Measurements Devices Temperature Measurements

ANSWER THE FOLLOWING (USING NEAT SKETCHES AS POSSIBLE):

1) Briefly define temperature, how can it be measured?

Temperature: is a measure of the warmth or coldness of an object or substance with reference

to some standard value.

To measure temperature, we need to define a temperature scale by choosing two reference

temperatures at which some readily identifiable physical effect occurs, the freezing and boiling
points of water can be used as the two reference points.

2) What are the principles of temperature measurements?

There are four types of temperature sensors based on the physical properties:
Expansion of a substance Ex mercury in glass thermometer.
Changes in electrical resistance Ex thermistors .
Changes in contact potential Ex thermocouples.
Changes in radiated energy Ex radiation pyrometers.

3) Make a comparison between expansion of solid rod, liquid with temperature.

Expansion of solid rod with temperature:

If a given rod of length L at temperature T0 is heated to higher temperature T, the rod will
increase to a new length L given by:

Expansion of liquid with temperature:

If a given volume V of liquid is at temperature T0 is heated to a temperature T, it will increase
to V1 given by:

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Measurements Devices Temperature Measurements

4) Make a comparison between RTD, thermistors and thermocouples.

Resistance temperature detectors (RTD):

A temperature transducer based on the electrical resistance theory, in this type the electrical
resistance of sensing metals increases approximately linearly with temperature range (0-150) C,
the choice of material for a specific application will be determined by the accuracy required, the
ability to resist contamination.

RTD is specified in terms of the change in resistance from 0 °C to 100 °C, this is known as the
fundamental interval, Designs of RTDs aim to protect the wire from mechanical shock. RTDs are
available in many shapes and sizes (flat, cylindrical, Thermowell, etc.)

Thermistors:
Temperature sensors that based on semiconductors are called thermistors, Semiconductor
materials exhibit a large but non-linear decrease in resistance with increasing temperature, the
resistance of a thermistor is defined by:

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Measurements Devices Temperature Measurements

Thermistors come in a wide variety of shapes, sizes and enclosures, most are considerably smaller
than RTDs and consequently have a faster response, thermistors can be used for temperature
measurement over a limited range.

Thermocouples:

For two dissimilar metals that are joined at two points. If one end is heated to a temperature T1
and the other end kept at a lower temperature T2 a current will flow around the circuit, devices
using this effect are called Thermocouples.

This potential depends on the temperature of the junction, and occurs because of different electrical
and thermal properties of the metals.

There are many types of thermocouples according to:

Thermocouple materials (J, K, T, N)

Junction end (grounded, insulated, exposed)

Shapes (bolt, washer, moving surface, hand-held)

Thermocouple RTD Thermistor

Temp Range -267°C to 2316°C -240°C to 649°C -100°C to 500°C
Accuracy Good Best Good
Linearity Better Best Good
Sensitivity Good Better Best
Cost Best Good Better

5) Briefly discuss thermocouples laws?

Thermocouples laws:
Law 1 states that the thermoelectric effect depends only on the temperatures of the junctions,
and is unaffected by intermediate temperatures along the wires.

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Measurements Devices Temperature Measurements

Law 2 allows additional metals to be introduced in the circuit without affecting the potentials
provided junctions of each metal are at the same temperature.

The third law states that a third metal can be introduced at either junction without effect, provided
that both junctions of the third metal (Tb, Tb) are the same.

Law 4 is called the law of intermediate metals, and can be used to determine the voltage of
thermocouple based on iron/copper.

The final law is called the law of intermediate temperature, is of particular importance when
interpolating thermocouple tables.

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Measurements Devices Temperature Measurements

6) What are the different types of thermocouples?

Thermocouples can be classified according to:

Thermocouple materials:

Junction end type:

An insulated junction gives an electrically isolated output and total protection from atmosphere.

A grounded junction gives a fast-thermal response.

The fastest response is obtained with an exposed junction.

Shapes and sizes:

Thermocouples are available in a variety of sizes and shapes. They can be protected by an
enclosure called a thermos well.

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Measurements Devices Temperature Measurements

7) Briefly discuss how to use thermocouples tables.

- Thermocouple tables are provided by the manufacturers.

- These detail the voltages obtained at various temperatures.

- These tables may be used for maintenance and calibration.

- These tables may be used two circumstances: for checking the voltages from a thermocouple
with a millivolt meter or for injecting a test voltage from a millivolt source into a temperature
indicator.

- In each case, the ambient temperature must be known to apply the law of intermediate
temperatures.

8) Briefly discuss the radiation pyrometry principles?

When an object is heated, it radiates electromagnetic energy, as the temperature rises it starts
to emit visible radiation (i.e. light). passing from red heat, through yellow to white heat. this
radiation can be used to measure temperature

Pyrometers use the same radiation to measure temperature, they allow non-contact
measurement of temperature, which is essential where the temperature of a moving object is to
be measured, or where an environment exists that would destroy a more conventional sensor.

9) Define blackbody radiation and give an example.

An object absorbs all the incident energy from its surrounding, a black body, like all
objects, is also an emitter of radiation and when sufficiently. raised in temperature will
emit visible light, the sun, for example, is an almost perfect black body.

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Measurements Devices Temperature Measurements

10) One of the advantages of pyrometer is that the measurement is independent of the
distance from the object, Explain.

The amount of radiated energy received by the sensor will be proportional to the solid
angle subtended by the sensor, less energy will be received, from a given point, at
position B than at position A. The angle varies inversely as the square of the distance
from the object to the sensor.
However, As the sensor moves further away, the surface area scanned increases, so
the total radiation being scanned increases with distance. Simple geometry shows that
the area scanned increases as the square of the distance.

11) Compare between hand-held, chopper and filament pyrometer.

Hand-held optical pyrometer:

This is design of a practical instrument aimed at the target object by means of an eyepiece at the
rear of the instrument, a concave mirror focuses the radiation on to the thermopile, which is
supported on the centerline of the device, the thermopile output is converted to a temperature
indication by electronics in the handle.

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Measurements Devices Temperature Measurements

Filament pyrometer:
An optical pyrometer, use a temperature detector as such. The target object is viewed through a
telescope optical system, and a hot wire filament is superimposed on the field of view.

The current through the filament, and hence its temperature, can be controlled by the operator,
this current is adjusted until the filament merges into the background.

At this point the brightness of the filament is the same as the target object, and the temperature
can be deduced from the filament current.

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Measurements Devices Temperature Measurements

SOLVE THE FOLLOWING PROBLEMS (TABULATE THE FINAL ANSWERS):

1) If we have a mercury of volume 60 cm3 at temperature 40 oC, this is heated to an elevated
temperature of 180 oC. what will be the new volume and the change in height of liquid if the
cross-section area was 45 mm2? (α = 0.56 × 10-4 for mercury).

Given: Vo = 60 cm3, To = 40 oC, α = 0.56 × 10-4, A = 45 mm2.

Required:
(a) New volume of mercury at temp = 180.
(b) The change in height of liquid.
Solution:
V = Vo (1 + α (T-To))
V = 60 (1 + 0.56 × 10-4 (180 - 40)) = 60.47 cm3
∆h = ∆V/ A = (60.47 – 60) / (45×10-2) = 1.044 cm

2) For copper RTD it has a wire resistance of 50 Ohm at 0 oC, the measured values of resistance
with different temperatures were represented by this table:

Temperature C 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

Resistance Ohm 52.1 58.5 63.9 68.5 74.4 75.7 79.4 85.8

a) Find the actual values of resistances. (α = 0.0043 for copper).

b) Calculate the mean absolute error and find the correlation factor.
c) Find the sensitivity of this RTD.
d) Make a plot for the measured and actual values on same graph.

Required:
a) The actual values of resistances. (α = 0.0043 for copper):
R = Ro (1 + αT)  R1 = 50 (1 + 0.0043 × 20) = 54.3 Ohm.

Temp 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

Actual resistance 54.3 58.6 62.9 67.2 71.5 75.8 80.1 84.4

b) The mean absolute error and find the correlation factor:

Temp 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Actual resistance 54.3 58.6 62.9 67.2 71.5 75.8 80.1 84.4
Measured 52.1 58.5 63.6 68.5 74.4 75.7 79.4 85.8
Error IeI 2.2 0.1 0.7 1.3 2.9 0.1 0.7 1.4

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Measurements Devices Temperature Measurements

∑ |𝑒| 9.4
Mean Absolute Error = = = 𝟏. 𝟏𝟕𝟓 𝑶𝒉𝒎
𝑛 8
∑ 𝑑𝑥.𝑑𝑦 3826
𝐶𝑂𝑉 (x,y) = = = 546.571
(𝑛−1) 7

∑ 𝑑𝑥² 16800 ∑ 𝑑𝑦² 885.2

𝛿𝑥 = √ =√ = 48.989 ,,, 𝛿𝑦 = √ 𝑛−1 = √ 7
= 11.245
𝑛−1 7

𝐶𝑂𝑉(𝑥,𝑦) 546.571
𝑟=
𝛿𝑥.𝛿𝑦
= 48.989×11.245 = 𝟎. 𝟗𝟗𝟏𝟗

T Rmeasured dx (°C) dy (Ω) dxdy (°C Ω) dx² (°C²) dy² (Ω²)

20 52.1 -70 -17.65 1235.5 4900 311.52

40 58.5 -50 -11.25 562.5 2500 126.56
60 63.6 -30 -6.15 184.5 900 37.82
80 68.5 -10 -1.25 12.5 100 1.56
100 74.4 10 4.65 46.5 100 21.62
120 75.7 30 5.95 178.5 900 35.40
140 79.4 50 9.65 482.5 2500 93.12
160 85.8 70 16.05 1123.5 4900 257.60
Sum 3826 16800 885.2

c) The sensitivity of this RTD

Δ𝑦 58.6 −54.3
Sensitivity = Slope = = = 0.215 ohm/C.
Δ𝑥 40−20
d) A plot for the measured and actual values on same graph

Resistance Vs Temperature
90
85
80
75
70
65
60
55
50
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

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Measurements Devices Temperature Measurements

3) For the previous problem use a Wheatstone bridge and calculate the actual and measured
corresponding voltages if (Vs = 12 V, R1, R2 and R3 = 20, 25 and 35 Ω respectively), then
make a plot for the measured and actual values on same graph, what did you notice from the
graph?

T 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160

V actual 0.63 0.85 1.04 1.22 1.39 1.54 1.68 1.82
V measured 0.51 0.84 1.07 1.28 1.49 1.54 1.66 1.86

Voltage against Temperature

2.00
1.80
1.60
1.40
1.20
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

4) A thermistor is placed in a 120 oC environment, and its resistance measured as 20,000 Ω. The
material constant β for this thermistor is 3650 oC. determine the thermistor temperature if its
resistance is measured as 500 Ω.

Given: R = 20,000 Ω at T = 120 oC, β = 3650 oC.

Required: The thermistor temperature if R = 500 Ω.
Solution:
- The thermistor R0 can be calculated as:
1 1 1 1
𝛽( − ) (3650+273)( − )
𝑅 = 𝑅0 𝑒 𝑇 𝑇0 → 20000 = 𝑅0 𝑒 120+273 273 → 𝑅0 = 1609223.99 Ω
- The thermistor temperature can be calculated as:
1 1
(3650+273)( − )
500 = 1609223.99 𝑒 𝑇 273 → 𝑇 = 623.360 𝐾 = 𝟐𝟐𝟖. 𝟖𝟐 𝑪

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Measurements Devices Temperature Measurements

5) A thermistor code named 20 A is in the form of a glass coated bead 0.75 mm diameter. Its
resistance at three different temperatures are given below:

25

Determine β for this thermistor. If resistance is measured with a possible error of ±100 Ω,
what is the error in estimated Temperature when the nominal value of resistance is 1500 Ω?

Given: Given table.

Required:

a) β for this thermistor. b) Error at resistance = 1500 Ω.

Solution:
- The thermistor β can be calculated as:
1 1 1 1
𝛽( − ) (𝛽)( − )
𝑅 = 𝑅0 𝑒 𝑇 𝑇0 → 3100 = 8800𝑒 25+273 273 → 𝛽1 = 3395.22 𝐾
1 1 1 1
𝛽( − ) (𝛽)( − )
𝑅 = 𝑅0 𝑒 𝑇 𝑇0 → 1270 = 8800𝑒 50+273 273 → 𝛽2 = 3413.82 𝐾
3395.22 + 3413.82
𝛽𝑎𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑔𝑒 = = 𝟑𝟒𝟎𝟒. 𝟓𝟐 𝑲
2
- The estimated Temperature at resistance = 1500 Ω:
𝑅
1 ln (𝑅0 ) 1 𝛽𝑇0
= + → 𝑇=
𝑇 𝛽 𝑇0 𝑅
𝑇0 ln ( ) + 𝛽
𝑅0
3404.52 × 273
𝑇= = 𝟑𝟏𝟖. 𝟏𝟒 𝑲 = 𝟒𝟓. 𝟏𝟒 𝑪
1500
273 × ln ( + 3404.52
8800)
- Error in estimated Temperature at resistance = 1500 Ω:
1 2 1
𝛿𝑇 −𝛽𝑇0 × 𝑇0 ( ) −3404.52 × 273 ×
𝑈𝑇 = 𝑈𝑅 = 𝑅 𝑈 = 1500 × 100
2 𝑅 2
𝛿𝑅 𝑅 1500
(𝑇0 ln (𝑅 ) + 𝛽) (273 × ln (8800) + 3404.52)
0

𝑈𝑇 = ±1.981 𝐾 = ±𝟏. 𝟗𝟖𝟏 𝑪

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Measurements Devices Temperature Measurements

6) The output e.m.f. from a chromel–alumel thermocouple (type K), with its reference junction
maintained at 0°C, is 12.207 mV. What is the measured temperature?

Given: Type (K), To = 0 °C, emf = 12.207 mV.

Required:
(a) Measured temperature T.
Solution:

300 − 299 300 − 𝑇

= 𝑠𝑜 𝑻 = 𝟐𝟗𝟗. 𝟗𝟓𝟐 𝑪
12.209 − 12.167 12.209 − 12.207

7) The output e.m.f. from a nicrosil–nisil thermocouple (type N), with its reference junction
maintained at 0°C, is 4.21 mV. What is the measured temperature?

Given: Type (N), To = 0 °C, emf = 4. 21 mV.

Required:
(a) Measured temperature T.
Solution:

148 − 147 148 − 𝑇

= 𝑠𝑜 𝑻 = 𝟏𝟒𝟕. 𝟎𝟔𝟒 𝑪
4.239 − 4.208 4.239 − 4.21

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Measurements Devices Temperature Measurements

8) A platinum/10% rhodium–platinum (type S) thermocouple is used to measure the temperature

of a furnace. The output e.m.f., with the reference junction maintained at 50°C, is 5.975 mV.
What is the temperature of the furnace?

Given: Type (S), To = 50 °C, emf = 5.975 mV.

Required:
(a) Measured temperature of the furnace.
Solution:

- Using 5th law of intermediate temperatures: emf 0-50 + emf 50-T = emf 0-T

0.299 + 5.975 = emf 0-T = 6.274 mV

From the table: Measured Temp = 699.9 °C

9) In a particular industrial situation, a nicrosil–nisil thermocouple with nicrosil–nisil extension

wires is used to measure the temperature of a fluid. In connecting up this measurement system,
the instrumentation engineer responsible has inadvertently interchanged the extension wires
from the thermocouple. The ends of the extension wires are held at a reference temperature of
0°C and the output e.m.f. measured is 21.0 mV. If the junction between the thermocouple and
extension wires is at a temperature of 50°C, what is indicated and true temperature of the fluid?

Given: Type (N).

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Measurements Devices Temperature Measurements

Required:
(a) The indicated temperature.
- The indicated temperature can be given directly from the table if we ignore the effect of
inverting the extension cables.

609 − 610 610 − 𝑇

= 𝑠𝑜 𝑻 = 𝟔𝟎𝟗. 𝟗𝟐 𝑪
20.964 − 21.003 21.003 − 21
(b) The true temperature.

V = E1 + E2 + E3 Thus 21 = E1 + E2 + E3

E1 = emf (0-T) and E2 = E3 = - emf (0-50) = -1.340 mV

- By substituting by these Equations in 1st Equation:

21 = E1 – (2 × 1.340) So E1 = 23.68 mV
E1 = emf (0-T) = 23.68 mV  by using the table:
678 − 679 679 − 𝑇
= 𝑠𝑜 𝑻 = 𝟔𝟕𝟖. 𝟑𝟒 𝑪
23.663 − 23.703 23.703 − 23.68

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Measurements Devices Temperature Measurements

10) An RTD is calibrated against a J-type thermocouple, the EMF of the thermocouple is measured
with a voltmeter while the output voltage of the Wheatstone bridge is measured at the same
temperature as shown in figure. The calibration procedure yields the following results:

Given: The following data.

Thermocouple EMF (mV) 1.64 2.74 3.97 4.99 5.54 8.78 10.16 11.83
Bridge Voltage (V) 6.14 6.27 6.45 6.51 6.62 6.78 6.89 6.92

Required:
(a) Temperature coefficient of resistance and R0 for this RTD.
- The temperature measured at thermocouple junction can be estimated from J-type table:

Thermocouple EMF (mV) 1.64 2.74 3.97 4.99 5.54 8.78 10.16 11.83
Temperature C 32 53 76 95 115 164 189 211

-
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Measurements Devices Temperature Measurements

- The Resistance of the RTD can be calculated as:

𝑅𝑇 10
6.14 = 12 ( − ) → 𝑅𝑇 = 39.4 𝛺
𝑅𝑇 + 10 25 + 10

Bridge Voltage (V) 6.14 6.27 6.45 6.51 6.62 6.78 6.89 6.92

RTD Resistance 39.4 42.2 45.4 47.97 50.7 57.4 60.8 63.8

- From the previous caclulations:

Temperature C 32 53 76 95 115 164 189 211

RTD Resistance 39.4 42.2 45.4 47.97 50.7 57.4 60.8 63.8

𝑅 = 𝑅0 (1 + 𝛼𝑇) → 39.4 = 𝑅0 (1 + 32 𝛼) →1
42.2 = 𝑅0 (1 + 53 𝛼) →2
From 1 and 2 then R0 = 35.14 Ω and α = 0.00379

Equations 1,2 3,4 5,6 7,8

α 0.00379 0.00385 0.003909 0.00389
R0 (Ω) 35.14 35.123 34.976 35.0389

The average values of R0 and α:

R0 = 35.07 Ω, α = 0.00385
(b) The sensitivity of this RTD
𝑆𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑅0 α = 35.07 × 0.00385 = 𝟎. 𝟏𝟑𝟓 𝛀/𝐂

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Measurements Devices Temperature Measurements

11) Estimate the actual temperature of an object whose brightness temperature has been measured
using a vanishing filament pyrometer to be 1000 ◦C. The spectral emissivity of the object at
0.665 μm is 0.55. If the emissivity is subject to an error of 0.5% what is the corresponding
error in the estimated actual temperature?

Given: TB = 1000 °C, λ = 0.665 μm, ελ = 0.55 ± 0.5 %, C2 = 14390 μm K.

Required: The actual temperature and error.
Solution:
- The actual temperature can be calculated as:
1 1 𝜆 1 𝜆 1 𝐶2 𝑇𝐵
− = ln(𝜀𝜆 𝜏𝜆 ) → = ln(𝜀𝜆 𝜏𝜆 ) + → 𝑇=
𝑇 𝑇𝐵 𝐶2 𝑇 𝐶2 𝑇𝐵 𝜆𝑇𝐵 ln(𝜀𝜆 𝜏𝜆 ) + 𝐶2
14390 × (1000 + 273)
𝑇= = 𝟏𝟑𝟏𝟗. 𝟒 𝑲
0.665 × (1000 + 273) × ln(0.55) + 14390
- The temperature error can be calculated as:
1
𝛿𝑇 −𝐶2 𝑇𝐵 𝜆𝑇𝐵 ( )
𝜀𝜆
𝑈𝑇 = 𝑈 = 𝑈
𝛿𝜀𝜆 𝜀𝜆 (𝜆𝑇𝐵 ln(𝜀𝜆 𝜏𝜆 ) + 𝐶2 )2 𝜀𝜆
1
−14390 × 12732 × 0.665( ) 0.5
= 0.55 × × 0.55 = ±𝟎. 𝟒𝟎𝟐𝟐 𝑲
(0.665 × (1273) × 𝑙𝑛(0.55) + 14390)2 100

12) Estimate the actual temperature of an object whose brightness temperature has been measured
using a vanishing filament pyrometer to be 850◦C. The transmittance of the pyrometer optics
is known to be 0.95 ± 0.01. The spectral emissivity of the object at 0.66μm is 0.58. If the
emissivity is subject to an error of ±1.5% what is the corresponding error in the estimated
actual temperature?

Given: TB = 850 °C, λ = 0.66 μm, ελ = 0.58 ± 1.5 %, C2 = 14390 μm K, τλ = 0.95 ± 0.01.
Required: The actual temperature and error.
Solution:
- The actual temperature can be calculated as:
𝐶2 𝑇𝐵
𝑇=
𝜆𝑇𝐵 ln(𝜀𝜆 𝜏𝜆 ) + 𝐶2
14390 × (850 + 273)
𝑇= = 𝟏𝟏𝟓𝟖. 𝟓𝟔 𝑲
0.66 × (850 + 273) × ln(0.58 × 0.95) + 14390

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Measurements Devices Temperature Measurements

HOMEWORK EXERCISES:
1) Briefly describe bimetallic thermometers.

If two dissimilar metals have been bonded together as the temperature rises a deflection is
produced which is a function of temperature .The change in deflection is small but can be
increased and made more linear by using coiled bimetallic spring.

Bimetallic thermometers are cheap but of quite low accuracy and not widely used in industry
as they cannot provide remote indication.

2) What are the various constructions of RTDs and how these RTDs are designed?

RTDs are available in many shapes and sizes. The construction is a tradeoff between protection
against the atmosphere or fluid whose temperature is to be measured. Designs of RTDs aim to
protect the wire from mechanical shock . Constructions with the wire in direct contact with the
fluid give a fast response but little protection against corrosion. Sensors that are totally enclosed
gives longer time constants.

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Measurements Devices Temperature Measurements

3) What is the effect of connecting up an RTD circuit that is situated remote from its
measurement electronics, and how to overcome this effect?

ln most industrial applications, the RTD will be situated remote from its measurement
electronics. If the connecting leads are more than a few meters in length they will introduce an
unknown resistance. This can be overcome by using a four-wire connection. In many
applications, the three wire connections give adequate compensation with a small cost saving.

4) What is meant by thermoelectric effect? Discuss reasons of this effect.

Thermoelectric effect: For two dissimilar metals that are joined at two points. If one end is heated
to a temperature T1 and the other end kept at a lower temperature T2 a current will flow around
the circuit.

The effect arises because an electrical potential arises across the junction of two dissimilar metals.
This potential depends on the temperature of the junction, and occurs because of different electrical
and thermal properties of the metals.

5) Show an application of how each law of thermocouple laws can be practically utilized.

1st Law of thermocouples: states that the thermoelectric effect depends only on the
temperatures of the junctions, and is unaffected by intermediate temperatures along the wires.
This is important in practical locations where the temperature of connecting leads is not known.

2nd Law of thermocouples: allows additional metals to be introduced in the circuit without
affecting the potentials provided junctions of each metal are at the same temperature. The
application is using extension cables with different materials with no error.

3rd Law of thermocouples: states that a third metal can be introduced at either junction without
effect provided that both junctions of the third metal are the same. The application is using the
third wire as the measuring millivoltmeter.

4th and 5th Law of thermocouples: Intermediate metals and temperature are very useful when
using thermocouples tables for different conditions.

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Measurements Devices Temperature Measurements

6) What are the different types of thermocouples according to: Thermocouple materials –
types of junction – designs of construction?

Thermocouples can be classified according to:

Thermocouple materials:

Junction end type:

An insulated junction gives an electrically isolated output and total protection from atmosphere.

A grounded junction gives a fast-thermal response.

The fastest response is obtained with an exposed junction.

Shapes and sizes:

Thermocouples are available in a variety of sizes and shapes. They can be protected by an
enclosure called a thermos well.

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Measurements Devices Temperature Measurements

7) Give an example of temperature sensors that are used in pyrometers, what are the
important specifications of that sensor?

Usually a circular ring of thermocouples in series (called a thermopile) is used in pyrometers,

the temperature sensor must be of small thermal mass to give reasonable sensitivity.

8) An RTD forms one arm (R4) of a Wheatstone bridge, as shown in Figure, that RTD is used to
measure a constant temperature. The RTD has a resistance of 15 Ω at a temperature of 0 oC,
and a thermal coefficient of resistance, α = 0.003925 oC-1. Determine the temperature of RTD.

Given: α = 0.003925 oC-1, R0 = 25 Ω,

Required:
The temperature of the RTD.
Solution:
- From the Wheatstone bridge:
𝑅𝑇 𝑅2 𝑅𝑇 15
𝑉𝑜 = 𝑉𝑠 ( − ) → 4.1 = 12 ( − )
𝑅𝑇 + 𝑅3 𝑅2 + 𝑅1 𝑅𝑇 + 15 15 + 50
𝑅𝑇 = 20.082 𝛺
- From the RTD:
𝑅 = 𝑅𝑜 (1 + 𝛼𝑇) → 20.082 = 15 (1 + 0.003925 T)

𝐓 = 𝟖𝟔. 𝟑𝟏𝟖 𝑪

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Measurements Devices Temperature Measurements

9) The resistance of a certain semiconductor material varies with temperature according to the
relation & where the resistance is in Ω and the temperature is specified
in K. At a certain temperature the resistance has been measured as 600±10 Ω. Determine the
temperature and its uncertainty. Make a plot of R vs T in the range 273.15 < T < 500 K.

Given:
Required:
The temperature and its uncertainty at 600 ± 10 Ω.
Solution:
- The thermistor Governing law:
1 1
𝛽( − )
𝑅 = 𝑅0 𝑒 𝑇 𝑇0

- The estimated Temperature at resistance = 600 Ω:

𝑅
ln (
1 𝑅0 ) 1 𝛽𝑇0
= + → 𝑇=
𝑇 𝛽 𝑇0 𝑅
𝑇0 ln ( ) + 𝛽
𝑅0
3100 × 273.15
𝑇= = 𝟐𝟗𝟎. 𝟗𝟏 𝑲
600
273.15 × ln ( + 3100
1200)
- Error in estimated Temperature at resistance = 600 Ω:
1 2 1
𝛿𝑇 −𝛽𝑇0 × 𝑇0 ( ) −3100 × 273.15 ×
𝑈𝑇 = 𝑈𝑅 = 𝑅 𝑈 = 600
𝛿𝑅 2 𝑅 2 × 10
𝑅 600
(𝑇0 ln (𝑅 ) + 𝛽) (273.15 × ln (1200) + 3100)
0

𝑼𝑻 = ±𝟎. 𝟒𝟓𝟓 𝑲

Resistance versus Temperature

1400

1200

1000

800

600

400

200

0
250 300 350 400 450 500 550

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Measurements Devices Temperature Measurements

10) A thermistor is in the form of glass coated bead 0.75 mm in diameter. Its resistance at two
different temperatures are given as R(t = 0◦C) = 8800 Ω and R(t = 50◦C) = 1270 Ω. Determine
β for this thermistor. If resistance is measured with an error of ±10 Ω what is the error in
temperature when the nominal value of R is 1600 Ω? What is the sensitivity at this
temperature?

Required:

a) β for this thermistor. b) Error at resistance = 1600 Ω. C) Sensitivity at this temperature.

Solution:
- The thermistor β can be calculated as:
1 1 1 1
𝛽( − ) (𝛽)( − )
𝑅 = 𝑅0 𝑒 𝑇 𝑇0 → 1270 = 8800 𝑒 50+273 273

𝛽 = 𝟑𝟒𝟏𝟑. 𝟖𝟐 𝑲
- The estimated Temperature at resistance = 1600 Ω:
𝑅
ln (
1 𝑅0 ) 1 𝛽𝑇0
= + → 𝑇=
𝑇 𝛽 𝑇0 𝑅
𝑇0 ln ( ) + 𝛽
𝑅0
3413.82 × 273
𝑇= = 𝟑𝟏𝟔. 𝟎𝟗 𝑲 = 𝟒𝟑. 𝟎𝟗 𝑪
1600
273 × ln ( + 3413.82
8800)
- Error in estimated Temperature at resistance = 1600 Ω:
1 2 1
𝛿𝑇 −𝛽𝑇0 × 𝑇0 ( ) −3413.82 × 273 ×
𝑈𝑇 = 𝑈𝑅 = 𝑅 𝑈 = 1600 × 10
2 𝑅 2
𝛿𝑅 𝑅 1600
(𝑇0 ln (𝑅 ) + 𝛽) (273 × ln (8800) + 3413.82 )
0

𝑈𝑇 = ±0.1829 𝐾 = ±𝟎. 𝟏𝟖𝟐𝟗 𝑪

- Sensitivity at this temperature:
𝑑𝑅 1 1 𝛽 1 1 3413.82
𝛽( − ) 𝟑𝟒𝟏𝟑.𝟖𝟐 ( − )
= 𝑅0 𝑒 𝑇 𝑇0 × − = 8800𝑒 316.09 273 × − = −54.67
𝑑𝑇 𝑇2 316.092

Sensitivity = -54.67

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Measurements Devices Temperature Measurements

11) A K type thermocouple is used to measure the temperature of a system that is known to be
850 ◦C. The potentiometer posts are known to be at 31◦C act as the reference junction. What
is the mV reading indicated by the potentiometer? If an observer takes the mV reading and
calculates the temperature assuming the reference temperature to be the ice point what will be
temperature error?

Given: Type (K), To = 31 °C, T = 850 °C.

Required:
(a) mV reading indicated by the potentiometer.
(b) Temperature error assuming reference to be ice point.
Solution:
(a) mV reading indicated by the potentiometer.

- Using 5th law of intermediate temperatures: emf 0-31 + emf 31-850 = emf 0-850

From the table emf 0 - 31 = 1.244 mV, emf 0 - 850 = 35.313 mV

emf 31-850= 35.313 - 1.244 = 34.069 mV

(b) Temperature error assuming reference to be ice point.

From the table at emf = 34.069 mV the temperature is 819.3 °C

e = 819.3 – 850 = - 30.7 °C

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Measurements Devices Temperature Measurements

12) A chromel–constantan thermocouple measuring the temperature of a fluid is connected by

mistake with copper–constantan extension leads (such that the two constantan wires are
connected together and the copper extension wire is connected to the chromel thermocouple
wire). If the fluid temperature was actually 250 °C, and the junction between the thermocouple
and extension wires was at 80 °C, what e.m.f. would be measured at the open ends of the
extension wires if the reference junction is maintained at 0 °C? What fluid temperature would
be deduced from this (assuming that the connection mistake was not known about)?

Given:

Required: a) Emf at the ends of the extension wires.

b) Fluid temperature if the mistake was not known about

Solution:
a) Emf at the ends of the extension wires.
The summing Emfs around the loop:
𝑉 = 𝐸1 − 𝐸2
The value of Emf (1):
𝐸1 = 𝐸 (0→250) Chromel-Constantan
From thermocouple Chromel-Constantan table (type E):

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Measurements Devices Temperature Measurements

𝐸1 = 𝐸 (0→250) = 17.181 𝑚𝑉
The value of Emf (2):
𝐸2 = 𝐸 (0→80) Chromel-Copper
Using the 4th law (Intermediate metals):
𝐸 (0→80) Chromel-Copper = 𝐸 (0→80) Chromel-Constantan −𝐸 (0→80) Copper – Constantan
𝐸2 = 4.985 − 3.358 = 1.627 𝑚𝑉

By substitution:
𝑉 = 𝐸1 − 𝐸2 = 17.181 − 1.627 = 𝟏𝟓. 𝟓𝟓𝟒 𝒎𝑽
b) Fluid temperature if the mistake was not known about.
𝑉 = 15.554 = 𝐸(0→𝑇) Chromel-Constantan
From thermocouple Chromel-Constantan table (type E):
T = 228.6 oC

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Measurements Devices Temperature Measurements

13) The brightness temperature of a metal block is given as 950 ◦C. A thermocouple embedded in
the block reads 1032 ◦C. What is the emissivity of the surface? The pyrometer used in the
above measurement is a vanishing filament type with an effective λ of 0.65 μm. Assuming that
the thermocouple reading is susceptible to an error of ± 5 ◦C while the brightness temperature
is error free determine an error bar on the emissivity determined above.

Given: TB = 950 °C, λ = 0.65 μm, C2 = 14390 μm K, T = 1032 ± 5 ◦C.

Required: The emissivity and error.
Solution:
- The emissivity can be calculated as:
1 1 𝜆 1 1 0.65
− = ln(𝜀𝜆 𝜏𝜆 ) → − = ln(𝜀𝜆 )
𝑇 𝑇𝐵 𝐶2 (1032 + 273) (950 + 273) 14390
𝜺𝝀 = 𝟎. 𝟑𝟐𝟏
- The emissivity error can be calculated as:
1 1 𝜆 1 1
− = ln(𝜀𝜆 𝜏𝜆 ) → − = 4.8183𝑒 −5 ln(𝜀𝜆 )
𝑇 𝑇𝐵 𝐶2 𝑇 1223
20753.85
𝜀𝜆 = 𝑒 ( 𝑇 − 16.9696)

𝛿𝜀𝜆 20753.85 (20753.85 − 16.9696)

𝑈𝜀𝜆 = ± 𝑈𝑇 = ± − 𝑒 𝑇 𝑈𝑇
𝛿𝑇 𝑇2
20753.85 (20753.85 − 16.9696)
=± 𝑒 1305 × 5 = ±𝟎. 𝟎𝟐𝟎𝟗𝟖
13052

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