitive elevator

buttons (a tactile sensor), lamps that change brightness or darkness when you touch the base,
and many other uses that the majority of people are unaware of. The usage of sensors has
moved beyond the conventional disciplines of temperature, pressure, and flow measurement,
for example, into MARG sensors, thanks to improvements in micromachinery and user-
friendly microcontroller platforms.

Potentiometers and force-sensing resistors are two common examples of analog sensors. Their
uses span a wide range of areas, including manufacturing and machinery, aerospace,
automobiles, health care, robotics, and many other facets of daily life. Other sensors that
measure the chemical and physical characteristics of materials include optical sensors for

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determining refractive index, vibrational sensors for determining fluid viscosity, and electro-
chemical sensors for determining fluid pH.

The sensitivity of a sensor describes how much its output varies when the quantity it is
measuring changes. For instance, a thermometer's sensitivity is 1 cm/°C if the mercury moves
1 centimeter when the temperature increases by 1 °C (essentially, the slope dy/dx assuming a
linear characteristic). Some sensors can also change the value they are measuring. For instance,
a thermometer placed in a heated liquid will chill the liquid while heating the thermometer.
Making the sensor smaller frequently improves this and may bring about further benefits
because sensors are typically designed to have a modest impact on what is measured.

Called technology advances, more and more sensors may be produced using MEMS
technology at minuscule scales as microsensors. When compared to macroscopic methods, a
micro sensor often achieves a substantially faster measurement time and higher sensitivity.
Disposable sensors, which are inexpensive and simple to use devices for short-term monitoring
or single-shot measurements, have recently grown in relevance due to the growing demand for
quick, affordable, and trustworthy information in today's society.

Figure 2 - IR Sensor (Transceiver)

Figure 3 - Light Sensors

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B) Transducer
Definition I
Transducers, which generate an electrical signal, are chosen over other types of sensors for the
following reasons:
• Simple to combine with another sensor or transducer
• Simple signal conditioning (Amplification, Integration, and Differentiation)
• Ease of conversion from analog to digital and vice versa (for example, computer interface
compatibility)
• Can be easily transmitted over great distances

There are four major transducers.

1. First, passive transducer

Transducer that works without the aid of an external energy source to partially transfer the
energy present in the input signal into the output signal.

• Piezoelectric sensors for measuring stress and tension

• Tachogenerator for measuring angular speed
• Photovoltaic transducers for determining light intensity

Figure 4 - A.C Tachometer Generator

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2). Active Transducers
Energy-independent transducers do not rely on energy conversion from the input signal but
instead require an external energy source, such as an auxiliary power supply.
• Potentiometer, a device used to gauge movement

Figure 5 - Linear Potentiometer

3). Analog Transducers

• Continuous analog signal is produced by the transducers.

Figure 6 - Analog Encoder Transducer

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4). Digital Transducers
• Typically, the output is in the form of electrical pluses.
• A shaft encoder is a device that measures the angular position of a shaft.

Figure 7 - Digital Encoder Transducer

Definition II
A device that transforms energy from one form to another is called a transducer. A transducer
typically transforms a signal from one form of energy to another.

When electrical signals are translated into and out of other physical quantities at the edges of
automation, measurement, and control systems, transducers are frequently used (energy, force,
torque, light, motion, position, etc.). Transduction is the process of changing one type of energy
into another.

Types
• Mechanical transducers are named from the fact that they transfer physical quantities
to mechanical quantities or vise - versa.
• Electrical transducers, on the other hand, convert physical quantities or signals into
electrical quantities or signals.
Here are several examples:
• A thermocouple is a device that converts temperature variations into a tiny voltage.
• A linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) is a device that uses electrical
impulses to measure displacement (position) changes.

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Sensors, Actuators and Transceivers

One way to classify transducers is by the direction of information flow:

• A sensor is a transducer which takes in information from the real world and acts on it
in some way. It generates a signal that conveys system data to a telemetry, information,
or control system.
• In order to move or regulate a mechanism or system, it needs to be equipped with an
actuator. Manual or automatic control signals operate it. You can use mechanical force,
electrical current, hydraulic fluid pressure, or pneumatic pressure to power it, and it will
then turn that energy into motion. An actuator is the part of a control system that really
does something to the external world. A printer driver, a software-based robot control
system, a human operator, or some combination of these are all examples of control
systems.
• Bidirectional transducers can both receive and send electrical signals, allowing them to
be used in both directions. Antennas are a type of transducer that are essentially
bidirectional since they may either transform electromagnetic waves into an electrical
signal for a radio receiver to process or translate an electrical signal from a transmitter
into radio waves. Also, dynamic microphones and loudspeakers both employ something
called a voice coil to convert sound waves into an electrical audio signal.
• Transceivers have incorporated simultaneous bidirectional capability. Radio
transceivers (called transponders on airplanes) are a prime example, as they are present
in almost every kind of wireless communication and network connection. Another
illustration would be ultrasound transceivers, which are typically utilized in medical
ultrasound (echo) scans.

Figure 8 - Mechanical Transducer

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Active vs passive sensors

Active transducers
Require an excitation signal, which is an external power source, in order to function. The sensor
modifies the signal to create an output signal. A thermistor, for instance, doesn't provide any
electrical signal but can still be used to measure resistance by detecting changes in the current
or voltage across it when an electric current is passed through it.

Passive transducers
Alternatively, without the use of an extra energy source, generate an electric current in response
to an external stimulus that acts as the output signal. These include a photodiode, a piezoelectric
sensor, a photovoltaic device, and a thermocouple.

Characteristic
Several criteria that are used to rank transducers include:

• Dynamic range: The ratio of the largest to the smallest amplitude signal that the transducer
can reliably translate is known as dynamic range. Larger dynamic range transducers are more
accurate and "sensitive."

• Repeatability: This refers to the transducer's capacity to generate a consistent output when
triggered by a certain input.

• Noise: Every transducer modifies their output with some random noise. This could be
electrical noise in electrical transducers caused by the heat movement of charges in circuits.
Small signals are more vulnerable to noise than large ones.

• Hysteresis: This is a property where the transducer's output is dependent both on its present
and past inputs. For instance, a gear-driven actuator may experience backlash, or play between
both the gear teeth, which results in a dead zone before the actuator's output reverses if the
actuator's direction of motion is reversed.

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Applications
1. Electromagnetic
• Antennas transform electromagnetic waves in motion into and out of transmitted
electrical impulses.
• Magnetic cartridges, which transform relative motion into and out of electrical
impulses.
• Magnetic fields on a magnetic medium are converted to and from electrical signals by
tape heads, disk read and write heads, and other devices.

2. Electrochemical

• pH probes
• Electro-galvanic oxygen sensors
• Hydrogen sensors

3. Electromechanical

Meters and sensors are fed by electromechanical input, while actuators are electromechanical
output devices.

• Accelerometers
• Air flow sensors
• Electroactive polymers

4. Electroacoustic
• Earphones and loudspeakers: these devices transform electrical signals into sound (by
using an amplified signal, a magnetic field, motion, and air pressure).
• Microphones - turn sound into an electrical signal by using a combination of air
pressure, conductor or coil motion, magnetic field, and electrical signal.
• Electrical signal is transformed into vibration via tactile transducers (electrical signal
vibration).

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 5. Electro-optical
Known also as photoelectric

• Fluorescent lamps - transforms electrical energy into incoherent light

• Incandescent lighting - transforms electrical energy into incoherent light
• Light-emitting diodes - transforms electrical energy into incoherent light

6. Electrostatic

• Electrometers

7. Thermoelectric

• Resistance temperature detectors, also known as RTDs, are devices that are capable of
converting temperature into an electrical resistance signal.
• Thermocouples are devices that are capable of converting the relative temperatures of
metallic junctions into an electrical voltage.
• Thermistors, which (includes PTC resistor and NTC resistor)

8. Radio acoustic
• Geiger Muller tubes: these devices transform incident ionizing radiation into an
electrical impulse signal.
• Electromagnetic transmissions are converted to electrical impulses by radio receivers.
• Electrical signals are transformed into electromagnetic broadcasts by radio transmitters.

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C) Converter
A converter is a device that changes one form of energy into another and is commonplace
in many settings. Mobile devices (like smartphones and laptops), LED lighting,
transportation (like cars and subways), solar panels, and industrial machinery are just some
of the many places you might find a converter in use.

An electrical or electromechanical device designed to change the value of one electrical

parameter (voltage, current, or frequency) at the input to a different parameter at the output
is called a converter.
(Wharf) cranes, steel mills, cable extruders, welding equipment, robotics, low voltage (LV)
industrial networks (chemical plants, paper mills, automobile industry), data centers, and
hospitals are just a few examples of the many places converters are put to use.

A converter is a device that uses mechanical rotation to change the form of electrical energy
(such as direct current to alternating current or vice versa) and is also used in radio to change
the frequency at which a signal is broadcast.

An accessory that allows a TV or radio to pick up channels or frequencies for which it was
not originally intended (Ex- a cable converter, FM converter)

As well as a gadget that can take data in one form and transform it into another digital
format.

Examples of converter usage

▪ Alternating-current (AC) voltage to direct-current (DC) voltage conversion (or vice versa)
▪ Varying the input voltage from low to high or high to low Changing the frequency, say
from 50Hz (Europe) to 60Hz (USA)
▪ Synchronous motor driving and speed regulation
▪ Mains voltage stabilization (clean net)
▪ Providing power to devices that can't handle voltage swings (laboratories, lightning, etc.)

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Different types of converters
There are various converter kinds, and they all function in unique ways. As an illustration,
some converters change the voltage from AC to DC and vice versa. Altering the voltage level
or frequency are two more potential functions. It is also feasible to combine these various
changes. This indicates that a wide variety of options and types, as well as applications
including electrical machine control, light drives, active power filters, conversion of renewable
energy, energy storage systems, and energy generation and distribution, are available. From
microelectronics to high-voltage power transmission, there are many converters power levels
available. Additionally, there are tools and techniques for switching between single-phase and
three-phase power systems.

Classification of converter types

On the basis of source input voltage and output voltage, we can classify four types of
converters.

• Rectifier (converter from AC to DC)

• DC-to-AC converter, often known as an "inverter"

• Frequency converter from AC to AC, or "transformer"

• DC to DC voltage, often known as a "current converter"

DC to AC converters – Inverters
A fixed DC input voltage is converted to a variable AC output voltage by static devices known
as DC to AC converters. A variable or fixed alternating voltage with a variable or fixed
frequency can be the converter's output voltage. Depending on the supplied voltage, this sort
of converter can be either a single-phase or three-phase converter.

There are 2 types

• Uncontrolled diode rectifiers

This kind of rectifier transforms the network's alternating voltage into a fixed direct voltage by
using diodes. These converters are also known as uncontrolled rectifiers because diodes

17
produce a fixed voltage and are uncontrollable components (which do not need triggering).
Single-phase or three-phase input voltage are also acceptable.

• Switching-mode rectifiers
This kind of rectifier transforms alternating network voltage into a changeable direct voltage
by using thyristors in place of diodes. Phase-controlled rectifiers are another name for these
rectifiers. They operate similarly to rectifiers that are not under control. The uncontrolled
diodes have been replaced by thyristors like SCRs, which makes a difference. Thyristors may
be controlled, unlike diodes, by triggering them at predetermined intervals to change the output
voltage.

AC to AC converters – Frequency converter

The primary purpose of an AC to AC converter is to change the frequency of the input voltage
or current from the source to the desired load level. Some of these converters allow for both
frequency and voltage amplitude adjustment. These are mostly employed for induction heating
and modifying the speed of AC motors. An AC to AC converter that works well is a
transformer. Only the level of the voltage can differ between the input and output; both the
input and the output voltages are AC. Additionally; a transformer typically provides galvanic
isolation due to its inherent properties.

Two categories of AC/AC converters exist:

• Cycloconverters (CCV)
Cycloconverters are employed to change a power supply's frequency to the desired
load frequency. These converters are mostly utilized in high power applications for
frequency reduction, up to tens of megawatts. Applications for cycloconverters
include synchronous motors in ships, high-power AC drives, propulsion systems, and
high-frequency induction heating.

• Matrix converters
Frequency conversion choices are abundant with matrix converters. They are created
using fully automated static devices, typically with switches that operate in both
directions. Any phase of the load can be connected to any phase of the input source
when employing these switches in three-phase matrix converters.

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DC to DC converters

Devices called DC to DC converters change the level of a DC input voltage to a desired DC

output value. This kind of converter comprises of thyristors or other power electronic switching
devices connected in a way that allows them to supply the load with the necessary DC voltage.

The two primary categories of DC-DC converters are:

▪ Isolation converters: by placing a transformer between the input and the output, they
remove the DC path and boost conversion security.
▪ Non-isolation converters: these have a DC path connecting the input and the output.

A DC-DC converter is needed in many industrial applications to change a fixed-voltage DC

source into a variable-voltage DC source. Ship lifts, forklifts, subways, big DC motor control,
and traction motor control in electric cars are a few examples of these uses.

One that converts, in particular

• A furnace used for the Bessemer process, which turns pig iron into steel.
• A device that changes one type of electric current into another.
• A piece of technology that changes the frequency of a radio broadcast.
• A tool that translates data between different coding systems.

One that is used to transform raw materials into finished goods.

• A furnace utilized in the Bessemer process for transforming pig iron into steel.
• A device that converts alternating current to direct current.
• The radio receiver component that converts modulated high frequency signals to lower
frequencies.
• Any apparatus used to adapt a television or radio receiver to additional frequencies or
modulations.

Changes the shape of an electric signal or power source, for as by converting ac supply to direct
current or an analog signal to a digital signal.
A device that modifies the frequency of a radio transmission or even other electromagnetic signal.

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Question 2)
Half Power Bandwidth
A common way to express the filter's bandpass or band reject (band limit) bandwidth. The
difference between the upper frequency where response is 3 dB below maximum and the
lower frequency where response is 3 dB below is known as the half power bandwidth. It is
simple to understand why this is known as the half-power bandwidth because a 3 dB level
reduction corresponds to a reduction in power of 50%.
Another indicator of an instrument's useful frequency range. A wide bandwidth indicates a
quicker response time and shorter rising time. (Time domain ratings and frequency domain
ratings are connected.)

Figure 9 - Half Power Bandwidth

It is found that using the half-power bandwidth technique in its conventional form can lead
to significant mistakes but using a third order correction on this conventional form results
in results that are more conservative and reliable. In addition to this correction, it is learned
that damping ratio predictions for higher modes should always be taken into account and
that the half-power bandwidth approach should be used to calculate the structure's
acceleration frequency response transfer function mode-by-mode.

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Question 3). The Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

Figure 10 - Maximum Power Transfer

When the load's resistance is equal to the voltage source's internal resistance, maximum
power is transferred.

Source resistance, or impedance if inductors or capacitors are also involved, is typically a

known quantity expressed in Ohms. When a resistance, RL, is connected across the power
source's terminals, the load's impedance changes from open circuit to short circuit, and the
power consumed by the load depends on the impedance of the power source itself. Then, in
order for the resistance of the load to absorb the maximum potential power, it must be
"Matched" to the impedance of the power source; this is the foundation of Maximum Power
Transfer.

Another helpful tool for analyzing circuits is the Maximum Power Transfer Theorem, which
states that if the value of the load resistance is equal to the resistance of the power source,
then the maximum amount of power will be wasted in the load resistance. The power in the
load can be calculated from the connection between the load impedance and the internal
impedance of the energy source.

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Thevenins Equivalent Circuit

Figure 11 - Thevenins equivalent circuit

The maximum power transfer theorem asserts that in our Thevenin equivalent circuit above,
"the load resistance will dissipate the maximum amount of power if it is exactly equal to the
Thevenin or Norton source resistance of the network supplying the power."

To put it another way, whether the load resistance is higher or lower in value than the
network's Thevenin source resistance, the maximum amount of power will not be dissipated.
Instead, RL = RS if the load resistance is equal to the equivalent Thevenin source resistance.

Find the load resistance, RL, for the following circuit that will allow for the greatest amount
of power transmission, for instance.

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 • Maximum Power Transfer Example - No1

Figure 12 - Maximum Power Transfer Example No1

The following Ohm's Law formulae can then be used:

Figure 13 - Ohm’s Law equations

Calculate the circuit's current and power for various load resistance levels.

Table of Current against Power

Figure 14 - Table of Current against Power

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We may create a graph of load resistance, RL against power, P for various values of load
resistance using the information from the aforementioned table. Bear in mind that power is
zero for both a short-circuit and an open circuit (zero current situation) (zero voltage
condition).

Graph of Power against Load Resistance

Figure 15 - Maximum power against load

The maximum power transfer occurs in the load when the load resistance, RL, is equal to
the source resistance, RS, or when RS = RL = 25, as shown in the above table and graph.
As a general rule, maximum power is transferred from an active device, such as a power
source or battery, to an external device when the impedance of the external device precisely
matches the impedance of the source. This is known as a "matched state."

Impedance matching between an audio amplifier and a loudspeaker is a nice illustration.

The nominal input impedance, ZIN, of the loudspeaker may only be specified as 8, but the
output impedance, ZOUT, of the amplifier may be specified as being between 4 and 8.

The amplifier will recognize the speaker as an 8 load if it is connected to the amplifier's
output at that point. The amplifier can drive two 8-inch speakers in parallel in the same way
as it can drive a single 4-inch speaker, and both connections fall within the amplifier's
permitted output range.

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Inadequate impedance matching can cause a significant increase in power loss and heat
generation. However, given that an amplifier and loudspeaker have significantly dif ferent
impedances, how might we impedance match them? For example, in PA (public address)
systems, there are loudspeaker impedance matching transformers that may shift impedances
from 4 to 8 or 16 to enable impedance matching of numerous loudspeakers connected
together in different combinations.

Transformer Impedance Matching

In order to maximize transfer of power between the source and the load, impedance matching
is a highly helpful technique used in the output stages of amplifier circuits. To get the
soundest output from an amplifier, signal transformers are employed to match the
loudspeakers' higher or lower output impedance value. These "matching transformers" for
audio signals relate the load to the output of the amplifier as seen below.

Figure 16 - Transformer impedance matching

Even if the output impedance is different from the load impedance, the maximum power
transmission can still be achieved. As a resistance on one side of the transformer changes to
a different value on the other, this can be accomplished by using a suitable "turns ratio" on
the transformer with the corresponding ratio of the load impedance, ZLOAD to output
impedance, ZOUT matching that of the ratio of the transformer's primary turns to secondary
turns.

The following equation can be used to determine the maximum power transfer if the source
impedance, ZOUT, and the load impedance, ZLOAD, are both entirely resistive.

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 Figure 17 - Equation for Finding the Maximum Power Transfer

Where: On the transformer, NP represents the number of main turns and NS represents the
number of secondary turns. The output impedance can then be "matched" to the source
impedance to achieve maximum power transfer by adjusting the value of the transformer's
turns ratio.

• Maximum Power Transfer - Example No2

Determine the turns ratio of the matching transformer needed to give the greatest audio
signal power transfer if an amplifier with an output impedance of 1000 is to be connected
to an 8 loudspeaker. Assume that the source and load impedances of the amplifier are
Z1 and Z2, respectively, and that the turn ratio is N.

Figure 18 -
Maximum Power Transfer Example No2

26
 Figure 19 - The Load Impedance

In low power amplifier circuits, compact high frequency audio transformers are almost
always viewed as perfect for simplicity, thus any losses can be disregarded.

27
Question 4)
Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)
Utilizes the mutual induction principle between two coils that are carrying alternating current
to measure displacement. And think of it as a passive transducer because the energy for the
change in output voltage caused on the secondary comes from the measurand (for instance,
displacement). A mutual induction type variable reluctance transducer is the LVDT.

Figure 20 - Linear variable differential transformer (LVDT)

Although much more expensive, LVDT is more accurate than a potentiometer.

Operation: An AC voltage supply powers the primary. When the core is centered, the net
induced voltage is zero since the two secondary coils are connected in series but are opposed
to one another (Null Position). A net induced voltage is visible at the output when the core is
moved away from the null position.

Figure 21 - Operation

28
 Figure 22 - LVDT Equivalent Circuit

The carrier frequency (for example, the frequency of the primary supply) must be at least 10
times greater than the highest frequency content of the measurand for an LVDT to measure
time-varying displacement.

The sensitivity and accuracy get better as the carrier frequency goes up. The majority of low
frequency measurements can be done with a 50 Hz AC supply.

Figure 23 - Typical Operating Curve of an LVDT

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Today, it is common to see LVDTs with integrated electronics for signal conditioning (an
oscillator for generating carrier frequencies and a demodulation circuit for generating output
signals).

Figure 24 - LVDT Operation

LVDT Advantages
• Noncontact Equipment (For example, no friction, no wear out).
• No mechanical jitter (high Precision).
• Low output impedance of less than 100 Ohm.
• It is possible to measure direction.
• Compact, straightforward, and durable design.

Definition II
An electromechanical sensor called an LVDT (linear variable differential transformer)
transforms mechanical motion or vibrations—specifically, rectilinear motion—into a variable
electrical current, voltage, or electric signals and back again. Automated control systems and
measuring technologies both use actuating mechanisms as mechanical motion sensors.
Electromechanical transducers can be categorized based on their output signal kinds or
conversion principles.
For simple signal conditioning, a linear transducer delivers voltage output quantity related to the
parameters being measured, such as force. LVDT Devices that use sensors are susceptible to
electromagnetic interference. The elimination of large errors can be enhanced by using shorter
connection cables to reduce electrical resistance. Three to four connecting cables are needed for
the power supply and output signal transmission of a linear displacement transducer.

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Physically, an LVDT is made of a hollow metallic cylinder along which a shaft with a lower
diameter freely swings back and forth. When the device is in operation, the shaft, or pushrod,
ends in a magnetically conducting core that must be inside the cylinder, or coil assembly.

The coil assembly is often attached to a fixed reference point, while the pushrod is physically
attached to the moving object whose position needs to be measured (the measurand). The core
inside the coil assembly moves when the measurand moves; this motion is electrically detected.

Conversion Principles:

• Electromagnetic
• Electrostatic
• Magnetoelectric

Output Signals:

• Analog and discrete output

• Digital

Electromechanical Transducer Evaluation:

• Dynamic and static characteristics
• Sensitivity or transfer ratio: E=y / x, where y is the change in output amount when x
changes in input quantity.
• Operating frequency range for the output signal • Static conversion or signal error

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Types of (LVDT)

• LVDT Sensors: Determine whether relative current measurements (C-in, AC-out, DC-
in, DC-out) or frequency-based measurements (monitoring resonance frequencies of
coils as a function of coil position) are required.
• Captive Armatures: These devices perform well over a wider area. Because captive
armatures are controlled and restrained by low friction components, they assist in
preventing misalignment.
• Unguided Weapons: The unguided armature LVDT mechanism has infinite resolution
qualities and a wear-free construction that does not limit the resolution of measured data.
The body of the linear transducer must be supported independently since this mechanism
type fits loosely inside the tube and is attached to the specimen to be measured.
• Force-Extended Armatures: Continuously extend the armature to its maximum length
using internal spring mechanisms, pneumatic force, or electric motors. For applications
that require slow motion, LVDTs employ force-extended armatures. There is no need for
a link between the specimen and armature in these devices.

Variable Linear Displacement Modern machining equipment, avionics, robotics, and

computerized or motion control production all frequently use transducers. It is possible to choose
an appropriate LVDT type by applying the following criteria:

LVDT linearity: The maximum variation from the direct proportion between the output distance
and the measured distance over the measurement range. Full Scale: 0.025% to 0.205% Between
0.20 and 0.50 percent at Full Scale 0.50 to 0.90 percent for the full scale. Complete Scale 0.90 -
percent Up to Full Scale.

Operating temperatures range from -32 to 32, 32 to 175, 175 to 257, and 257 degrees
Fahrenheit and above. Temperature range that the device must properly function in.

The following measurement ranges are available: 0.02", 0.02 to 0.32", 0.32 to 4.0", 4.0 to 20.0",
and 20.0"

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LVDT accuracy: Indicates the measurement data's percentage departure from the actual or real
value.
• Voltage, Current, or Frequency as the output
• Interface: Parallel or Serial Standard Digital Output Protocol (parallel) such as IEEE488
or Serial Standard Digital Output Protocol (serial) such as RS232.
• Current Balance AC/AC, DC/DC, or Frequency-Based LVDT Type

Figure 25 - LD400: Miniature DC output Displacement Transducers with acetal Bearing

Displacement:

Electrical transducers are used to measure linear position and are known as linear displacement
transducers. A linear displacement is a movement of an object along a single axis in a single
direction. Displacement measurement reveals the motion's direction. The linear displacement
sensor's output signal, which can have a negative or positive value, measures the distance an
object has traveled in units of millimeters (mm) or inches (in). Most current production lines use
LVDT displacement transducers attached for automatic gaging in sorting, "go-no go"
applications, and quality processes. These transducers are precisely made. Hardened steel shafts,
O-ring seals, and titanium push rods are used in their construction to maximize precision function
under most industrial circumstances. In order to link with common DC input meters, industrial
controllers, recorders, and data interfaces, hybrid IC modules provide linear mV/V/mm or
mV/V/inch output.

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LVDT sensors are developed and engineered to support numerous industrial applications,
including:
• Flush Diaphragm
• General Purpose
• Aerospace
• Heavy Duty/Industrial
• Hazardous Location
• High Accuracy
• Submersible
• Sanitary
• Customized for Special Purposes
• PC Board Mountable

The LVDT is an electrical mutual inductance device. Three transformer windings can be found
within the coil assembly. A center primary is flanked on either side by two secondaries; the
secondary outputs are connected in series to form an opposing circuit. The application of AC
stimulation to the primary induces inductance currents in the secondary windings via the
magnetically conductive core. When the core is centered (equidistant from both secondary
windings), there is no voltage at the secondary outputs. As soon as the core moves, even slightly,
a voltage differential is induced at the secondary output. The phase of the voltage is governed by
the direction of the core's displacement, whereas the amplitude is more or less linearly
proportional to the magnitude of the core's excursion from the center.
This differential architecture provides the LVDT with a substantial benefit over potentiometer-
type devices, as resolution is not constrained by coil winding spacing. Any movement of the core
in a linear transducer results in a corresponding change in output. Theoretically, the LVDT has
an infinite resolution; in fact, the resolution is only limited by the external output electronics and
the physical suspensions.
Given that the LVDT is a transformer, it requires an ac drive signal. In most cases, a specific
electronics package or signal conditioner is utilized to generate this driving signal and convert
the device's analog ac output to +5Vdc, 4-20mA, or another format compatible with downstream
equipment. This circuitry may be external or incorporated within the body of the transducer.
Internal electronics enable the user to supply the transducer with a dc signal of intermediate

34
quality, which is frequently advantageous in battery-powered and aboard vehicle applications.
However, external electronics offer a greater level of quality and may offer additional functions,
such as calibration to permit direct reading in engineering units.

How does the LVDT function?

A linear displacement transducer is essentially a miniature transformer having one primary

winding, two symmetrically wound secondary coils, and an armature core that is free to move
along its linear axis in precision bearing guides. A push rod connects the monitored component
to the armature core, such that the displacement of that component moves the core off-center.
A typical LVDT sensor has three solenoid coils lined end-to-end, surrounding the tube. Primary
coil is in the center and secondary coils are top and bottom. The object of position measurement
is attached to the cylindrical ferro Matic core, and slides along the axis of the tube. Alternating
current drives the primary coil causing voltage induced in the two secondary coils proportionate
to the length of the linking core. Range of frequency is usually from 1 to 10 kHz.
Movement of the core triggers the linkage from primary to both the secondary coils, which
changes the induced voltages. Top and bottom secondary output voltage differential is the
movement from calibrated zero phase. Using a synchronous detector reads a signed output
voltage that relates to the displacement. LVDT linear transducers can be up to several inches
long, working as an absolute position sensor which is repeatable and reproducible. Other actions
or movements will not alter measurement accuracy. The LVDT is also highly reliable because
the sliding core does not touch the inside of the tube and allows the sensor to be in a completely
sealed environment.
The LVDT is an ac device which means there is a need for electronics to translate its output into
a useful dc signal. There are two hybrid modules that are the foundation for LVDT Signal
Processing an Oscillator and a Demodulator.
The Oscillator is designed to provide a stable sine wave for driving the transducer, and a square
wave reference for the Demodulator. The Demodulator is designed to amplify the output from
the transducer and convert it into a highly accurate dc voltage which is directly proportional to
displacement.
To operate the linear transducer, it is necessary to drive the primary with a sine wave and the
output from the secondaries consist of a sine wave with the position information contained in the
amplitude and phase. The output at the center of the stroke is zero, rising to maximum amplitude

35
at either end of the stroke. The output is in phase with the primary drive at one end of the stroke
and out of phase at the other end.
In a high-quality linear displacement transducer, the relationship between position and
phase/amplitude is linear. The Oscillator and Demodulator are what makes the transition between
position and phase/amplitude easy.

Analyses of the oscillator

The Oscillator's job is to supply a precise sine wave voltage that is steady in amplitude and
frequency in order to drive the transducer. Additionally, it gives the reference a square wave
phase reference that can be used both internally and for demodulator zero setting. The Oscillator
works as follows. An internal Wien Bridge oscillator with great stability produces the sine waves
needed to drive the transducer. Pin connections or the addition of external resistors can be used
to adjust the oscillator's frequency. After passing via a power amplifier, the sine wave generates
enough current (50mA) to drive the majority of transducers without the use of auxiliary buffers.
Since short circuits are likely to occur in the setting where the majority of transducers operate,
the power amplifier has protective circuitry.

The sine wave is output to the transducer and is used internally to generate a square wave for
phase referencing the Demodulator. The remote sensing input keeps track of the oscillator output,
allowing for the accommodation of voltage drops in the transducer leads. This input is sampled
by the square wave and compared to the reference input in the amplitude regulator to hold the
Oscillator voltage to a fixed level. The reference input is derived from the radiometric or
reference output. enabling a fixed or proportional relationship between the supply voltage and
the oscillator voltage.

Description of the demodulator

The Demodulator's job is to take the transducer's AC output and turn it into a useful DC voltage
that is proportionate to displacement, load, etc. Additionally, it has circuitry that enables Gain
and Zero to be adjusted to accommodate a variety of transducers.

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This is how the demodulator operates. The output of the transducer is amplified after being passed
through a coarse gain select circuit. With the x10 option, this amplifier can have a gain of 25 or
250, which allows operation with low output transducers like strain gauges.

By using the ac signal for the primary amplification, the circuit's drift is minimized. The high-
level ac signal is then sent to a phase synchronous demodulator, which modifies it into a dc
voltage with some superimposed ac using the square wave from the oscillator. The majority of
the ac components are subsequently removed by a low pass filter, leaving a constant dc voltage
with a small amount of ripple. The low pass filter has connections that allow the filter's properties
to be changed as well as circuitry for setting coarse zero, fine zero, and fine gain.

Measurements of Tensile Tests Perform Better with LVDT Rig

To accurately calculate a material's modulus of elasticity through tensile testing, the applied load
and the length of time the material expands under that force must be known. Traditionally, a load
cell and an LVDT displacement transducer are used to precisely measure these characteristics.
In the latter scenarios, the sample being tested is connected directly to an extensometer that
incorporates a displacement transducer.

This approach has two clear drawbacks:

1. Each sample must have the extensometer set up, which tends to limit access.
2. The transducer may be harmed by the sudden shock if the sample is tested past its breaking
point.

By using a rig with a moving LVDT gauging transducer in contact with a precisely machined
"wedge" transfer mechanism, these drawbacks can be overcome.

With this alternate technique, the sample-securing clamp that moves as the material expands is
fixed to the gauging linear transducer. The vertical movement of the gauging transducer sensing
head is converted into a proportionate horizontal movement of the transducer core as it moves
along the wedge's inclined surface. A digital voltmeter or equivalent measuring instrument that
may be calibrated with reference to the angle of the inclined surface is fed the linear voltage

37
output signal from the transducer to provide a direct and accurate measurement of the elongation
of the material under load.

No sideways straining of the transducer shaft happens because the precision ball tip of the
measuring transducer freely moves along the incline's smooth machined surface and because the
transducer shaft runs in precision bearings. The use of a small stroke transducer and a very
shallow angle of slope in relation to the direction of travel further ensure this; the horizontal
movement of the transducer core can be up to 10 times smaller than the vertical distance
traversed.

The calibrated measurement of the test sample's elongation is likewise extremely accurate since
measuring transducers offer highly accurate linear outputs, even for little strokes. An
extensometer with a linear displacement transducer will be slightly more accurate for very small
elongations, such as less than 1 mm under heavy applied stresses. The gauging transducer device,
however, is preferred for the majority of applications. It is particularly appropriate for testing
materials like soft metals, plastics, and rubber that can withstand extensive stretching without
breaking.

The test sample can still be accessed because the gauging transducer is fastened to the side of the
clamp. Additionally, it does not need to be set up each time a fresh sample is put into the testing
device. In the event that the sample cracks, the transducer tip merely goes more quickly and
damage-free along the slope. The entire layout is quite small.

Other Applications

▪ Power Turbines: Power generation turbine applications for power plants around the
world use linear variable differential transducers as position sensors with signal
conditioners to provide the necessary operating power. The AC voltages and frequencies
needed for inductive or LVDT types of position sensors are not available from power line
sources.
▪ Hydraulics: Linear position sensors serve as charge sensors in hydraulic accumulators,
special external sensors in harsh environments with high immunity to vibration and shock
and includes all stroke lengths within our sensor capabilities. If you require longer stroke

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 lengths, call our professional engineering staff at OMEGA, for custom design
information.
▪ Automation: LVDT automation applications make use of hermetically sealed
dimensional gaging probes to perform beyond your R & D laboratories, fabrication
workshops, an into the harsh environmental working conditions of factory automation,
process control environments, TIR measurements, and industrial gaging.
▪ Aircraft: The majority of aerospace/aircraft applications use miniature or sub-miniature
position transducers. They are cable-actuated displacement sensing mechanisms.
OMEGA can develop precision products for applications in commercial aircraft, space,
aviation and environmental systems for space habitats. Products are mounted to a fixed
position; the displacement cable is attached to a moving object like landing gear or an
aileron. The cable retracts and extracts when movement occurs. Depending on signal
conditioning, and mounting system, the electrical output will indicate various rates,
angles, lengths, and motions.
▪ Satellites: Consider the applications in satellite technology and related areas, in addition
to satellite production, position transducers are needed for space vehicles, cargo aircraft,
military fighters, drones, experimental aircraft, missiles, nuclear reactors, flight
simulators, or high-speed railways.

Rotary variable differential transformer (RVDT)

RVDTs are utilized for angular displacement measurement. The rotating core is shaped to
produce a broad linear operating zone. Typically, the linear is plus or minus 40 degrees.

Figure 26 - RVDT

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 Figure 27 - Linear range

Figure 28 - Measuring Angular Displacement

Definition II

In the previous section, an overview of LVDT, or Linear Variable Differential Transformer,

was presented. This section provides an overview of RVDT, whose full name is Rotary
Variable Differential Transformer. The design of an RVDT is identical to that of an LVDT,
with the exception of the core. As a result, the mutual inductance between the two windings of

40
the transformer, namely the primary coil and secondary coils, will vary linearly with the
angular displacement when the transformer is rotated. RVDT's brushless, non-contacting
technology ensures durability, consistency, repeatability, and limitless resolution for position
detection. This capability ensures accurate position sensing under the most demanding
conditions.

Rotary Variable Differential Transformer defines the RVDT. It is a type of electromechanical

transducer that provides a linear output proportionate to the angular displacement of the input.
RVDT's primary job is to detect and convert angular displacement into an electrical signal. The
RVDT and LVDT operate similarly, however the LVDT uses a flexible iron core to measure
displacement, whereas the RVDT uses a cam-type core. Using the shaft, this core will rotate
between the two windings of the transformer.

Figure 29 - Rotary Variable Differential Transformer

RVDT Construction and Its Working

Similar to a standard transformer, an RVDT transducer has two windings, including a primary
winding and two secondary windings, as illustrated in the RVDT diagram below. The two
secondary windings of the transformer have the same number of turns as the primary windings.
These are situated on both sides of the transformer's primary winding. A shaft is linked to a
cam consisting of a magnetic core made of soft iron. Thus, this core's windings are capable of
being twisted. The primary difference between the RVDT and LVDT is the shape of the
transformer windings' core. Due to the shaft, this core will rotate between the two windings of
the transformer.

41
 Figure 30 - RVDT Construction

Typical RVDTs are linear over +40 or -40 degrees, have a sensitivity of 2mV to 3mV per
degree of rotation, and have an input voltage range of 3V RMS with 400Hz to 20kHz frequency
ranges. On the basis of the movement of the shaft in the transformer, the following three
conditions will be generated:

▪ When the Core is in the Null Position

▪ When the Core Rotates Counterclockwise
▪ If the Core Rotates Counterclockwise

When the Core is at Null Position

When the shaft is in the null position in the first condition, the induced e.m.f. in the secondary
windings is comparable but reverse in phase. The condition will then be E1 = E2, where E0 =
E1-E2 = 0, and the differential o/p potential will be zero.

When the Core Rotates in Clockwise Direction

In the second scenario, more cores will enter over the primary winding as the shaft rotates in a
clockwise manner. As a result, the primary winding experiences a higher induced e.m.f. than
the secondary winding. The condition will be E1 > E2, where E0 = E1-E2 = positive, and the
differential o/p potential will therefore be positive.

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When the Core Rotates in Anticlockwise Direction

In the third scenario, more of the core will be inserted over the secondary winding as the shaft
turns counterclockwise. As a result, the secondary coil experiences a larger induced e.m.f than
the main coil. Due to the negative differential o/p potential, which equals an 1800 phase shift,
the condition will be E1 E2, where E0 = E1-E2 = negative.

How to Choose RVDT?

Compared to other types of sensors, RVDTs provide a number of benefits. However, there are
a few factors to take into account while choosing the RVDT, which include the following.

▪ Accuracy

The imprecise precision of the RVDT in some circumstances makes it inappropriate for
particular applications. The price of the appliance will increase if it requires very accurate
sensors.

▪ Working Conditions

RVDTs are extremely powerful and adaptable to any setting. Other sensor types are
inappropriate for situations including extreme temperature changes, the presence of
contaminants, or loud vibrations.

▪ Secondary Power Source

Alternating current must be fed into an RVDT in order to provide the desired analytical result.
An electromechanical sensor is not a viable option if there is no backup power supply.

▪ Alteration of Signal

Choose a sensor nowadays for some applications so that the data may be converted into a
legible digital output on a computer.

43
The advantages of RVDT include the following.
▪ The construction is small and strong
▪ The performance is repeatable
▪ The lifespan of RVDT is long
▪ The performance is reproducible with electronic components
▪ The resolution is infinite
▪ The linearity is excellent
▪ The wide range of dimension ranges

The disadvantages of RVDT mainly include the following

▪ The output of the RVDT is linear (approximately +40 or -40 degrees), which limits the
applicability.
▪ The contact between the measuring outside and the nozzle is not always achievable.

RVDT Applications
The following are some examples of RVDT applications.

▪ Hydraulic and fuel valves

▪ Contemporary machine tools
▪ Robotics, aircraft and avionics, process control industry, weapon and torpedo systems,
engine fuel control, nose wheel steering systems, fly by wire systems, push reverser,
actuators for controlling flight as well as engine, and ecological control systems are just
a few of the fields that are covered by this list.

So that's everything there is to know about the RVDT (Rotary Variable Differential
Transformer), including its design, operation, benefits, and drawbacks. These are currently the
most widely used sensors, and thanks to their contactless design, they don't have any functional
issues. Even in the harsh environmental circumstances, these have a stable status for
consistency. Therefore, it is the perfect sensor for heavy equipment construction in the oil, gas,
and aerospace industries.

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Question 05) Sensors in Industrial Setting

a) Optical Proximity Sensors

An optical proximity detector is a sensor that measures close ranges in a robotic system by
triangulating reflected visible or infrared light. In general, optical proximity sensors are
more expensive than inductive proximity sensors and roughly equal in price to capacitive
sensors. Because they have been around longer and some of them can fit in small spaces,
they are frequently employed in automated systems. These sensors are most frequently
referred to as retro reflective or thru-beam light beam sensors.

Figure 31 - Fiber Optical Proximity Sensors

Optical Proximity Sensors

Figure 32 - Optical Proximity Sensor

45
A light source and a sensor that picks up the light make up an entire optical proximity sensor.
Because the light must typically be customized for the light sensor system, the light source
is provided. The light source produces light at a frequency that the light sensor can detect
with the best accuracy and that is not likely to be produced by other sources close by. Most
optical sensors use infrared light as their source. Most optical proximity sensor light sources
pulse the infrared light on and off at a predetermined frequency to increase the reliability of
the light sensing device. Light that is not pulsating at this frequency is rejected by the light
sensor circuit.

Usually, the optical proximity sensor's light sensor is a semiconductor component like a
photodiode, which produces a small current when light energy touches it, or, more
frequently, a phototransistor or a photo-darlington, which permits current to flow when light
energy reaches it. Early light sensors made use of photoconductive materials, which
improved as conductors when exposed to light, allowing current to flow through them.
Circuitry for sensor control is also necessary. The light sensor and the control circuitry may
need to have their pulse frequencies matched. The output circuit is frequently switched using
control circuitry when a specified degree of light is present. There are also light beam
sensors that produce voltage or current proportional to the amount of incoming light.
Typically, through-beam sensors are employed to detect the existence of a light-obstruction
object. They can be used, for instance, to determine whether bottles are filled or not by
measuring the quantity of light that goes through the bottle if they have programmable
switching levels. The transmitter and receiver of Retroflective type light sensors are housed
in the same package. When a target reflects light back to the sensor, they can detect it. There
are other retroreflective sensors that are designed to detect targets only a short distance
away.

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Applications of Optical Sensors
Computers and motion detectors are only two examples of devices that use these optical
sensors. In order for optical sensors to function well and preserve their sensitivity to the
property being measured, they must be the right type for the application.

1. Ambient Light Sensors

This sensor is typically found on mobile phones. It will increase battery life and enable
simple-to-view displays that are environment-friendly.

Figure 33 - Ambient Light Sensor in a Mobile Phone

2. Biomedical Applications
In the realm of biomedicine, optical sensors are widely used. Several instances
Utilizing a tunable diode laser to analyze breath, A heart-rate monitor that uses light,
or an optical heart-rate monitor, can measure your heart rate. An optical sensor
analyzes the light that was reflected after an LED pierces the skin and cast its light
there. Variations in light level can be translated into heart rate since blood absorbs
more light. The name of this procedure is photoplethysmography.

Figure 34 -Optical Heart Rate Sensor

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 3. Industrial/Commercial
Optical sensors are also employed in commercial and industrial applications for automation,
temperature and distance sensing, and Industry 4.0. By combining an infrared LED, a light
transistor, and a transparent prism tip, optical sensors, for instance, can monitor liquid levels
in process engineering facilities, such as petroleum levels in tank farms and hydrocarbon
refineries.

Optical sensors can also recognize the existence of components on factory floors, which
facilitates automated control.

4. Consumer Electronics
Consumer gadgets like smartphones are also using optical sensors for ambient light sensing,
which has benefits including increasing battery life and customizing screen brightness to
match ambient lighting levels.

The schematic below combines a microcontroller with an LED driver IC with auto-luminous
control to produce an output current that is proportional to the amount of ambient light and
simulates the spectrum sensitivity of the human eye.

Figure 35 - Ambient Light Sensor IC Block Diagram

Industrial and retail applications employ photo-interrupters and reflective-type photosensors

for optical sensing in printers and 3D scanners. In commercial and home security equipment,
optical sensors are employed to detect intruders.

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Types of Optical Sensors
The most used optical sensors are:
▪ Transmission-type photo-interrupters, which use light to detect the presence of
objects in applications including location detection and speed of rotation
measurements
▪ Photoconductive devices become electrically conductive by absorbing incident light
rays
▪ Photodiodes convert incident light into electric current, and phototransistors produce
similar results to photodiodes when the base-collector junction is exposed to light.
▪ Reflective photosensors detect motion of objects by measuring the reflection of light
across them.

b) Inductive Proximity Sensors

Globally, the use of inductive proximity sensors is expanding due to industrial applications
such as the search coil magnetometer used to measure electromagnetic waves, metal
detectors, traffic lights, and vehicle washes, as well as a multitude of other automated
industrial processes.

Figure 36 - Internal Elements of an Inductive Proximity Sensor

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An inductive proximity sensor is essentially a non-contact electronic proximity sensor used
to detect and locate metal objects. Due to the fact that the sensor does not require physical
contact, it is particularly helpful for situations where access is difficult, such as in unclean
or oily settings.
Electromagnetic induction is used by sensors to detect or measure items. When a current
travels through an inductor, a magnetic field is produced. One type of inductive sensor uses
an oscillator to drive a coil. The coil may contain a ferromagnetic core to intensify the
magnetic field and boost the device's sensitivity. A different type of inductive sensor
employs one coil to generate a changing magnetic field and a second coil to detect the
changes in the magnetic field produced by an item.

Honeywell, Panasonic, OMRON, Pepperl Fuchs, Rockwell Automation, Truck Inc., IFM
Electronic, Fargo Controls, Broadcom, and Eaton are the leading companies in the market
for inductive proximity sensors.

Applications of Inductive Proximity Sensors in Industrial Settings

1. Panasonic
Panasonic provides a comprehensive selection of inductive proximity sensors for metallic
detecting applications. There are 2 and 3 wire DC varieties available, as well as low -cost,
compact fundamental types. Panasonic's independent amplifier type can handle high-speed
operations for high-performance sensing. According to the manufacturer, the GX-F12A-P
rectangle-shaped oil-resistant inductive proximity sensor from the GX-F/H series has "the
industry's longest steady sensing range among rectangular inductive proximity sensors of
the same level." The sensors are simple to install and are available in a variety of frequency
kinds. Additionally, Panasonic offers a variety of spherical inductive proximity sensors as
well as micro-sized inductive proximity sensors.

2. Position Detection on a Mechanical Moving Part

Using metal flags attached to conveyor chains to put things into packages or cartons is a
straightforward technique. Moreover, it is a function that is particularly precision -driven.
Inductive proximity sensors ensure consistent alignment and follow-through operations due

50
to their responsiveness and detection dependability. Consequently, there is less waste and
fewer system outages.

3. Valve Position Control during Processing

The majority of processes that require a high level of hygienic standards, such as the
manufacturing of dairy or yogurt, use valves to transfer system inputs from ingredients to
cleaning solutions and back again after the sanitation process is complete. Compared to
mechanical limit switches, a well-manufactured inductive proximity sensor is more resistant
to wear; as a result, processors have a stronger assurance of long-term, constant valve
performance with this type of sensor.

c) Capacitive Proximity Sensors

The non-contact devices known as capacitive proximity sensors are capable of detecting the
presence or absence of any form of object, independent of the material being used.
The electrical characteristics of capacitance and the change in capacitance, which is
dependent on the change in the electrical field surrounding the active face of the sensor, are
used by capacitive sensors.

Figure 37 - Capacitive Proximity Sensors

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The capacitive proximity sensors are best used for controlling liquid levels and detecting
granular materials since they can detect both metallic and nonmetallic targets.
High-frequency oscillators make up a capacitive proximity sensor, which also has a
detecting surface comprised of two metal electrodes. When something approaches the
surface, it enters the electrostatic field of the electrodes and affects the capacitance of the
oscillator. After reaching a specific amplitude, the oscillator circuits start to oscillate and
alter the sensor's output state. The oscillator's amplitude diminishes with distance from the
sensor, bringing the sensor back to its starting condition.

One thing to keep in mind is that a target will be easier for the capacitive proximity sensor
to identify the larger its dielectric constant is. Due to the liquid's much higher Dielectric
constant inside the vessel, which gives the sensor the ability to locate and see objects inside
the vessel as well as perform the fluid detection, this constant, known as the dielectric
constant, facilitates the detection of materials that are present inside nonmetallic containers

The sensing range of capacitive proximity sensors is typically limited to a little over an inch,
and it is independent of the type of substance being sensed.

Applications and Industries

Capacitive sensors are utilized in a variety of applications and sectors, occasionally in
specific variants. An overview of potential application areas and industries can be found
below.
1. Process Industry
In the agricultural or wood-processing sectors, capacitive sensors are employed, for
instance, to query the level of liquids and solids.

2. Wind Turbines
A number of control and monitoring data are needed for wind turbines. Capacitive sensors
are utilized in a variety of applications, such as wind turbine coolant and transmission
lubricant level detection.

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 3. Warehousing and Material Handling
Capacitive sensors are employed in mechanical control units for non-mechanical manual
detection in the storage and material handling industry (position detection).

4. Printing Industry
In the printing business, capacitive sensors are used, for instance, to check toner levels.

53