The Attraction of Korea

An empirical study on how country-of-origin affects consumers'

perception and purchase intentions of Korean beauty products.

Author: Lovisa Ingels

Stockholm University
Department of Asian, Middle Eastern and Turkish Studies
Bachelor’s Thesis 15 hp
Spring semester 2020
Supervisor: Gabriel Jonsson
Acknowledgements
Firstly, I would like to direct my gratitude towards my supervisor Gabriel Jonsson for his
valuable feedback and comments throughout the process of writing my thesis.

I would also like to thank family and friends for their support throughout this period. A special
thanks to Sammra, Sebastian and Essie, I could not have done it without you.

Lastly, I would like to thank the participants for taking their time to be part of this study. Their
insights were incredibly valuable. Thank you.

Lovisa Ingels

Stockholm, May 2020

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Abstract
The Korean Wave has taken the world by storm and Korean beauty (K-beauty) has in extension
to this become a global phenomena. K-beauty has reached this popularity with the help of
authentic and natural ingredients and a combination between tradition and modernity creating a
competitive advantage on the market. Despite this popularity a lack of research has been
identified on how the “​Made in Korea​” label affects consumer’s perception of Korean products
and in specific K-beauty products. The current study addressed this opportunity in examining
how consumers perceive K-beauty products in addition to country-of-origin affects their
purchase intention. To examine this a qualitative approach was taken consisting of 11 email
interviews with millennial women residing in Sweden. The empirical data derived from the
interviews was divided into four themes (1) Made in Korea, (2) Image, (3) Quality and (4)
Effect. The findings were then analyzed in regards to the country-of-origin effect (COE) and
previous research on the topic. The results identify two main attributes as driving factors in
consumer perception of K-beauty products on the Swedish market. These two attributes are
image and quality. Korea was in this study found to carry a strong cognitive country image (CCI)
and is as a result perceived to be on the forefront of the beauty industry creating an attraction
towards Korean products. Although K-beauty is found to be driven by the CCI a connection to
the Korean Wave and an affective country image (ACI) is found creating a separation in the
country image. This was further found to suggest that the Korean Wave facilitates the spread of
Korean culture through all Korean products. Future research directions are additionally
discussed.

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 List of Abbreviations

ACI Affective County Image

CBOE Country of Brand Origin Effect

CCI Cognitive Country Image

COE Country-of-Origin Effect

COM Country-of-Manufacture

COO Country-of-Origin

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Table of Content
Acknowledgements 1

Abstract 2

List of Abbreviations 3

1. Introduction 6
1.1. Background 6
1.2. Problematization 8
1.3. Aim 9
1.4. Research Question 9

2. Literature Review 10
2.1. Korean Wave 10
2.2. Korean Beauty 12
2.3. Nation Branding 13
2.3.1. Cognitive and Affective Country Image 15
2.4. Country-of-Origin 16
2.5. Theoretical Framework 18
2.5.1. Country-of-Origin Effect 18

3. Research Design 21
3.1. Methodology 21
3.2.1. Scientific Perspective 21
3.2. Method 22
3.2.1. Data Collection 22
3.2.1.1. Translation and Romanization Method 22
3.2.2. Sample 23
3.2.3. Data Analysis 23
3.3. Ethical Dilemmas 24
3.4. Source Critical Consideration 24

4. Findings and Analysis 25

4.1. Made in Korea 25
4.2. Image 28
4.3. Quality 32
4.4. Effect 37

5. Discussion 39

6. Conclusion 42
6.2. Limitations and Future Research 43

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References 45

Appendix 1 49
Interview Guide 49

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1. Introduction

1.1. Background
Globalization and the interconnectedness of the world has redefined consumption patterns and
has provided consumers with a market without boundaries. In today’s globalized world, access to
foreign products has increased substantially, leading to a higher competitiveness on both
domestic and external markets (Meneses & Santos, 2019, p.105; Dinnie, 2008, p.6). The global
market has thus become increasingly saturated and countries are in need to differentiate
themselves. In an effort to do so countries are embracing nation branding strategies to improve
their financial performance and encourage export and tourism (Dinnie, 2008, p.6). Previous
research has shown that preconceived notions of a country may very well have an impact on a
consumer's purchasing intention and decision thus alluding to the importance of having a strong
nation brand (Li et al. 2014, p.2154). Country-of-origin (COO) has furthermore, as a result of
this, become an important characteristic for consumers to distinguish products on the market and
make informed purchasing decisions (Krupka & Arežina, 2017, pp.39-40; Meneses & Santos,
2019, p.105). Regardless of the country-of-manufacture (COM) consumers rely heavily on the
COO label brands market themselves with in assessing products (Krupka & Arežina, 2017,
pp.40, 51).

Following South Korea (Korea hereafter) co-hosting the 2002 FIFA World Cup the Korean
government set out to actively build Korea as a brand (Lee, 2005; Dinnie, 2008, p.15). The
government has since then supported companies in an effort to build “​Made in Korea​” as a
trademark in line with reimagining Korea’s nation brand (Lee, 2005). To operationalize this the
Korean government set out five strategies; to “​internationalize Korean brand names, strengthen
corporate brand management, reinforce electronic brand marketing, expand the infrastructure
for brand marketing and raise the nation’s image abroad​ “ (Dinnie, 2008, p.15)

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Furthermore, following the Korean Wave and the surge in popularity for K-prefixed cultural
products K-beauty has become a tool for Korea to reshape their national identity (Li, Min, Lee,
2019, pp.2, 15). K-pop and Korean dramas have become a vehicle for Korean beauty ideals and
new trends (Oh, 2018, pp.177, 185). As wide exposure of Korean celebrities well beyond dramas
and music videos has popularized Korean beauty ideals and facilitates consumption of Korean
beauty products worldwide (ibid, p.3). Alongside K-pop, K-beauty has made Korean beauty
ideals a global phenomena that is increasingly sought after with exports of beauty products from
Korea reaching 6.89 trillion won, translating to approximately 5.6 billion USD, in 2018 (Statista,
2019). Resulting from this, “​Medical Korea”​ and “​Korean medical tourism​” has become terms
part of Korea's national branding strategy riding this wave. Korean plastic surgery has with this
become one of the largest tourist attractions as international fans travel to Korea with the purpose
of getting plastic surgery to emulate these ideals (Oh, 2018, p.178; Li, Min, Lee, 2019, pp.2, 4,
8). As a result, Korea has been branded as the “​plastic surgery capital of the world​” (Li, Min &
Lee, 2019, p.10). With this Korea has successfully combined a cognitive and affective country
image with an image of high quality technology and an attractive cultural stage (ibid, pp.2, 8-9,
13).

The possibly more accessible option for global consumers trying to achieve this beauty ideal is
instead marketed towards the path of Korean beauty products, i.e. skincare, makeup and
bodycare (Oh, 2018, p.178). K-beauty has transcended merely being a product and has instead
become part of a lifestyle. The 10-step beauty routine has integrated itself into the daily lives of
consumers and has taken the global skincare world by storm (Leighton, 2020). The somewhat
unique approach with inventive and natural ingredients followed by a strict regimen has allowed
Korean products to differentiate themselves on the market and popularized them for consumers
outside the world of K-pop and other K-branded products (Kwon, 2018, pp.1-2; Lee et al., 2019,
p.202; Leighton, 2020).

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1.2. Problematization
Following the Korean Wave and the increased consumption of Korean culture globally, the
phenomena has been a popular topic of research in recent years (Park, 2014; O, 2016; Oh, 2018;
Li, Min & Lee, 2019; Lee et al., 2019). Exposure to Korean culture has been shown to have an
impact on consumers' perception of Korea and Korean products. Additionally, studies have
shown that COO has influence on consumers purchasing intentions (Yunus & Rashid, 2016;
Meneses & Santos, 2019). There is however little research as to how and why these factors have
this effect.

Previous research has identified a need to further explore how the connection between a
country’s products convert into a consumer’s intention of purchase of products made in that
country (Yoo, 2018, pp.206-207). As such, the impact on consumer perception of said country
was furthermore mentioned to be in need of further studies (ibid). Furthermore, previous
research found on the topic was mainly focused on the Asian market with little to no research on
the European or Nordic market (Park, 2014; Yoo, 2018). Thus, a need for further studies was
identified to examine how Korean beauty products are perceived on the Swedish market in line
with COO as a focal point. In addition, despite the immense popularity of the Korean Wave, a
lack of research on specifically K-beauty was identified further motivating the topic of research.

In light of what is stated above, this study aims to contribute to research on the topic of how
Korean beauty products, based COO, affects the consumer's view of the products and if their
attraction to buying Korean beauty products increases. In addition to how the “​Made in Korea”​
label might influence consumers' perception of such products. To examine this participants were
to be made aware and be exposed to Korean beauty products beforehand as the study examines if
the “​Made in​” label might have influenced their purchase and/or trial.

In a news article Kim (2019) mentions the immense success the Korean Wave and K-pop have
had on a global scale. The same audience has however reached beyond the world of K-pop and

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has immersed itself in other K-branded products such as K-food and K-beauty. Kim (2019)
further identifies this audience to largely consist of millennials who have embodied Korean
culture as a whole. In later years the Korean wave is furthermore mentioned to be heavily driven
by social media through younger generations (O, 2016, p.92; Oh, 2018, pp.126-127).
Considering this, in the current study millennial consumers are chosen as the sample group as
they are heavy users of social media and newer technology (Pandey, Sahu & Dash, 2018, 149).
Millennials are defined in the age span born between 1981 and 1999 (ibid) The tourist
corporation in Korea has furthermore made efforts in their digital promotional communications
specifically towards the age group of millennials with the success of the Korean Wave in mind
(Kim, 2020).

1.3. Aim
The primary aim of this study is to investigate how the marketing of Korean beauty products,
based on culture and origin, affects the consumer’s perception of the products in addition to, if
the likeness of them purchasing the products increases. Thus, this paper will examine purchase
intention and Swedish millennial women's perception of Korean beauty products in relation to
the country-of-origin effect. This study aims to contribute by looking at the market in Sweden
and by relating it to previous research on other countries and cultures to determine if there is a
correlation with those results. Furthermore, this study aims to examine the opinions of
consumers following their exposure of Korean beauty products to examine how the “​Made in”​
label might have affected their behaviour.

1.4. Research Question

The following two research questions were formulated to summarize this:
- How are Korean branded beauty products perceived by millennial women on the Swedish
market?
- How does country-of-origin affect consumers’ purchasing intention of Korean beauty
products?

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2. Literature Review
In the following chapter research on the topic surrounding the Korean Wave, K-beauty and
country-of-origin will be presented. In addition to the theoretical framework of which the
empirical data is analyzed upon.

2.1. Korean Wave

The Korean Wave is an umbrella term for Korean culture influence and export on a global scale
(Park, 2014, 86; Li, Min & Lee, 2019, 7; Oh, 2018, p.2). Oh (2018, p.3) goes on to explain that
products of cultural phenomena are “​prefixed with a K, a letter that brands made-in-Korea
products and culture: for example, K-drama, K-pop, K-food, K-beauty, K-style, and K-culture.​“
(Oh, 2018, p.3). The term itself is, in other words, used to refer to the popularity of Korean
culture and Korean cultural products overseas (ibid, p.2). The Korean Wave has over the past
decade had an immense rise in popularity with its origins in the popularity Korean movies and
TV-dramas had in China during the 90s’ (Park, 2014, p.86; O, 2016, p.90). This surge in
popularity in China also gave name to the phenomena in the form of “​Hallyu”​ (Park, 2014, p.86).
Park (2014, p.86) goes on to explain that the Korean Wave has from the 90’s when it was heavily
dependent on the demand of movies and TV-dramas changed to give way to other aspects of the
Korean culture. In later years Korean pop (K-pop) and Korean beauty (K-beauty) are some of the
aspects that have gained an increased following globally. O (2016, p.92) mentions that the
Korean Wave can be divided into three stages wherein the third phase in the late 2000s created a
new Korean Wave called “​신한류​” (​sinhallyu)​ . This new wave is largely driven by K-pop
spreading via digital media, and is particularly popular amongst the younger generation (O,
2016, p.92). Oh (2018, pp.126-127) adds that the current trend with the Korean Wave is largely
driven by user-generated content, particularly on social media platforms, further arguing for this
to be a pivotal vehicle for the popularity it has gained today. Similarly, No and Yun (2019,
p.149) accredits parts of the immense success the Korean Wave has had to a ripple effect

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facilitated largely by social media. The authors argue for a secondary round of exposure as an
effect of the initial exposure to Korean content (ibid).

One of the main characteristics that distinguished the Korean Wave is the combination between
Asian and Western cultural aspects, i.e. the combination between tradition and modernity (Park,
2014, p.87). Much of the content exported from Korea largely builds upon Western media,
adding Asian influences and optimizing it for export purposes (Ibid, pp.87, 95). Korea has, with
the Korean Wave, relied heavily on promoting the country's unique culture and values to
differentiate themselves. Thus, Korean’s branding strategy has globally consisted of partly
highlighting parts of traditional Korean culture, eg. traditional medicine with natural remedies
and confucianism in achieving a cultural hybridity (Li, Min & Lee, 2019, pp.13, 15-16).

Similarly to this, these cultural aspects are often correlated and go hand-in-hand in popularity,
e.g. K-pop and K-dramas portray Korean beauty ideals increasing the popularity in K-beauty and
K-style (ibid, pp.177, 185). Additionally, the cultural products all separately have different levels
of effect on country image wherein eg. K-dramas efficiently and successfully promote other
Korean products and influence purchase intentions whilst K-pop instead directly affects Korea's
country image (O, 2016, p.111).

As a result of the Korean Wave becoming a widespread phenomena it has transcended into an
appreciation of Korea as a whole (O, 2016, p.90). In regard to this the spread of the Korean
Wave can be translated into stages; a spread of intangible culture, consumption of tangible
culture and consumption of consumer goods (ibid). Agreeing with No and Yun (2019, p.149) O
(2016, p.90) argues that the Korean Wave as a result of this creates a ripple effect resulting in
increased consumption and export of Korean goods. The Korean Wave is further mentioned to
largely have had a positive effect on increasing the status of Korea's national brand (No & Yun,
2019, p.153). Additionally, the authors credit the improvement of the national brand to largely be
the effect K-pop has had globally (ibid).

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2.2. Korean Beauty
Following the phenomena of the Korean Wave with the popularity of K-pop and its like, the
trend further encompassed Korean skincare and makeup labeled K-Beauty. Kwon (2018, p.1)
defines K-Beauty as ”​a generic term for all the skin care, makeup, and bath-and-body products
imported from South Korea​” (Kwon, 2018, p.1). One of the themes relevant to the appeal of
K-beauty identified by Kwon (2018, pp.1-2) lies in the ritualization of the skincare practice.
In-line with the ritualistic behaviour as described by Rook (1985, p.252), the steps taken in
K-beauty follow the same pattern of being structured and reoccurring in the daily life of the
consumers. Allowing for K-beauty to become more than a product and instead integrating itself
into the consumers life on a deeper level.

Li, Min and Lee (2019, p.2) further argues for the emergence of K-beauty as a trend to extend to
a rise in Korean beauty standards globally. Oh (2018, p.177) goes on to suggest these ideals to
include “​big, sparkly eyes, button nose, delicate, pointed chins, light skin, a V-line facial shape,
and S-line body.“​ (Oh, 2018, p.177). In addition, Oh (2018, pp.177-178) mentions that the
Korean Wave has allowed for a space for consumers to practice these Korean beauty ideals. With
the rise of Korean TV-dramas and K-pop, Korean beauty ideals are displayed and consumed at a
higher rate globally and thus, allowing for K-beauty to act as a bridge for the audience to achieve
these ideals.

In line with this Lee et al. (2019, p.202) argues for the “​Asia-ification​” of the cosmetics industry
to largely having an impact allowing for K-beauty to expand its reach on this grand scale. The
popularity of Asian culture, further creating an environment for Korean ingredients to take center
stage in the marketing ploys for these products. Lee et al. (2019, pp.202, 210) argues that it is
these traditional Korean ingredients that has become the main selling point for K-beauty. In
extension Park (2014, p.87) mentions that “​successful Korean cultural products are a
combination of Asiatic elements (tradition) and Western sophistication (modernity) creating
their own uniqueness”​ (Park, 2014, p.87). Further arguing that the use of traditional ingredients

12
is one of the most important factors in succeeding on the global market. Kwon (2018, p.2) agrees
adding that Korean beauty products carry an image of traditional ingredients derived from nature
aiding its success, mentioning popular ingredients such as snail secretion and mung bean.
Extending this, Lee et al. (2019, p.202) further argue for an image of authenticity in connection
to the use of Korean ingredients. In defining authenticity as what “​has been regarded as that
which is true, genuine and real​” authenticity is mentioned to lead to a higher perception of
quality (Lee et al., 2019, p.202). As such authenticity in connection to history and culture is
increasingly sought after with consumers rejecting global products void of those attributes (ibid).
According to Li, Min and Lee (2019, pp.15, 17) Korean beauty products as well as other
K-prefixed cultural products follow the nation’s branding strategy. O (2016, p.89) further
mentions that K-beauty in relation to other K-branded products has a favourable effect on
purchase intention and evaluation. Whilst high exposure to any of the Korean cultural products
still had a positive effect on purchase intention regardless, dependent on if the consumer has
positive connotation to it.

2.3. Nation Branding

The concept of nation branding has great importance in how a country can promote themselves
on a global scale in areas such as tourism and trade. Dinnie (2008, p.5) defines the concept as
“​the unique, multidimensional blend of elements that provide the nation with culturally grounded
differentiation and relevance for all of its target audiences.​ ” (Dinnie, 2008, p.5). With this
definition the author argues that the concept is multifaceted and stems from the consumer's
perception of the brand thus, stressing the importance of understanding perceptual attributes
(ibid). Similarly Chattalas, Kramer and Takada (2008, p.68) define the concept of national
branding as “​cultivating a unique and positive brand image of the nation and its associated
symbols”​ (Chattalas, Kramer & Takada, 2008, p.68). Nation branding pertaining to country
image has been identified to be a relatively complex issue and can thus be divided into several
concepts such as cognitive country image (CCI) and affective country image (ACI) (Li, Min &

13
Lee, 2019, p.3). CCI can be defined as “​consumers’ beliefs about a country (​ ...)” whilst ACI can
be defined as “​consumers’ affective responses toward a country (​ ...)” (Li, Min & Lee, 2019, p.3).

According to Dinnie (2008, p.37) nation branding strategies are often an effort to embrace both
past and present aspects of the country's culture. However, he argues that national branding can
simultaneously be used to reposition a country and assist in erasing prior misconceptions that
might exist. Prior studies have found that consumers prefer products from countries that have a
strong image, eg. Germany and Japan are known to be disciplined (Li, Min & Lee, 2019, p.3;
Kotler & Gertner, 2002, p.250). If the country carries a strong image of a positive characteristic
the products are often associated with the same qualities. Kim, Chŏng and Pak (2016, p.7)
further mention purchase intention to be heavily dependant on country image, especially
intention of repurchase. Chinese consumers were found to be more likely to repurchase Korean
products the higher their image of Korea was and experience a higher level of satisfaction in the
process (Kim, Chŏng & Pak, 2016, p.7). However, respectively if there is a high level of hostility
towards a country the intention of purchase was found to be low (ibid). No and Yun (2019,
p.153) mentions a correlation between frequency of exposure and perception of a national
brand’s image, i.e. heavy exposure to eg. products of the Korean Wave results in a higher
perception of Korea.

According to Li, Min and Lee (2019, p.3) the concept of nation branding can often be connected
to country-of-origin (COO). Chattalas, Kramer and Takada (2008, p.68) further mentions that
although it might be difficult to isolate certain efforts to examine the level of influence they
might have, they suggest that attitudes on COO can change. Thus, alluding to the importance of
national branding in such cases. No and Yun (2019, p.147) define national branding as the sum
of tangible and intangible values towards a country. The values are mentioned to consist of
awareness, likability and trustworthiness. They further recognise the importance of nation
branding to achieve competitive advantage. In discussing tangible goods products such as
K-beauty and K-fashion are mentioned whilst K-pop and K-dramas are defined as intangible (No
& Yun, 2019, p.149). According to No and Yun (2019, p.149) the 2018 National Image Survey

14
Report showed Korean food to be the leading cultural product in promoting Korea’s image
followed by other products of the Korean Wave such as K-pop and K-beauty. As such, both
tangible and intangible cultural products are driving factors of the Korean Wave (No & Yun,
2019, p.149).

2.3.1. Cognitive and Affective Country Image

To further examine the effect country image might have on purchase intention Li et al. (2014,
pp.2155-2156) argue for the importance to distinguish between CCI and ACI as these two
concepts might generate different results. Wherein Li et al. (2014, p.2156) defines the cognitive
dimension as a “​consumers’ beliefs of a country, including its level of economic development,
standard of living, industrialization and technological advancement “ (Li et al., 2014, p.2156).
Whilst the affective dimension is defined as a “​consumers’ affective responses toward a country,
including its government, policies, culture and people​“ (Ibid, p.2156); with this arguing that
consumers might therefore differ in their product assessments whether they have a stronger
cognitive or affective country image. Previous definitions on the topic however, have neglected
the affective aspects and instead assumed country image to solely entail the beliefs someone has
of a country (Martin & Eroglu, 1993, p.193; Roth & Diamantopoulos, 2009, p.727). Although,
Roth and Diamantopoulos (2009, p.737) coincide with Li et al. (2014, pp.2155-2156) in that
there is a need for a more comprehensive image to capture the factors that country image as a
concept requires. Thus, arguing for the necessity of a separation between CCI and ACI in
understanding how country image acts as a cue for consumer decision making.

Li, Min and Lee (2019, p.3) further connect a consumer´s ACI to a countries soft power and a
country's cultural export. Stressing the importance for a country’s development of soft power,
defined as “​the ability to shape the preferences of others through values, culture and policies”​
(Li, Min & Lee, 2019, p.3), alongside nation branding. In the case of Korea’s national branding
strategy Li, Min and Lee (2019, p.15) mentioned soft power to be a key player to the
popularization of K-beauty on both an internal and external scale. Simultaneously Korea has

15
maintained a strong cognitive nation image in eg. being associated with high quality
technological advancements (Li, Min & Lee, 2019, pp.2, 8-9, 13).

The effect COO has on the decisions in different types of purchases is further mentioned to be of
relevance, i.e. the difference between rational versus experiential purchases (Li et al., 2014,
p.2155). In which rational products include cars whilst experiential products include eg.
cosmetics and clothing. Following this, Li et al. (2014, p.2170) conclude that ACI often acts as a
deciding factor in experiential purchases suggesting the importance of highlighting such aspects
in marketing such products. Moreover, in which case consumers have an “​overwhelming and
positive cognitive country image​“ associated with a country it overrules an ACI rendering it
ineffective in such a decision (Li et al., 2014, p.2171).

2.4. Country-of-Origin
COO is found to be an important aspect in several processes leading up to a purchase decision or
intention, and might in some cases be the deciding factor (Yunus & Rashid, 2016, pp.344-345;
Krupka & Arežina, 2017, p.40; Li, Min & Lee, 2019, p.3; Meneses & Santos, 2019, p.106). The
following definition was found for the concept; “​COO can be defined as the country in which
corporate headquarters of the company marketing the brand is located, regardless of the place
in which the brand in question is produced.​” (Krupka & Arežina, 2017, p.40). Contrary to this
Chattalas, Kramer and Takada (2008, p.55) instead defines COO as “​information pertaining to
where a product is made​” including the Country-of-Manufacturing (COM) in the scope of the
concept, basing it on the “​Made in”​ label on the product (Chattalas, Kramer & Takada, 2008,
p.55).

In previous research, the Country-of-Manufacturing (COM) was additionally examined in

relation to COO (Krupka & Arežina, 2017). However Krupka & Arežina (2017, pp.46, 48-49)
did not find COM to hold as much importance as COO in the decision-making process. Although
respondents were aware of the difference in COO and COM the majority of the respondents

16
prioritised COO in their decision-making process often disregarding COM completely (Krupka
& Arežina, 2017, pp.46, 48-49, 51). They instead argue for COO to be the determinant for the
quality of the product (ibid). Furthermore, previous studies have shown that COO is connected to
the consumers' product evaluations, purchasing attitudes and intentions (Kotler & Gertner, 2002,
p.252; Yunus & Rashid, 2016, p.348). Contrary to this Li et al. (2014, p.2154) points out
inconsistencies in previous studies and instead argues that there is no conclusive evidence on
whether COO or nation branding have a direct effect on consumers purchasing decisions. Instead
the authors suggest that a nation's image solely has an effect on product evaluation and not
purchasing intention. Although COO is closely connected with the product category in
determining the level of importance in the process. Additional factors such as positive country
image, product quality and brand familiarity are furthermore mentioned in connection to
purchase intention (Yunus & Rashid, 2016, p.348).

Moreover, COO is mentioned to act as a shortcut for consumers in their decision process. If a
consumer has a predetermined picture of a country, they might make their decision based on
those ideas rather than the product itself. According to Yunus and Rashid (2016, p.348) the effect
of COO heavily affects perceived product quality and in extension also purchase intention.
Similarly to this Li et al. (2014, p.2154) divides the COO construct into two sub-sections;
country image and product image and argues for the importance to separate these two concepts
as they might lead to different outcomes. The difference between country image and product
image lies in the consumer's perception of a country versus a consumer's beliefs in the quality of
products or brands that stem from said country (Li et al., 2014, p.2154). Meneses and Santos
(2019, p.107) further expand on this by mentioning that COO is a secondary association. If a
brand cannot be benefitted by the associations made to the COO of a product, they should
instead enhance other secondary factors such as spokespeople (Meneses & Santos, 2019, p.107).
Although Krupka & Arežina (2017, pp.38, 40) mentions that this is dependent on the level of
involvement of a product, high involvement products create a motivation for the consumer to
research and collect information themselves whilst low involvement products instead lack that

17
motivation. In the case of the high involvement products factors such as COO and COM instead
take center stage in the decision process (Krupka & Arežina, 2017, p.40).

Related to previous mentioned statements, Meneses and Santos (2019, p.106) suggest that if a
consumer has negative connotations with a country they are less likely to purchase a product
with that origin thus, stressing the importance of brands having a clear understanding how the
COO may affect their brand image.

2.5. Theoretical Framework

2.5.1. Country-of-Origin Effect

The effect COO has on a consumer's decision process is referred to as the country-of-origin
effect (COE). COE can be defined as “​the influence country of origin of certain products or
services has on consumers’ decision processes”​ (Meneses & Santos, 2019, p.106; Elliott &
Cameron, 1994, p.50). In other words, COE describes the physiological effect that occurs within
the consumer’s purchasing process in regarding the product’s COO based on preconceived
notions and experiences (Meneses & Santos, 2019, p.106; O, 2016, p.94). Similarly,
Bartosik-Purgat (2018, p.125) defines COE as “​consumer attitudes towards certain product
categories evaluating the quality of such products on the basis of their country of origin“​
(Bartosik-Purgat, 2018, p.125).

In the decision process consumers are mentioned to rely on intrinsic and extrinsic cues in which
COE is included in the latter. The intrinsic cues refer to the physical attributes whilst the
extrinsic are the more intangible features of a product (Meneses & Santos, 2019, p.106). As
consumers rely on the extrinsic cues in their purchase, in which COO is regarded in the decision,
two effects may be observed. In which case the consumer is unfamiliar with the country and/or
product the halo effect occurs (Chattalas, Kramer & Takada, 2008, 57, 65-66; Meneses &
Santos, 2019, p.106). The halo effect refers to the physiological effect in which individuals

18
translate preconceived notions, or stereotypes, to other unknown aspects assuming that the
qualities follow the same construct. Which in this case would be translated into consumers then
instead falling back on their beliefs which in turn acts as the deciding factor for the decision
(Meneses & Santos, 2016, p.106). Similarly Bartosik-Purgat (2018, p.125) mentions COE to
heavily rely on stereotypes, especially if the consumer lacks previous experience with the
product. In such instances consumers seek out the “​Made in​” label which acts as the base of their
purchasing decision, i.e. a positive match to the COO might lead to a purchase and vice versa
(Bartosik-Purgat, 2018, p.125). On the contrary, if there is a familiarity with a product the
summary construct can instead be observed. In which case the importance of COO in the
decision subside in the process and “​the information about the country of origin is used as a
proxy and summarizes other information on attributes already known or expected“​ (Meneses &
Santos, 2019, p.106).

Adina, Gabriela and Roxana-Denisa (2015, p.424) moreover argue for the multidimensional
nature of COE in three aspects; cognitive, affective and normative. “​On a cognitive level, the
country-of-origin is a cue for product quality.”​ , i.e. in the cognitive aspect consumers judge
products based on the perceived quality which in itself can be divided into two dimensions;
design quality and manufacturing quality (Adina, Gabriela & Roxana-Denisa, 2015, p.424).
These two dimensions can be translated into the “​Designed in​” and “​Made in​” labels hinting
towards the overall quality of the product (ibid). In connection to this COO is furthermore stated
to be “​a quality cue for reliability, safety and durability, reducing the perceived buying risks”​
thus, alluding to the importance of COO in such a case where the consumer lacks knowledge of
the product itself (Adina, Gabriela & Roxana-Denisa, 2015, p.424).

In the affective aspect, emotional associations are made with the COO through different means.
These associations can include direct or indirect experiences that link the COO to the consumer
through an emotional connection (ibid, p.424). The consumer therefore seeks this connection to
the brand in search for belonging or in means to reach an ideal in which “​a country’s personality

19
can act as a self-expressive attribute and favor the fulfillment of self-esteem“​ (Adina, Gabriela &
Roxana-Denisa, 2015, p.425).

When a consumer experiences the cognitive and affective dimensions to align with one another
affinitive or animosity can be observed. In the normative aspect of COE, ethnocentrism and
disidentification acts as deciding factors in the purchasing decision process (ibid, p.426). The
factors both regard a stance towards locally produced products respectively, in which
ethnocentrism is defined as a bias towards local products whilst disidentification disfavours
locally produced products. This dimension therefore affects commodities from a country as a
whole and the attitudes towards it. In regards to ethnocentric consumers, purchase intention is
furthermore heavily affected by COO as foreign products are highly disregarded (Chattalas,
Kramer & Takada, 2008, pp.58, 67).

Although, with globalization boundaries are becoming a loose term and COO is increasingly
harder to specify (Chattalas, Kramer & Takada, 2008, p.55; Bartosik-Purgat, 2018, p.125). Brand
and the country of brand origin effect (CBOE) is instead being increasingly exploited
(Bartosik-Purgat, 2018, p.136). In light of this consumers are losing the perception of where a
product's true origins are and instead heavily rely on the origins of the image of the brand whilst
COM is losing its effect. Thus, successfully identifying what association consumers have with a
product's perceived COO is crucial (Adina, Gabriela & Roxana-Denisa, 2015, p.426). In regards
to the Korean Wave, O (2016, p.112) mentions that the COE is connected to the level of
exposure, i.e. increased exposure to the Korean Wave results in a greater COE. In addition to this
the author mentions acceptance and appreciation of content from the Korean Wave to follow the
same principle.

20
3. Research Design

3.1. Methodology

3.2.1. Scientific Perspective

In identifying a research gap on how Korean beauty products, based on country-of-origin are
perceived in addition to how consumer’s purchasing intention is affected this study aims to
contribute to existing theory and empirical material.

In regards to the scientific perspective of social research ontology can be defined as the nature of
social entities, i.e. the ontological consideration concerns how the social world is regarded
(Bryman, 2012, pp.19, 32). In this study a constructionist approach is taken seeing as this study
examines behavior, opinion and attitudes as a social phenomena. It is therefore implied that
social actors are believed to act dependently of each other and social constructs are under
constant revision as a result of this (ibid, p.33).

Further, epistemological considerations on the contrary concern what is known to be true, or in

other words “​what is regarded as acceptable knowledge in a discipline​” (Bryman, 2012, p.27).
For this study an interpretivist approach is taken. Interpretivism suggests that the researchers
interpret elements of the study and as such true objectiveness is difficult to achieve (Bryman,
2012, pp.28-31). As such, this thesis aims to reach a deeper understanding of a phenomena rather
than a generalizable truth.

21
3.2. Method

3.2.1. Data Collection

The empirical data in this paper was collected using qualitative methods in the form of email
interviews. The method of interviews was chosen in order to gain insight into the participants
attitudes and opinions on the topic. Due to the societal circumstances surrounding Covid-19
face-to-face interviews were made difficult and thus, other alternatives were chosen to best adapt
to the situation at hand. Seeing as the interviews were conducted via email they were of an
asynchronous nature meaning that the interviewer and participants were not online at the same
time (Bryman, 2012, p.668). The participants instead received the questions and were left to
answer them in their own time. The interviews further fall under the structured framework which
entails that the questions are predefined beforehand (ibid, p.210). Nevertheless, if answers were
in need of clarification further questions were sent to the respondent.

The questions were furthermore sent in two batches to encourage the participant to elaborate on
their answers as Bryman (2012, p.668) mentions that participants may avoid answering questions
if too many are sent at once (see Appendix 1). As it is also mentioned that too many batches of
questions might exhaust the connection to the participant two was chosen as a medium to ensure
qualitative answers. Prior to the interviews the participants were contacted and provided with the
topic of study, control questions which later ensued the above mentioned interview process.

3.2.1.1. Translation and Romanization Method

For this research data was collected mainly in English however, some additional data was
collected Korean. Thus, data presented in this thesis from Korean sources has been translated.
The names of the authors was romanized following the McCune-Reischauer romanization
method if their names was written in han’gŭl, i.e. the Korean alphabet. However, if the author

22
only has their names provided in Latin, this rendition has instead been used to reference their
work.

3.2.2. Sample
The sample for this research was chosen on a convenience sampling basis, meaning that the
participants were chosen based on proximity (Bryman, 2012, p.201). The participants were thus
found at Stockholm University at which the study is conducted and in the social proximity of the
author. The participants were chosen based on gender, age and nationality to ensure relevance for
the study whilst factors such as occupation, sexuality and ethnicity were disregarded as they
were deemed irrelevant on the basis that they are not of interest in this study. Additionally, all of
the participants are based in Sweden in the Stockholm region and are in the age span of 18-27
years. A total of 11 females were interviewed in this study with the aim to reach theoretical
saturation. In light of convenience sampling chosen to find participants in addition to the
exploratory nature of the study certain limitations are acknowledged. The sample group is
limited in size which suggests that the findings are not generalizable as further extensive research
is needed to substantiate these results. Prior to the interviews the participants were asked if they
are familiar with Korean beauty products in addition to if they have bought and/or tried such
products. These questions were asked to make certain that they had prior knowledge about these
types of products in order to be relevant to the topic of study. As mentioned prior, the
participants were to be aware and be exposed to Korean beauty products beforehand as the study
examines if the “​Made in”​ label might have influenced their purchase and/or trial.

3.2.3. Data Analysis

The responses derived from the email interviews were later analyzed using a thematic analyzing
method following a six-step guide presented by Braun and Clarke (2008). The six phases consist
of (1) Data collecting, management and transcription, (2) Generating initial codes, (3) Searching
for and sorting codes into themes, (4) Reviewing and conceptualizing themes, (5) Defining and
naming themes (6) Analysis and interpretation of themes to provide meaning to the data (Braun

23
& Clarke, 2008, p.87). Spelling mistakes and typos in the quotes used from the interview were,
to an extent, corrected by the author. This, to avoid any confusion for the readers. The
corrections were sparse and carefully done not to change the meaning and intention of the
participants. The themes derived from the empirical data worked as a basis for facilitating the
discussion and conclusion for the two research questions of “​How are Korean branded beauty
products perceived by millennial women on the Swedish market?”​ and “​How does
country-of-origin affect consumers’ purchasing intention of Korean beauty products?”​ .

3.3. Ethical Dilemmas

In preparation for the interviews the participants were given a sufficient amount of information
prior to ensuring that they could make an informed decision to be part of this study without a risk
of influencing their opinion on the topic (see Appendix 1). As part of the information beforehand
they were all informed of the option to refrain from answering any questions if they for any
reason felt unable to do so. The participants were also informed of confidentiality before
participating as their name will not be mentioned through any part of the study. After the
completion of the interviews, the participants were further informed of the study as a whole for
complete transparency purposes.

3.4. Source Critical Consideration

Seeing as the interviews were conducted in an asynchronous manner certain limits can be
identified. The method of email interviews has in itself its limitations in comparison to
face-to-face interviews. As the interviews are written certain nuances may be lost in both the
questions and answers. To minimize this risk the participants were encouraged to reach out if
there was any difficulty in understanding the questions. Similarly, the participants were
contacted if there were any questions regarding their answers. Structured interviews furthermore
provide a difficulty in the flexibility semi-structured or unstructured interviews offer, there was a
difficulty to provide follow up questions.

24
4. Findings and Analysis
Following the interviews conducted the empirical data could be divided into a number of themes
based on recurring topics throughout. The themes identified are as follows: (1) Made in Korea,
(2) Image, (3) Quality and (4) Effect.

4.1. Made in Korea

When asked how important the “​Made in”​ label was in a purchase of beauty products it was
mentioned to be of low importance. There was a consensus amongst the majority of the
participants that neither COO or COM was of relevance in their decision making process when
purchasing beauty products. The participants instead mentioned ingredients, reputation and trust
as deciding factors.

“​I am more concerned about what is in the product, what type of ingredients,. I am not as
much concerned about where the product is produced.​”
- Participant 4

“​I do not think about the made in label. I tend to focus on, as previously mentioned, the
reputation and reviews of the products I buy.​”
- Participant 3

“​Brands produce their products all over the world, so as long as the brand is trustworthy
the ”made in” label don’t make a difference to me.”​
- Participant 1

Although, whilst previously disregarding the “​Made in”​ label and the COO in their purchasing
decisions of beauty products several participants mentioned Korea to be a preferred country to
purchase such products from. Thus, there was a contradiction between intention and action.

25
Korea is by the participants connected to being famous for beauty and having an image of high
quality. True to what Li, Min and Lee (2019, p.3), Kotler and Gertner (2002, p.250) and Kim,
Chŏng and Pak (2016, p.7) suggest, as a result of Korea being associated with quality the
participants prefered to purchase beauty products from Korea and associated K-beauty products
with the same quality. Thus, in this case COO did indeed work as a shortcut for the participants
as they based their assumptions of the product quality in their perception of Korea. Although,
contrary to what Li et al. (2014, p.2154) states the participants did not separate country and
product image. The participants instead connected the two arguing K-beauty products to, based
on COO, share the same image.

According to Meneses and Santos (2019, p.106) if consumers have a familiarity with a product
the summary construct can be observed resulting in the importance of COO diminishing.
However, despite knowledge about beauty products the participants still expressed a bias
towards Korea. Thus, the summary construct can be observed to a certain extent, with the
exception of Korea where COO overruled other product attributes and still worked as a proxy.

“​I would say that if I would choose a beauty product from a country it would be from
Korea. (...) Korea is very famous for beauty and has taken over the world with it so I am
assuming I might just have fallen for the trend as with many others.”​
- Participant 4

“​I mentioned before that the "made in" label isn't very important for me, but if I know
that the product is made in korea I can expect high quality and there is therefore a much
higher chance that I buy it.”​
- Participant 9

Moreover, when asked about the “​Made in Korea”​ label the participants expressed an uncertainty
in how to interpret the label. The participants did not necessarily differentiate between COO and
COM and instead assumed that it was produced in Korea. Krupka & Arežina (2017, pp.46,

26
48-49) furthermore found consumers to be more likely to rely on COO than COM in their
decision making process. Similarly participants expressed that it was more important for the
K-beauty product to be from a brand originating from Korea than the product actually being
manufactured in the country. CBOE as mentioned by Bartosik-Purgat (2018, p.136) did therefore
become the more prevalent factor in judging the quality of the product.

“​With K-beauty I guess I have assumed that it is produced in Korea​”

- Participant 4

“​I want it to be made in korea when it comes to k-beauty Products. Or maybe not
necessary made there but made from a Company that originates from korea.​”
- Participant 10

The packaging of K-beauty products was in addition to other aspects often mentioned by the
participants. K-beauty was mentioned to be homogenous in their packaging with a distinct look
that made it easily recognizable and distinguishable from other products. The participants were
thus found to heavily rely on intrinsic cues, or physical attributes, in their decisions with one
participant further mentioning that they connected the visual aspects of the product to rely on an
image of authenticity.

“​Apart from the quality and the ingredients, the packaging tends to be different. The
Korean products tend to have a distinct feel to it that is very different from products from
other countries.​“
- Participant 6

“​I don't really know what it is that makes me perceive K-beauty as authentic. I believe it
can have to do with some packages that I have seen. But I guess that it is because of my
preconceptions of what Korean beauty ‘should be’ and be packed.”​
- Participant 4

27
Although one participant expressed a doubt towards this distinct look. The participant mentioned
that they experienced non-Korean brands to emulate this look and in turn researched the products
if they did not recognize the brand to be Korean. Further expressing that Korean products are
perceived to be of higher quality.

“​A lot of new brand today make packaging that looks like korean beauty brands to sell
more products. But they are not as good. So if I see a new brand or product that has the
esthetics of korean beauty brands, but I don't recognize it I always check the label.​”
- Participant 1

Similarly to the distinct packaging one participant mentioned the overall strong branding of
K-beauty products in the sense that Korea is heavily marketed with. This, in addition to the
homogeneous look of the packaging acted as a cue for identifying Korean products in the
masses. The participant further reflected upon how this strong branding of Korea on the products
differ from other countries.

“​(...) k-beauty products are usually marketed under the umbrella term k-beauty very
unlike products from any other country. (...) There is a lot of emphasis on the Korea
aspects of the whole regardless of what sort of beauty product it is.​”
- Participant 6

4.2. Image
Another recurring topic throughout the interviews can be found in the participants' perceived
image of Korea. When asked about how the participants perceive beauty products from Korea
the attitude was overarching positive. As well as several participants mentioning that they prefer
beauty products from Korea specifically.

28
 “​(...) if I see the ”made in korea” label I always get excited to try it.​“
- Participant 1

“​I personally prefer beauty products from korea.​”

- Participant 9

When asked how participants came in contact with K-beauty the answers were threefold. Firstly,
a number of participants mentioned to have been introduced to K-beauty through friends or a
recommendation with no prior knowledge of Korean culture. This follows the notion of CCI as
mentioned by Li, Min and Lee (2019, p.3) and Li et al. (2014, p.2156). In this case the
participants made their purchasing decision based on the cognitive dimension, i.e. their beliefs of
Korea and the quality the products carry. As such, as these participants shared an unfamiliarity
with Korean culture and products the halo effect could be identified (Chattalas, Kramer &
Takada, 2008, pp.57, 65-66; Meneses & Santos, 2019, p.106). Following this, their beliefs
therefore acted as the deciding factor in their purchase and they fell back on any preconceived
notions they had of Korea. However, these participants did not find themselves further engaging
with Korean culture past K-beauty after coming in contact with it. This, despite a satisfaction
with the products tried. Although, one of the participants continued to try other K-beauty
products. Therefore, as these participants experience a low exposure to Korean culture and
Korean cultural products their purchase intention was negatively impacted true to what O (2016,
p.89) and Kim, Chŏng and Pak (2016, p.7) mention.

“​I think through word of mouth. Like a friend or someone else in my vicinity.”​
- Participant 4

“​My first encounter with K-Beauty was (...) when a sales assistant at Sephora recommend
a moisturizer (...)”​
- Participant 7

29
Secondly, other participants instead accredited the Korean Wave completely to their knowledge
of the products. Mentioning that they first became aware of K-beauty through K-dramas and
K-pop which then facilitated an interest in trying K-beauty products. Several of the participants
also mentioned that they, especially through K-dramas, first encountered the products when
seeing celebrities endorse them. In this case the participants heavily relied on an ACI as a cue as
their purchasing decision was heavily based in their attraction to Korean culture (Li, Min & Lee,
2019, p.3; Li et al., 2014, p.2156). This can additionally be connected to Korea successfully
leveraging soft power to further popularize products of the Korean Wave (Li, Min & Lee, 2019,
p.3). In these participants the COE can further be identified. As mentioned by O (2016, p.112) a
high level of exposure is connected to a greater COE, i.e. heavy exposure to the Korean Wave is
found to influence consumers attitudes of Korean products. This was to a large extent found to
be positive as consumers with heavy exposure to the Korean Wave expressed positive attitudes
and purchasing behaviour towards K-beauty.

“​The first time was probably through watching k- drama and then following the actor/
actress on social media where they often promote different types of k-beauty products.​”
- Participant 2

“​I first encountered K-beauty products through Korean pop culture. Through Korean
dramas an K-pop I came into contact with Korean celebrities that endorsed products.​“
- Participant 6

“​I have grown to find korea interesting because of k-pop (...) Since I am interested in the
country It makes one ‘excited’ to try stuff originated from that country (...)”​

- Participant 10

Thirdly, a number of participants mentioned a combination between connecting Korea with an

image of quality and a prior attraction to Korean culture. These participants had prior knowledge
and an already established relationship with Korea but did not credit their purchase and/or trial of
K-beauty products completely to it. They instead mentioned it to be a mixture of reviews and

30
recommendations with their attraction to Korean culture. In this case, a combination of CCI and
ACI can instead be observed as consumers both held a cognitive and affective response towards
Korea (Li, Min & Lee, 2019, p.3; Li et al., 2014, p.2156).

“​I heard from friends that they were really good and they recommended me a lot of
different products. (...) I was also definitely influenced by the culture.”​
- Participant 3

“​The hype and the reviews saying that the products are super good was a partial factor.
The overall attraction I had towards Korea was another.​”
- Participant 2

Yunus and Rashid (2016, p.348) mention that the influence of COO heavily affects perceived
product quality. Based on the perception of the COO consumers might therefore use this as a
shortcut in their decision process and purchase. This was in the case of many participants found
to be true, if the participants held a positive perception of Korea the same perception was carried
over to Korean products. One participant mentioned that they have romanticised Korea through
the Korean Wave and K-pop and as a result of this assumed products to be good. Similarly, they
mentioned that they through solely seeing the label “​Made in Korea”​ perceived products to be
good, although they acknowledge that this might not necessarily be true. Thus, COO did indeed
act as a cue for product quality in this case.

“​I Think it is since I have gotten this glorified/romanticised Picture of korea from kpop
(...) I Think EVERYTHING from there is great (...) I obviously know that this is not the
case, but it still has its psychological effect when seeing ‘made in korea’.​”
- Participant 10

One participant additionally mentioned that their perception and attraction towards Korea had
created such a strong affiliation to an image of quality that even though the participant had
experienced negative results with K-beauty the immediate attraction still overruled at first

31
glance. In this case the participant’s ACI pushed their experience to be a secondary association.
In contrast to what Li et. al. (2014, p.2171) mention where in which case a consumer carries a
“​overwhelming and positive cognitive country image​” it overrules an ACI, the opposite can in
this case be observed. The participant instead has an overwhelmingly positive ACI rendering the
CCI ineffective in this case.

“​(...) even though Products from korea hasn't worked for me I still get this feeling when
looking at Products!”​
- Participant 10

4.3. Quality
As mentioned in the two previous themes there was a general consensus of a positive attitude
towards Korea. In the case of K-beauty products the participants mentioned the quality to be the
most prevalent factor in generating this attitude. Specifically, several participants mentioned the
ingredients used in the products.

“​I know that they make good quality products and use good ingredients.​”
- Participant 1

“​I would say that the main reason why I perceive K-Beauty products to be of high quality
is due to the ingredients (...)”​
- Participant 8

“​It seems like Koreans pay a lot attention to the ingredients (...).”​
- Participant 11

As mentioned in previous research (Li, Min & Lee, 2019, p.3; Kotler & Gertner, 2002, p.250;
Kim, Chŏng & Pak, 2016, p.7) the participants' general attitude towards Korea translated into

32
their attitude and evaluation of K-beauty products. Connecting Korea to, and expecting, high
quality products. Similarly, Adina, Gabriela and Roxana-Denisa (2015, p.424) argue that COO,
on a cognitive level, acts as a cue for product quality. Park (2014, p.87), Lee et al. (2019, pp.202,
210) and Kwon (2018, p.2) all relate K-beauty products and its success to the use of traditional
and Korean ingredients. Arguing for the use of Korean ingredients in these products to be the
main selling point. True to this the participants mentioned that they connect K-beauty to
traditional ingredients and that this worked as a positive cue towards K-beauty products.

“​Products from for example Japan, South Korea and Taiwan often have components and
ingredients which are organic and naturally good for the face/body. They use a lot of
‘traditional ingredients’ which appeals to me as these products gives me great results.​”
- Participant 5

Moreover, Lee et al. (2019, p.202) suggest that K-beauty products are connected to an image of
authenticity. This can be found in the cultural aspects and history portrayed in the product and
ingredients (Lee et al., 2019, p.202). This can according to Lee et al. (2019, p.202) lead to a
higher perception of quality as found in the interviews. Authenticity was by the participants
mentioned in connection to an increased perception of quality linking the two further suggesting
this to be true.

“​When I am buying K-beauty I always perceive the products very authentic.”​

- Participant 4

“​If I see a product that is made in Korea I will link it to better quality and authentic
ingredients.”​
- Participant 6

Similar to what Kwon (2018, p.2) mentioned, the participants further connected Korean
ingredients to nature with the majority of the participants associating K-beauty with natural

33
ingredients. The participants furthermore connected this to be an indication of high quality
similarly to the perceived authenticity.

“​Furthermore their products are world renowned and have a very good reputation for
being price worth and good quality products with lots of natural ingredients.”​
- Participant 6

“​(...) a lot of natural ingredients (...)”

- Participant 1

Thus, ingredients in the traditional, authentic and natural aspects were all found to be cues for
high quality. When asked how K-beauty products differ from beauty products from other
countries many mentioned that they saw a difference in what ingredients are used. With many
mentioning ingredients such as snail slime or mucus. Similarly, Kwon (2018, p.2) argued that
such ingredients have aided K-beauty in its success differentiating the products on the market.
Agreeing, participants attributed the difference in ingredients to an attraction towards the
products. In addition, participants said that they felt intrigued by the ingredients used, increasing
their awareness of K-beauty products.

“​(...)ingredients. K-beauty feels more "crazy" with products that contains like snake
venom or snail mucus.”​
- Participant 4

“​a lot of the ingredients that korean beauty products contain aren't very widely used by
other countries like for example sweden. some products use interesting ingredients like
snail slime or lava sea water.”​
- Participant 9

34
 “​Unique, or compared to ‘regular’ Products here in Sweden. Like they will have
ingredients that one may be surprised to have in skincare for ex snailextract (...)”​
- Participant 10

Another aspect that participants perceived as positive was the level of trust they held in the
products. Trust was, in addition to ingredients, mentioned to be connected to high quality.
Several participants expressed high levels of trust for Korean products and as such expressed the
products to be reliable. No and Yun (2019, p.147) mention trust to be a key aspect of nation
branding alluding to the importance of it in creating a competitive advantage. The feeling of trust
expressed by the participants thus suggest Korea to have a successful nation branding. Adding to
this, Adina, Gabriela and Roxana-Denisa (2015, p.424) mention that COO is a cue for reliability
which in the findings further was found to be true as the participants indeed connected Korea to
reliable products. Additionally strengthened as participants expressed that their trust for Korean
products was higher than that of other countries. Although one participant connected it to the
“​Made in Korea”​ label another connected it to K-beauty brands instead pointing to the
“​Designed in”​ label. Despite this separation, as Krupka and Arežina (2017, pp.46, 48-49, 51)
suggest, COO still worked as a determinant for product quality for both participants.

“​(...) if it is a K-beauty product I could pay more without having that much knowledge
about the product (...) I believe that I have another type of ‘trust’ within K-beauty
brands.​”
- Participant 4

“​If they were not made in Korea then i might not have had the same "trust" in the
products.​”
- Participant 2

Likewise, Korea is, by many of the participants, perceived to be on the forefront of the beauty
industry concerning several factors such as technology, research and ingredients. Technology

35
was by many mentioned to generate a perception of high quality. Compared to other countries
the participants experienced Korean products to have more research behind them resulting in
them being perceived to be ahead of other countries on the market. This, suggesting that Korea
has, through eg. “​Medical Korea”​ which is connected to advanced technology, generated a
comprehensive national image of quality. This corresponds to Korea having a strong cognitive
nation image as mentioned by Li, Min and Lee (2019, pp.2, 8-9, 13).

“​I think k-products as being of good quality (...) I also think the technology is very
advanced and that they generally has a very good reputation on the market.”​
- Participant 3

“​(...) I think that Korean products are made with good quality ingredients and have a lot
of research behind them. Furthermore, the Korean beauty industry seems to be further
ahead than any other country.”​
- Participant 2

This feeling of quality was further mentioned in connection to innovation. Attributing to the
perception of Korea being on the forefront of the industry was the uniqueness of products. Korea
was by the particiaptns mentioned to offer products that the participants had no prior knowledge
of creating a sense of intrigue. This uniqueness further created a perception of innovation leading
to participants seeing Korea as being ahead of other countries.

“​I believe that the Korean beauty industry is farther ahead than any other country in the
sense that they have a lot more research and innovation in the field.​”
- Participant 6

“​Korean beauty products always hit me as innovative since they produce several
products
which I have never heard of.“​

36
 - Participant 11

4.4. Effect
Lastly, as a result of the participants being exposed to K-beauty several mentioned a change in
behaviour. The participants expressed a clear difference in their attitude towards beauty after
being introduced to K-beauty. Similarly to what Kwon (2018, p.1-2) discussed, K-beauty is
mentioned to encompass more than the products themselves.

“​K-beauty brands push a lot for a strict beauty routine with their products. They have
created more steps to follow and as well as a trend of strict beauty routines through their
commercials.​”
- Participant 1

The participants were found to mainly connect K-beauty to skincare although makeup was
mentioned to an extent by some. In general the participants mentioned that they had become
more aware of the effect products and certain ingredients have on their skin and as a result had
adopted a more thorough skincare routine. Park (2014, p.87), Lee et al. (2019, pp.202, 210) and
Kwon (2018, p.2) all agree that ingredients are the main attribute connected to K-beauty products
acting as the main selling point. Thus, drawing on the answers of the participants this was not
only found to be successful but also suggesting that it transcended the point of purchase. The
participants extended this to be a part of their daily lives and expressed a ritualistic behaviour in
the adoption of Korean skincare practice (Kwon, 2018, pp.1-2; Rook, 1985, p.252).

“​Since my first encounter with k-beauty products I have become more aware and I have
also learned a lot about differents steps and routines you should do in order to get the
best result. (...)​”
- Participant 3

37
 “​I have a more strict beauty routine now then I did before. I make sure to always do my
beauty regime no matter how tired I am. I use more face masks and lighter/more natural
makeup products to not stress my skin.”​
- Participant 1

Extending this, some participants further mentioned the 10-step routine made popular through
the Korean Wave and K-beauty. The ritualization of skincare can through this further be
distinguished and identified as the routine is meant to be performed on a daily basis. K-beauty
has through this, as mentioned, successfully integrated itself into the lives of the consumers and
further acted as a way to differentiate Korean skincare products on the market. As mentioned by
Kwon (2018, pp.1-2) and Lee et al. (2019, p.202) this differentiation has further helped K-beauty
to become popular beyond the Korean Wave as some participants had no further knowledge of
Korean culture beyond K-beauty.

“​I have adopted a more thorough skin regime, including products such as essences and
face sheet masks that I didn’t do before. Although I don’t the 10 step routine, the next of
steps included in my skincare regime has definitely increased.”​
- Participant 2

“​I know that there is the 10 step routine but it is a bit too much for me. I try to spoil
myself from time to time and do a full 10 step routine but it does not happen very often.​”
- Participant 6

“​Yes I now use more products than before (...) In korean skincare there are usually more
steps compared to western skincare routines and via K-Beauty I started to follow this
routine.”​
- Participant 8

38
5. Discussion
The preceding analysis has identified a number of attributes that work as drivers towards
consumers' perception of K-beauty products on the Swedish market. In particular, two main
attributes of image and quality were found to be most prevalent in forming consumer attitudes.
The “​Made in Korea”​ label was additionally found to directly affect the purchasing intention of
consumers although some discrepancies were found concerning CCI and ACI in relation to the
COE.

It was found that participants with no prior knowledge of Korean culture did not seek further
relations with Korea outside of beauty products. Although it was common among participants
exposed to K-pop and K-dramas to venture into K-beauty. This, as many mentioned that they
first became introduced and/or exposed to K-beauty through celebrity endorsements and a
following of other K-branded products. K-beauty was therefore not found to act as a gateway
into other parts of the Korean culture contrary to what has been found with Korean cultural
products such as K-pop and K-dramas. As such, it is recommended that future research further
examines this to provide an overview as to how K-beauty could elicit the same results and
facilitate Korean culture as a whole. Which in turn, would further create a deeper insight in how
Korean cultural products not only facilitate consumption of Korean culture as a whole, but
further examine the difference between different cultural products, such as in the case of K-pop
and K-beauty.

Following the stages presented by O (2016, p.90) K-beauty falls in the latter stage of consumer
goods bypassing intangible and tangible culture. It can, in connection to this, be argued how
much culture you actually consume through K-beauty if you have no other relationship with
Korea. The findings clearly state a relationship between the Korean Wave and the popularization
of K-beauty. Although on the contrary, the perception of K-beauty products was not found to
rely on exposure to the Korean Wave as Korea is perceived to have a strong image. Korea's

39
image surrounding advanced technology was by the participants translated into an image of high
quality beauty products. This CCI of quality was through the interviews found to be the most
prevalent factor for the participants in their purchasing intention and decision. Thus, alluding that
K-beauty is connected to the CCI of Korea rather than the ACI that the Korean Wave builds
upon. Considering this, K-beauty rides the Korean Wave and the ACI of Korea but is reflected in
the CCI by the participants. Additionally, this was further found when discussing the packaging
of K-beauty products. As participants mentioned the packaging to carry and convey an image of
authenticity and to be clearly marketed as Korean in line with the Korean Wave. The same
relation can be found in the packaging and marketing of the products as K-beauty is based on the
CCI of Korea but it exploits Korea's ACI and the Korean Wave.

Hence, these findings suggest that, in order to elicit the same interest that K-pop and K-dramas
do, additional measures are needed. A need for further research is thus identified to examine and
expand on what measures are necessary. CCI and ACI, in regard to COO, is in addition to this
not necessarily applicable to the case of Korea seeing as there is no clear separation between the
two for participants already exposed to Korean culture. Instead a new model with further variants
would be necessary to provide a sufficient image of the case of Korea and the Korean Wave.

The COE was additionally found to be very prevalent despite a lack of exposure to Korean
culture. Although consumers with heavy exposure were indeed found to have positive attitudes
and purchasing behaviours exposure was not found to be as important of a factor as in previous
research. Regardless of the level of exposure and prior relation to Korea there was a consensus in
connecting Korea to an image of quality. Thus, the findings did stay true to what Yunus and
Rashid (2016, p.348) argue in that the influence of COO heavily affects perceived product
quality. As COO, despite a disinterest in the “​Made in”​ label, in Korea's case worked as a
deciding factor and cue for quality products. Korea has thus created such a strong national image
that people associate it with K-beauty in a positive way. Korea has thus, successfully
differentiated themselves on the market and, through this, created a competitive advantage with
their national branding.

40
As further found, if the participants carried a high ACI this image overruled other factors and
experiences. As such, if the participant had a connection to the Korean Wave this attraction
instead worked as a deciding factor in the purchase. Thus, it can be deduced that the soft power
created through the Korean Wave creates a strong COE. Furthermore, with the Korean pop
culture being the curator to Korea and its image, the Korean Wave creates a market for other
Korean industries such as K-beauty through soft power.

However, it can be argued that consumption of Korean beauty facilitated through a CCI, still has
an element of the Korean Wave present. Even though the consumption of K-beauty products
don't lead to the consumption of other Korean culture, there are cultural aspects integrated in
K-beauty that reinforce the ACI of Korea. Such as the 10-step ritualization that is seen as a
derivative of Korean consumer lifestyles and the ingredients that can be considered to be
traditionally Korean. As the findings show, K-beauty has transcended being a product and has
instead affected the daily routines of the participants. The 10-step routine that the K-beauty is
marketed with has influenced and shaped the daily skincare routines of the participants.
K-beauty has thus, not only affected the participants preferral of COO and CBOE when
purchasing products but also expanded the need for products. This influence K-beauty and the
10-step routine has is a type of soft power. The soft power facilitated by the Korean Wave,
creates such a positive image of Korea that it blurs the lines between CCI and ACI. The Korean
Wave has not only created a market for culture consumption in foreign countries but has also
piggybacked other Korean industries not necessarily linked to pop-culture to enter these markets
under its influence. And this is effectively done by the K-prefixing of products.

As previously mentioned the concept of CCI and ACI can thus be partly applied to the case of
Korea but needs to be expanded upon to successfully be applied. The blurring of the line
between the cognitive and affective dimensions grants evidence for future research and a model
that allows such flexibility of country image.

41
6. Conclusion
The objective of this study was to examine the phenomena of K-beauty products on the Swedish
market, relating to COO. This was operationalized through two research questions formulated as
follows: “​How are Korean branded beauty products perceived by millennial women on the
Swedish market?​” and “​How does country-of-origin affect consumers’ purchasing intention of
Korean beauty products?​”. In a pursuit to answer these questions, topics such as the “​Made in
Korea​” label in comparison to the “​Made in​” label were examined. In addition to how K-beauty
products are perceived to differ from other beauty products and what attributed K-beauty
products are connected with. Two main attributes were found to be driving factors for consumer
perception of K-beauty products; image and quality. Through these attributes consumers shared a
positive country image of Korea which in turn heavily affected their product image. The “​Made
in Korea​” label was additionally found to directly affect purchase intentions. This was found in
connection to a strong CCI of Korea. The findings were to a large extent found to support
existing literature as COO was indeed found to affect the perceived product quality and in
extension the country image.

The findings in the study have however identified a need for more variables of nation branding
as CCI and ACI can not conclusively be applied to the case of K-beauty. K-beauty is, as
mentioned, by the participants heavily connected to quality and COO suggesting a strong CCI.
However, it has also been observed that K-beauty rides the Korean Wave to a large extent. Thus,
K-beauty is found to use the Korean Wave in reaching new markets but the Korean Wave is not
found to be the deciding factor for purchase intention. Instead, the cognitive image of Korea
connected largely to technological advancements that work as a selling point for the participants.
Seeing as the Korean Wave is based in ACI due to its soft power nature a spillover effect into
other industries occurs affecting the CCI of Korea. The separation of the two concepts can thus
not clearly be made and the concept of country image and nation branding is in need of further

42
flexibility. As such this study has identified a need for future research identifying this
phenomena.

K-beauty products were additionally found to transcend the point of purchase integrating
themselves into the lives of the consumers further. This, by introducing the 10-step routine and
expanding the ritualization of skincare practice for consumers. This further suggests that the
Korean Wave has integrated culture into what otherwise is predominant consumer goods.
Suggesting that, although it can be argued to what extent culture is part of cosmetics and
skincare, it is through the Korea wave integrated. This, eg. through the image of authenticity and
tradition in both ingredients and packaging.

The “​Made in Korea”​ label was by consumers positively perceived on the Swedish market
working as the main driving factor for purchase intention. The COE was therefore found to be
prevalent in the attitude and purchase intention of the participants. Further suggesting Korea to
have strong national branding. Suggesting a positive relationship between COO, CCI and
purchase intention. K-beauty was however not found to facilitate other Korean cultural products
in the Korean Wave as it does vice versa. Although further research is suggested on this topic to
create a clear understanding of this phenomena as the findings of this study were not conclusive
on this topic.

6.2. Limitations and Future Research

Within this research a number of limitations have been acknowledged. The scope of the thesis is
of an exploratory nature as such the sample size is limited. The study focused on the Swedish
market in examining millennials womens’ attitude and perception of K-beauty products. For
future research it would be beneficial to examine both different markets as well as age groups in
expanding on research on this phenomena. Additionally, as this study uses a sample group
consisting solely of women, future research could thus expand on this and compare these
findings with a sample group consisting of males. As mentioned in this thesis, a large number of

43
the research is based on the Asian market, as such it is suggested that future research is done
with different markets in mind to create a greater understanding on the attraction of K-beauty.
Considering the sample, it was furthermore chosen on a convenience basis, as such future
research on different social groups is suggested.

Research on the effects of the Korean Wave globally is heavily based on K-pop, with little focus
on K-beauty. For future research it could thus be valuable to further examine this phenomena as
a dearth of research on K-beauty products was identified. Also, a need to further elaborate on
attributes connected to K-beauty and the effects it has on the perception was identified.

Lastly, a qualitative approach was in this study taken as this study aimed to examine the attitude
and behaviour of the participants. Considering this, it is difficult to ensure true objectivity and
exclude a level of subjectivity. It is therefore suggested that future research further examine this
area based on quantitative measures to validate the findings in this study.

44
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Appendix 1

Interview Guide

First off I want to thank you for taking your time to be a part of this interview.

In short, this study is focused on Korean beauty (K-beauty) products on the Swedish market. The
term K-beauty is a generic term for all the skin care, makeup, and bath-and-body products
imported from South Korea.

Your participation in this study is completely confidential, your name will not be mentioned or
used in any way throughout the study. If there are any questions that you feel are unclear, please
let me know and I’ll elaborate and explain them further. Also, if there are any questions that you
feel uncomfortable answering feel free to refrain from doing so.

In this interview I am looking for your opinion and belief, do not worry if your answers are not
factually or grammatically correct.

Please elaborate on your answers as much as you can and explain the reasoning behind your
answers. If you feel that questions and/or answers may be repetitive, please expand on your
answer further.

Questions:

First batch
What attributes are important to you when purchasing beauty products?

When purchasing a beauty product, is the “​Made in”​ label important to you? Why?/Why not?

Keeping the previous question in mind, is there any country that you favour in purchasing beauty
products from? Why do you favor this country infront of others?

When purchasing a K-beauty product, in what way is the “​Made in”​ label important to you?

Do you think that the “​Made in Korea​” label affects your perception of the beauty product
compared to if it was made in another country? Why/Why not?

49
What attributes do you connect with K-beauty products?

Second batch

How did you first encounter K-beauty products?

What made you buy and/or try a K-beauty product?

What attributes are important to you in purchasing a K-beauty product?

In what way does K-beauty products differ from beauty products from other countries?

Since your encounter with K-beauty, have you in any way changed your beauty regime? Why
and in what way?

50
51