The Impact of Intellectual Capital Greece

Journal of Intellectual Capital
The impact of intellectual capital on firms' market value and financial performance
Dimitrios Maditinos, Dimitrios Chatzoudes, Charalampos Tsairidis, Georgios Theriou,
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JIC
12,1 The impact of intellectual capital
on firms’ market value and
financial performance
132
Dimitrios Maditinos
Department of Business Administration,
Technological Educational Institute of Kavala, Kavala, Greece
Dimitrios Chatzoudes
Department of Production and Management Engineering,

Democritus University of Thrace, Xanthi, Greece
Charalampos Tsairidis
Department of Social Administration, Democritus University of Thrace,
Komotinı́, Greece, and
Georgios Theriou
Department of Production and Management Engineering,
Democritus University of Thrace, Xanthi, Greece
Abstract
Purpose – Intellectual capital (IC) shows a significant growing acceptance as a worthy topic of
academic investigation and practical implication. The purpose of this study is to examine the impact of
IC on firms’ market value and financial performance.
Design/methodology/approach – The empirical data were drawn from a panel consisting of 96
Greek companies listed in the Athens Stock Exchange (ASE), from four different economic sectors,
observed over the three-year period of 2006 to 2008. Various regression models were examined in order
to test the hypotheses included in the proposed conceptual framework.
Findings – Results failed to support most of the hypotheses; only concluding that there is a
statistically significant relationship between human capital efficiency and financial performance.
Despite the fact that IC is increasingly recognised as an important strategic asset for sustainable
corporate competitive advantage, the results of the present study give rise to various arguments,
criticism and further research on the subject.
Research limitations/implications – The lack of available data for the appropriate analysis, the
investigation of four sectors of economic activity and the relatively narrow three-year period for data
collection are the main limitations of the present study.
Practical implications – Results proved that, in the Greek business context, the development of
human resources seems to be one of the most significant factors of economic success. Focusing on
human capital should, therefore, be at the centre of the companies’ attention.
Originality/value – The present study combines previous methodologies in order to investigate
certain causal relationships considering the IC of Greek listed companies. The value of the paper is the
empirical investigation of these relationships in the context of the Greek economy and the enrichment
Journal of Intellectual Capital of the literature with another paper that follows the value-added intellectual coefficient methodology
Vol. 12 No. 1, 2011 for the measurement of IC.
pp. 132-151
q Emerald Group Publishing Limited Keywords Intellectual capital, Market value, Financial performance, Organizations, Greece
1469-1930
DOI 10.1108/14691931111097944 Paper type Research paper
1. Introduction The impact of
Intellectual capital (IC) can be briefly defined as the knowledge-based equity of intellectual
organizations and has attracted, during the last decade, a significant amount of
practical interest (Campisi and Costa, 2008; Petty and Guthrie, 2000). Although the capital
importance of IC is constantly increasing, many organizations face problems with its
management, mostly due to measurement difficulties (Andrikopoulos, 2005; Kim et al.
2009, Nazari and Herremans, 2007). 133
The increasing gap observed between market value and book value of many
companies has drawn attention towards investigating the value missing from financial
statements. According to various scholars, IC is considered to be the hidden value that
escapes financial statements and the one that leads organizations to obtain a competitive
advantage (Chen et al., 2005; Edvinsson and Malone, 1997; Lev and Radhakrishnan, 2003;
Lev and Zarowin, 1999; Lev, 2001; Ruta, 2009; Yang and Lin, 2009). Additionally, it is
believed that the limitations of financial statements in precisely explaining firm value
reveal the fact that, nowadays, the source of economic value is the creation of IC and no
longer the production of material goods (Chen et al., 2005).
The widespread acceptance of IC as a source of competitive advantage led to the
development of appropriate methods of measurement, since traditional financial tools
are not able to capture all of its aspects (Campisi and Costa, 2008; Nazari and
Herremans, 2007). Pulic (2000a, b) developed the most popular method that measures
the efficiency of value added by corporate intellectual ability (value added intellectual
coefficient (VAIC)). VAIC measures the efficiency of three types of inputs: physical and
financial capital, human capital, and structural capital (Firer and Williams, 2003;
Montequin et al. 2006; Public, 2000a, b).
The main objective of the present study is to examine the relationship between IC,
market value and financial performance. The methodology for the measurement of IC
was based on the studies of Firer and Williams (2003) and Chen et al. (2005). The
empirical investigation was conducted using data drawn from a panel consisting of 96
Greek companies listed in the Athens Stock Exchange (ASE), from four different
economic sectors (period 2006 to 2008). Moreover, based on the aforementioned VAIC
methodology, the study, analytically examines the separate effects of capital employed
efficiency, human capital efficiency, and structural capital efficiency on market value
and financial performance.
The following section includes a short literature review concerning the main
variables of the study. In the third and fourth section, the proposed conceptual
framework and the research methodology are being presented. The results,
conclusions, study limitations and future research are discussed in the sections 5, 6
and 7 respectively.
2. Literature review
Various attempts have been made towards developing a widely accepted definition of
IC, until most authors finally agreed on its basic parameters. Klein and Prusak (1994)
contributed to the creation of a universal definition by defining IC as the intellectual
material that can be formalised, captured and leveraged to produce a higher value
asset. In the same vain, Edvinsson and Malone (1997) defined IC as the knowledge that
can be converted into value. Stewart (1997) argued that intellectual resources such as
knowledge, information and experience, are the tools for creating wealth and defined IC
JIC as the new wealth of organizations. Sullivan (2000, p. 17) defined IC as “knowledge that
12,1 can be converted into profits”.
According to Edvinsson and Malone (1997) IC can be also defined as the gap that is
observed between a firm’s book and market value. Also, Kok (2007) argued that a
method for determining the intellectual (intangible) assets of a company is to compare
market to book value. These arguments are based on the nature of IC. The intellectual
134 assets of a company are intangible in nature and, thus, do not have a certain shape or
an appropriate financial value. They are characterised as “hidden assets”, since it is
difficult to identify their contribution to a firm and quantify them in a financial
statement (Edvinsson, 1997; Fincham and Roslender, 2003).
The observed gap between market and book value that has been highlighted in the
bibliography (Andrikopoulos, 2005; Chaminade and Roberts, 2003; Fincham and

Roslender, 2003; Lev and Radhakrishnan, 2003; Lev and Zarowin, 1999; Lev, 2001;
Tseng and Goo, 2005; Zerenler and Gozlu, 2008) can be, therefore, attributed to the IC
assets that are not recognised in balance sheets (Chaharbaghi and Cripps, 2006;
Brennan and Connell, 2000). The role of IC in filling the gap between book and market
value has brought even wider research attention towards the investigation of its nature
(Chen et al., 2005).
Although there is a variety of IC definitions, mostly due to the fact that both
knowledge-based and economic-based approaches exist (Burr and Girardi, 2002; Walsh
et al., 2008), a considerable number of scholars and practitioners identify three basic
components of IC; human capital, structural capital and customer (relational) capital
(Bontis, 1998; Edvinsson, 1997; Holton and Yamkovenko, 2008; Mavridis and
Kyrmizoglou, 2005; Ruta, 2009; Tayles et al., 2007; Yang and Lin, 2009; Zerenler and
Gozlu, 2008; Wall, 2007; Walsh et al., 2008).
The above categorisation, early manifested itself into the IC literature, led to the
development of a method of indirect IC measurement. More specifically, Bornemann
et al. (1999) argued that IC can be measured by the accumulate value of three categories
of indicators; human capital (knowledge, skills), structural capital (databases and
organizational structure) and customer capital (supplier and customer relations). The
usefulness and importance of IC indicators was, moreover, highlighted by Brennan and
Connell (2000). Moreover, Sullivan (2000) supported that the various difficulties that
are inherent to the direct measurement of IC can be resolved by using individual
indicators. The same approach has been supported and utilised by various researchers
(Andriessen, 2007; Andrikopoulos, 2005; Chaminade and Roberts, 2003; Montequin
et al., 2006; Tseng and Goo, 2005; Wall, 2007).
Pulic (2000a, b) developed a convenient method of measuring IC. He argued that the
market value of organizations is created by capital employed and IC, the latter
consisting of human and structural capital. The method Pulic (2000a, b) proposed aims
to provide information about the value creation efficiency of both tangible (capital
employed) and intangible (human and structural capital) assets of an organization.
This method is named VAIC and is distinguishable because it indirectly measures IC
via the measurement of capital employed efficiency (VACA), human capital efficiency
(VAHU), and structural capital efficiency (STVA). The higher the VAIC, the better the
utilisation of the value creation potential of a firm. The VAIC approach is being
adopted in the present study, following the methodological framework of Firer and
Williams (2003) and Chen et al. (2005).
Despite the inherent limitations of VAIC as a method of measuring IC (discussed in The impact of
a following section of the paper), its simplicity, subjectivity, reliability and intellectual
comparability make it an ideal measure for the context of the present study. More
specifically, according to Andriessen (2004), the use of VAIC as an indicator of IC is capital
justified by the sufficient availability of the financial data that the model uses as
inputs. Additionally, according to Schneider (1998), the danger of losing track of the
main objective of a study arises when the procedures to collect and process the 135
appropriate data become exceedingly sophisticated. Taking that into consideration, the
simplicity of VAIC offers good services to researchers and, furthermore, enables
cross-sectional comparisons (Schneider, 1998). Firer and Williams (2003), moreover,
support the use of VAIC, mentioning that other developed models of IC measurement
are, mostly, customised to fit the profile of a specific company and, therefore, lack
generalisation opportunities and have limited comparability. Finally, according to
Firer and Williams (2003), VAIC is argued to be an appropriate IC measurement tool
due to the fact that all data applied in its calculation are based on audited information,
which is objective and verifiable.
On the field of empirical research, many studies have empirically utilised VAIC as a
measure of IC. Firer and Williams (2003) utilised the VAIC approach to measure the
relationship between IC and traditional measures of corporate performance. They used
a sample of 75 South African public traded companies, but the empirical results failed
to support any relationship between the three value added efficiency components and
the three dependent variables (profitability, productivity and market value). Their
findings revealed that South African companies depend mostly on their tangible
resources, pay the least importance to structural capital, while on the other hand, the
market seems to react negatively to firms that concentrate solely on the enhancement
of human assets. Overall, the findings of Firer and Williams (2003) suggest that
physical capital in South Africa remains the most significant underlying resource of
corporate performance, despite efforts to increase the IC base of the country.
Chen et al. (2005) conducted an empirical investigation on the relationship between
IC, market value and financial performance. They used a large sample of Taiwanese
listed companies and utilised Pulic’s (2000a, b) VAIC. Their study underlined the
importance of IC in the enhancement of firm profitability and revenue growth. The
empirical results proved that:
.
investors valuate higher companies with better IC efficiency; and
.
companies with better IC efficiency obtain a higher degree of profitability and
revenue growth in the current and following years.
Chen et al. (2005) concluded that IC is indeed a significant strategic asset, since it is
positively related to the firm’s market value and financial performance.
The VAIC approach, developed by Pulic (2000a, b), has been, moreover, adopted in
various other studies, mostly in those conducted in emerging and developing countries.
Muhammad and Ismail (2009) tried to investigate the efficiency of IC and its
performance in Malaysian financial sectors, based on data from 18 companies for the
year 2007. It was found that the banking sector was the one relying the most on IC,
followed by companies of the insurance sector and the brokerage sector. It was also
found that IC has a positive relationship with company performance (measured by
profitability and ROA), but, on the other hand, it was discovered that in Malaysian
JIC financial sectors, market value is created more by capital employed (physical and
12,1 financial) rather than IC. This last finding of Muhammad and Ismail (2009) was
consistent with a previous study conducted in the same country over the period 2001 to
2003 (Goh, 2005), where it was found that Malaysian banks with satisfactory financial
performance (measured by traditional economic measures) had low IC coefficients.
On another study conducted in the banking sector of Turkey, Samiloglu (2006) tried
136 to determine whether a significant relationship between VAIC and market to book
value ratio really exists. The author used data from the financial statements of banks
listed in the Istanbul Stock Market over the years 1998 to 2001. The results
demonstrated that there was no significant relationship between the dependent
variable (MV/BV) and the independent variables (VAIC and its three components).
Gan and Saleh (2008), moreover, examined the relationship between IC and corporate
performance of technology-intensive firms listed on Bursa (Malaysia), by investigating
whether value creation efficiency (measured by VAIC), can be explained by market
valuation, profitability, and productivity. Overall, the study of Gan and Saleh (2008)
concluded that VAIC can explain profitability and productivity, but fails to explain
market valuation. On a similar study in Taiwan, Shiu (2006) found a significant positive
correlation between VAIC, profitability and market valuation and a negative correlation
with productivity. Tseng and Goo (2005), in an empirical study of Taiwanese
manufacturers, found a positive relationship between IC and corporate value.
Tan et al. (2007) used the VAIC methodology to examine data from 150 listed
companies on the Singapore Stock Exchange, and conclude that:
.
IC and company performance are positively related;
.
IC is correlated to future company performance;
.
the rate of growth of a company’s IC is positively related to the company’s
performance; and
.
the contribution of IC to company performance differs by industry.
Appuhami (2007) investigated the impact of the value creation efficiency on investors’
capital gains on shares. The author used data collected from listed companies in
Thailand’s stock market and utilised the VAIC approach. The empirical research found
that firms’ IC has a significant positive relationship with its investors’ capital gains on
shares.
In a VAIC study that was conducted in a traditional Western economy, Puntillo
(2009) examined the relationship between value creation efficiency, firms’ market
valuation and financial performance, by using data drawn from 21 banks enlisted in
the Milan Stock Exchange, Italy. Results failed to show any positive significant
association between the studied variables, except from the relation between capital
employed efficiency (a component of VAIC) and different measures of firm’s
performance.
Finally, in an exploratory study, Mohiuddin et al. (2006) used VAIC to measure the
IC performance of 17 commercial banks in Bangladesh for the period 2002 to 2004.
According to their findings, all 17 banks of the sample had relatively higher human
capital efficiency than other capital efficiencies.
In one of the very few IC studies that have been conducted in Greece, Mavridis and
Kyrmizoglou (2005) used data from the banking sector for the period 1996-1999 and
concluded that there is a positive correlation between value added and physical capital, The impact of
but especially between value added and human or IC. Authors make a note implying intellectual
that results may be over over-positive, due to the fact that the Greek banking sector
was on a significant upward trend for the period under investigation. capital
3. The conceptual framework

The present study introduces a conceptual framework that expands on previews 137
methodologies (Bontis 1998; Bontis et al., 2000; Chen et al., 2005; Firer and Williams, 2003;
Mavridis, 2004; Pulic 2000a, b) and investigates the relationship between IC, market value
and financial performance. The hypotheses of the study are presented below.
3.1 IC and market value

According to the traditional accounting practices the book value of an organization is
solely calculated from its financial statements. The simplistic method of such a
calculation includes subtracting liabilities from the firm’s total assets. As a result,
conservative accounting practices failed to account one the most important intangible
assets of every organization: IC (Sveiby, 2000, 2001). The gradual introduction of the
International Accounting Standards (IAS) in nearly every developed and developing
country (except from the USA which is expected to implement the IAS in the next five
years) forced companies to calculate assets at their real market value, while giving full
definition and credit to all intangibles (International Financial Reporting Standards,
2008). Despite that, the inability of most companies to comply with the IAS and the
significant cost of such an implementation, still deteriorate the recognition of the
intangible assets of every organization ( Judge et al., 2010).
The result of such a short seeing is a growing divergence between the market and
book value of organizations. In other words, the market estimates the value of companies
with high intangible assets (IC) to be significant higher that the calculated book value
(Chen et al., 2005; Firer and Williams, 2003; Riahi-Belkaoui, 2003). Therefore, it is
hypothesised that the greater the IC, the higher the ratio of market-to-book value:
H1. Companies with greater IC have higher ratios of market-to-book value.
The above hypothesis uses VAIC as an aggregate measure for corporate intellectual
ability (IC). As stated earlier in the paper, VAIC includes three component measures:
capital employed efficiency (VACA), human capital efficiency (VAHU) and structural
capital efficiency (STVA). Since different significance may be put on each of the three
components of VAIC, it would be interesting to examine the separate effect of each on
market-to-book value ratio. Such an investigation would increase the explanatory
power of the conceptual framework and give raise to interesting observations. Thus, it
is hypothesised:
H1a. Companies with greater capital employed efficiency have higher ratios of
market-to-book value.
H1b. Companies with greater human capital efficiency have higher ratios of
H1c. Companies with greater structural capital efficiency have higher ratios of
JIC 3.2 IC and financial performance
12,1 The impact of IC on financial performance has not been investigated thoroughly on an
empirical level, either it has led researchers to sold and unanimous conclusions. On a
theoretical level, distinguished authors argue that IC is the value driver of all
companies (Stewart, 1997), that knowledge management is a core organizational issue
(Nonaka and Takeuchi, 1995) and that organizational knowledge is at the crux of every
138 sustainable competitive advantage (Bontis, 1999). On the other hand, empirical
evidence are inconclusive and far from achieving a solid scientific consensus. The
study of Riahi-Belkaoui (2003) found a positive relationship between IC and financial
performance, while Bontis et al. (2000) concluded that, regardless of industry, the
development of structural capital has a positive impact on business performance. On
the other hand Firer and Williams (2003) examined the relationship between IC and
traditional measures of firm performance (ROA, ROE) and failed to find any
relationship, while Chen et al. (2005), using the same methodology, concluded that IC
has an significant impact on profitability. The present paper makes an attempt to
enrich the IC literature, thus, hypothesising:
H2. Companies with greater IC have better financial performance.
H2a. Companies with greater capital employed efficiency have better financial
performance.
H2b. Companies with greater human capital efficiency have better financial
performance.
H2c. Companies with greater structural capital efficiency have better financial
performance.
Figure 1 summarises all the above hypotheses, thus, presenting the proposed
conceptual framework of the study.
Figure 1.
The conceptual
framework of the study
4. Research methodology The impact of
4.1 Sample and data selection intellectual
The final sample of the present study consists of 96 Greek companies listed in the ASE.
These companies belong to four economic sectors (according to official sector capital
classification): Construction and Materials (20 companies), Industrial Goods and
Services (23), Food and Beverage (19) and Personal and Household Goods (34
companies). The selected data cover a period of three years, from 2006 to 2008. All four 139
sectors are knowledge based and have a significant importance to the Greek economy.
The initial target of the study was to draw data from all companies listed in the
Athens Stock Exchange (approximately 280 companies with constant participation in
the ASE for the three-year examination period). However, the first screening of data
availability demonstrated that such an endeavour was too ambitious. The second data
screening led in the exclusion of many companies, leaving the sample with only 119
companies with sufficient available data. Finally, 23 more companies were excluded
from the sample after the third and most detail data screening. The high degree of
excluded companies reflects the poor level of reporting of Greek listed companies. More
precisely, the majority of the excluded companies provided insufficient data in more
that two variables. Overall, the final sample (96 companies) represents the 34.2 per cent
of the total number of listed companies in the ASE for the year 2010.
4.2 Variable definition

4.2.1 Independent variables. The present study includes four independent variables
(Pulic 2000a, b):
(1) VACA, indicator of value added efficiency of capital employed.
(2) VAHU, indicator of value added efficiency of human capital.
(3) STVA, indicator of value added efficiency of structural capital.
(4) VAIC, the composite sum of the three separate indicators.
The first step towards the calculation of the above variables is to calculate value added
(VA). VA is calculated according to the methodology proposed by Riahi-Belkaoui
(2003).
Second, capital employed (CE), human capital (HU) and structural capital (SC) are
being calculated:
CE ¼ Total assets* 2 intangible assets
HU ¼ Total investment on employees ðsalary; wages; etc:Þ
SC ¼ VA 2 HU:
( * In Greece, salaries are calculated in the profit and loss (P&L) statement, therefore,
are already included in total assets.)
Finally, VAIC and its three components are being calculated:
VACA ¼ VA=CE
JIC VAHU ¼ VA=HU
12,1
STVA ¼ SC=VA
140 VAIC ¼ VACA þ VAHU þ STVA:
The use of the above measurement methodology is argued to provide certain

advantages (Bontis, 1999; Chen et al. 2005; Firer and Williams, 2003; Pulic and
Bornemann, 1999; Roos et al., 1997; Sullivan, 2000):
.
It is easy to calculate.
.
It is consistent.
.
It provides standardised measures, thus, allowing comparison between
industries and countries.
.
Data are provided by financial statements that are more reliable than
questionnaires, since they are usually audited by professional public
accountants.
4.2.2 Dependent variables. The present study includes two dependent variables:
(1) Market-to-book value ratios.
(2) Financial performance.
The market-to-book value ratio is simply calculated by dividing the market value (MV)
with the book value (BV) of common stocks:
MV ¼ Number of shares £ Stock price at the end of the year:
BV* ¼ Stockholders’ equity 2 Paid in capital of preferred stocks:
( *In all cases that goodwill was included in the book value of a company of the sample,
the required subtraction was conducted.)
The financial performance is measured with the use of three indicators:
(1) Return on equity (ROE):
ROE ¼ Net Income=Shareholder’s Equity:
ROE measures an organizations profitability by revealing how much profit a

company generates with the money shareholders have invested.
(2) Return on assets (ROA):
ROA ¼ Net Income=Total Assets:
ROA is an indicator of how profitable a company is in relation to its total

assets. It gives an idea as to how efficient the management uses assets to
generate earnings.
(3) Growth revenues (GR): The impact of
intellectual
GR ¼ Currentyear' srevenues=Lastyear' srevenues 2 1
capital
£ 100%:
GR is the most traditional measure that indicates the growth of an organization.
141
4.3 Regression models
In order to examine the hypotheses of the study, various regression models have been
evaluated.
Models 1 and 2 examine the relationship between VAIC and market-to-book value
ratio, and VACA, VAHU and STVA and market-to-book value ratio:
H 1 : M=B ¼ a0 þ a1 VAIC þ e ð1Þ
H 1a; H 1b and H 1c : M=B ¼ a0 þ a1 VACA þ a2 VAHU þ a3 STVA þ e: ð2Þ

Regression models 3a to 4c examine the relationship between VAIC and financial
performance (ROE, ROA, GR), and VACA, VAHU and STVA and financial
performance (ROE, ROA, GR):
H 2 : ROE ¼ a0 þ a1 VAIC þ e ð3aÞ
H 2 : ROA ¼ b0 þ b1 VAIC þ e ð3bÞ
H 2 : GR ¼ c0 þ c1 VAIC þ e ð3cÞ
H 2a; H 2b and H 2c : ROE ¼ a0 þ a1 VACA þ a2 VAHU þ a3 STVA þ e ð4aÞ
H 2a; H 2b and H 2c : ROA ¼ b0 þ b1 VACA þ b2 VAHU þ b3 STVA þ e ð4bÞ
H 2a; H 2b and H 2c : GR ¼ c0 þ c1 VACA þ c2 VAHU þ c3 STVA þ e: ð4cÞ
5. Results
5.1 Descriptive statistics and correlation analysis
Table I presents the descriptive statistics for all study variables. The market-to-book
value ratio (1.694) indicates that 40.96 per cent of the firms’ market value is not
reflected on financial statements:

Hidden Value ¼ 1:694 2 1:000=1:694 *100 ¼ 40:96 per cent:
JIC This finding supports previews empirical research that has underlined the existence of
an increasing gap between market and book value of organizations (Lev and
12,1 Radhakrishnan, 2003; Lev and Zarowin, 1999; Lev, 2001). More specifically, Lev (2001)
conducted a longitudinal research in the US market (1977-2001) and concluded that
about 80 per cent of corporate market value is omitted from financial statements, while
this percentage seems to be on an upward trend.
142 The correlation analysis provides an initial preview of the results, concluding that
market-to-book value is significantly related only with one of the three components of
VAIC; human capital efficiency. All other correlation indexes (M/B correlated with
VAIC, VACA STVA) were not found to be statistically significant (Table II).
5.2 Hypotheses verification

Table III presents the results considering H1 (Model 1) and Table IV the results
considering H1a-H1c (Model 2). As seen in Table III, the explanatory power of Model 1
is minimal and, moreover, all statistical indexes fail to comply with the usual
standards. Therefore, the empirical results fail to support H1. Moreover, results
depicted on Table IV give only support to H1b, since the significance indices for the
other two independent variables are also inadequate (p . 0:05).
Variable Mean Standard deviation Minimum Maximum
M/B 1.694 1.862 0.123 7.365

VAIC 4.052 2.555 2 15.631 25.148
VACA 0.069 0.042 2 0.092 0.236
VAHU 3.364 2.364 2 16.369 24.342
STVA 0.619 0.341 2 0.837 2.496
Table I. ROE 1.211 3.148 2 15.689 9.361
Descriptive statistics for ROA 1.123 2.333 2 4.361 5.314
all study variables GR 8.311 37.318 2 36.145 269.329
Variable M/B VAIC VACA VAHU STVA
M/B 1.000
VAIC 0.136 1.000
VACA 0.369 0.514 * 1.000
VAHU 0.269 * 0.789 * 0.369 * 1.000
Table II. STVA 0.029 2 0.013 * 2 0.129 20.236 1.000
Correlation analysis for
selected study variables Note: *Correlation significant at the 0.01 level (two-tailed)
Independent variable Coefficient t-statistic Significance
Constant 2 1,971.535 20.495 0.622

Table III. VAIC 20.021 20.164 0.870
Regression results –
Model 1: M/B and VAIC Notes: Adjusted R 2 ¼ 0.000; F-value ¼ 99.36 ( p-value . 0.05)
The empirical investigation failed to support the hypothesis that investors place higher The impact of
value on firms with greater IC (VAIC). Nevertheless, it seems that investors take only intellectual
the human capital of a company into consideration when they estimate its real value.
Therefore, results clearly indicate that investors place different value on each of the
capital
three components of VAIC, since human capital efficiency is treated differently that the
other two components (capital employed efficiency and structural capital efficiency).
Finally, it should be pointed out that the statistical analysis produced the same results, 143
even when each of the four sectors was separately analysed.
Table V presents the results considering H2 (Model 3) and Table VI the results
considering H2a-H2c (Model 4). Results in Table V demonstrate that there is no
significant relationship between IC (measured with VAIC) and the three financial
performance measures (ROE, ROA, GR), since all coefficients or model solutions are
statistically insignificant. Therefore, H2 is not supported by the empirical data.
Moreover, results depicted in Table VI indicate that the only statistically significant
Independent variables Coefficient t-statistic Significance
Constant 23,457.817 2 0.706 0.483

VACA 0.003 0.025 0.369
VAHU 0.126 0.325 0.032 Table IV.
STVA 20.022 2 0.165 0.645 Regression results –
Model 2: M/B and VAICs
Notes: Adjusted R 2 ¼ 0.114; F-value ¼ 63.14 ( p-value . 0.05) components
Dependent variables
ROE ROA GR
Independent variable Coefficient t-statistic Coefficient t-statistic Coefficient t-statistic
Constant 1,907.369 2,948 * 2,253.304 2.423 * 7,124.459 1.005

VAIC 0.095 0.743 0.062 0.498 0.019 0.153
Adjusted R 2 0.095 0.004 0.000 Table V.
F-value 2.653 3.698 34.652 Regression results –
Model 3: financial
Note: *Significant at the 0.05 level performance and VAIC
Dependent variables
ROE ROA GR
Independent variables Coefficient t-statistic Coefficient t-statistic Coefficient t-statistic
Constant 3,392.369 4.689 * 2,555.276 2.276 * 6,881.598 0.890

VACA 0.009 0.077 0.056 0.439 0.021 0.161
VAHU 0.432 3.627 * 0.054 0.416 20.025 2 0.190
STVA 0.085 0.726 0.041 0.322 0.022 0.171 Table VI.
Adjusted R 2 0.189 0.009 0.002 Regression results –
F-value 4.698 * 21.448 9.367 Model 4: Financial
Performance and VAICs
Note: *Significant at the 0.05 level components
JIC relationship is the one between human capital efficiency (VAHU) and ROE. All other
12,1 investigated models are statistically insignificant. Therefore, H2b and H2c are not
supported by the empirical data, while H2a is partially supported. The above results
did not dramatically changed, even after each of the four sectors included in the study
was separately analysed.
The results of the present study offer the bibliography another paper that fails to
144 fully support the importance of IC (measured under the VAIC methodology). In general,
the empirical studies that have used the VAIC approach in order to investigate the
impact of IC on various business variables have concluded on contradictory results.
For example, Firer and Williams (2003), in a study conducted on South Africa, failed
to identify a relationship between VAIC and profitability, productivity and market
value, while Chen et al. (2005), succeeded in identifying a relationship between IC,
market value and financial performance in the Taiwanese economy. On two studies
conducted in Malaysia, Gan and Saleh (2008) found that VAIC can explain profitability
and productivity, but fails to explain market valuation, while Shiu (2006) found a
positive correlation between VAIC, profitability and market valuation and a negative
correlation with productivity.
The failure of the VAIC methodology to provide coherent results raises the criticism
on its effectiveness and gives room for questions regarding its reliability: “Does the
VAIC methodology properly describes the business reality (therefore, IC has no impact
on market value, financial performance, etc.), or does it need improvements/adjustments
in order to better mirror the business landscape?”
In order to address the question above, one has to take under consideration the
context in which most VAIC studies have been made. Either by replication trend or
because the VAIC methodology better fits such a context, most of the empirical studies
have been conducted in emerging and developing countries (South Africa, Taiwan,
Malaysia, Turkey, Singapore, Thailand, Bangladesh), rather that on already advanced
economies (France, Germany, UK). The reasons for the widespread use of VAIC on
emerging and developing economies seem to be its easy implementation, the fact that is
based on fundamental accounting measures and has limited reporting requirements
(compared with other methods of IC measurement). Therefore, it seems that the lack of
advanced accounting practices and mature financial structures on emerging and
developing counties fit with the requirements of VAIC, thus, making it an ideal IC
methodology.
Therefore, the question about the reliability of VAIC is strongly connected with the
context of previous researches. Since emerging and developing countries have yet to
explore their knowledge potential, one could assume that the failure of VAIC to verify
significant relationships between IC and various business variables (market value,
profitability, productivity financial, etc.) is attributed, not on the inefficiency of VAIC
itself, but on the disregard of the intellectual assets on behalf of the companies of the
emerging and developing countries and the imperfect functioning of the capital market
in these economies (the latter having an impact on the relationship between IC and
market valuation). Emerging and developing countries are mostly based on tangible
assets and tend to neglect the intangible ones (Malhotra, 2003), thus, it seems logical for
VAIC studies to fail to establish a positive relationship between IC and company value.
Nevertheless, VAIC, as a method of measurement, suffers from inefficiencies, as
most tools of measurement do. In order to draw a positive conclusion about its
efficiency and, therefore, be able to fully support or criticise it, the present paper The impact of
proposes: intellectual
.
The application of a number of adjustments to the VAIC methodology, so as to capital
“heal” some of its most profound limitations (these adjustments are discussed on
the last section of the paper).
.
The replication of the VAIC methodology in developed countries, so as to verify
its efficiency in measuring intellectual assets. In case VAIC fails to fully
145
recognise the impact of IC on business performance in knowledge-based
economies, its critique would be unavoidable. In a difference case, it would be
strongly supported.
. The implementation of other IC methodologies (Economic value added (EVA),

value-based management (VBM), Tobin’s Q ratio) on contexts that have already
been investigated under the VAIC approach. For example, an empirical
investigation in the context of Greece using EVA, would help verify the results of
the present study and shed more light on the efficiency of VAIC: a possible
rejection of the same hypotheses would strengthen the certainty about the
present results and offer additional support on the VAIC methodology.
6. Conclusions
The present study attempted to investigate the relationship between IC, market value
and financial performance of Greek listed companies that belong to four major
industries of the country. The methodology adopted is the one of VAIC that has been
previously utilised to other similar studies (Chen et al., 2005; Firer and Williams, 2003;
Williams, 2001).
Despite the fact that IC is increasingly recognised as an important strategic asset for
sustainable competitive advantage, the results of the study fail to support such a claim.
Empirical results failed to support most of the proposed hypotheses, only verifying the
relationship between human capital efficiency (VAHU) and ROE, one of the three
indicators of financial performance used it the study.
However distant from theory, the results of the present study seem to be in direct
correlation with certain characteristics of the Greek economy. The huge public
sector (accounting for about 40 per cent of the gross domestic product (GDP)), the
low level of inward foreign direct investments (FDI), the imperfect function of the
capital market, the relatively small size of most of the Greek companies and the
general lack of modern management practices may not form the best surroundings
for the development of the idea of IC. Moreover, innovation, competiveness and
entrepreneurship indexes in Greece (three variables that indirectly measure the
intellectual capacity of an economy), are in very unsatisfactory levels (steadily in the
last positions of the countries of the European Union). Therefore, the findings of the
study should not sound as a surprise, but should act as a warning sign towards
taking certain actions.
Overall, the empirical findings suggest that the Greek market is placing greater
faith and value in physical capital assets than intellectual ones. Despite efforts towards
improving its IC base, the Greek business environment appears to place greater weight
on corporate performance based on physical capital assets. Policy makers should
intensify their initiatives in order to encourage greater acceptance and understanding
JIC of the concept of IC and the development of its related assets. Only by such actions
12,1 would the country be able to improve in vital indexes as the ones mentioned above.
Moreover, on a microeconomic level, organizations should understand that only by
nurturing their intellectual assets they will be able to remain competitive, fight against
the severe competition (domestic and foreign) and create sustainable competitive
advantages.
146 Finally, it must be, moreover, underlined that the empirical results indicate the
existence of a significant relationship between on of the three components of IC (human
capital efficiency) and one of the three indicators of financial performance (ROE). Thus,
it is concluded that in the Greek business context, the development of human resources
seems to be one of the most significant factors of economic success. Stewart (1997) and
Roos et al. (1997) argued that human capital can be defined as the employee’s abilities
to act in different situations and that it includes skills, education, experience and
motivation. Hence, nurturing such human employee characteristics seems to be of vital
importance for Greek companies.
7. Limitations and future research

The limitations of the present study can be separated into two categories: those that are
inherent to the research methodology of the research and those that are connected with
the inefficiencies of the VAIC methodology.
A limitation of the first category is the difficulty in finding complete data for the
three-year period under investigation. Therefore, the sample was limited to 96
companies, while the average number of listed companies during 2006-2008 was
approximately 280. Moreover, certain data needed for the analysis were not able to be
retrieved, especially figures like expenses for staff and advertising. Another limitation
may be considered to be the investigation of only four sectors of economic activity and
the relatively narrow three year period for data collection (2006-2008). Presumably,
expanding the panel with more industries (sectors) would yield results supported by
the theory (hypotheses verification). Moreover, a sample consisting of data from a
ten-year period would possibly offer different results, since longitudinal data will no
longer be affected by the early stages of the current financial crisis that affected
financial statements of the listed companies in the period under investigation
(especially in 2008).
The second category of limitations is the one that concern the implementation of the
VAIC methodology itself. The following “problematic areas” are recognised:
.
The use of market value in IC calculations may have a negative impact on the
verification of the hypotheses, since market value is highly influenced by the
sentiments of the market and tends to ignore the financial reality of the company.
By linking IC with market value (stock price of the company), it is suggested that
IC depends solely on the market sentiments. For example, when it comes to the
present study, the market sentiments changed dramatically during the research
period (2006-2008): the first two years of bull market were followed by a year of
bear market. In 2008, with the beginning of the economic crisis, many companies
faced decreasing market value, even though they had improved their financial
results. This decrease in market value happened due to external factors, such as
increased investors risk avoidance, and most probably not due to the decrease in
the IC of companies under examination.
.
The calculation of market value with the use of the stock price at the end of the The impact of
year may lead in obtaining a market value price that is not representative of the intellectual
whole year under examination. Such a calculation may have a negative effect on
the verification of the hypotheses, since the stock prices at the end of the year, capital
usually, reflect investor’s perceived value of the company for the coming year
instead of the past one. If a given company had a great year, but the expectations
for the next one are not optimistic (or vice versa), the correlation between VAIC 147
and market value would be disrupted.
.
The use of net earnings in the calculation of ROA may influence the correlation
between VAIC and financial performance, since net earnings are highly
influenced by the degree of the financial leverage. In general, the VAIC
methodology disregards the level of company risk, which is one of the most
important factor determining company and IC value.
The above limitations may be considerably “healed” by applying slight modifications

to the traditional VAIC model (Pulic, 2000a, b; Williams, 2001). In that direction, the
following proposals are being made:
.
Replacement of “market value” with “intrinsic value”: such a modification would
protect from temporary market sentiments (“intrinsic value” is influenced by
these sentiments to the lesser extent).
.
Calculation of the average price of stocks in a more representative way: for
example, it is proposed to use the average stock prices at the end of each month
(sum of stock prices at the end of each month/12). In the present study, the above
modification failed to produce any different results.
.
Use EBITDA returns (operating profit) instead of net earnings: such a
modification would help taking under consideration the net business
performance, irrespective of financial leverage.
Moreover, future research should focus on the following directions:

.
Comparing other measures of IC efficiency (e.g. EVA, VBM) with the VAIC
model, so as to generate more valuable conclusions.
.
Using the structural equation modelling technique in order to better understand
the interrelationships between different components of IC and their cumulative
impact on various dependent variables (financial performance, market valuation,
productivity, etc.).
.
Working towards the development of an IC model that will be in compliance with
the International Accounting Standard Board (IASB) for financial reporting and,
moreover, being able to be used by both from external stakeholders and internal
management.
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About the authors The impact of
Dimitrios Maditinos is Assistant Professor of Information Technology, Finance and Financial
Modelling in Kavala Institute of Technology, School of Business and Economics, Greece. He intellectual
holds a PhD from the Business School, Greenwich University, UK. His research interests are in capital
financial modelling, performance measurement systems, investors’ behaviour in stock
exchanges, financial information systems and electronic commerce. Dimitrios Maditinos is the
corresponding author and can be contacted at: dmadi@teikav.edu.gr
Dimitrios Chatzoudes is a PhD Candidate in the Department of Production and Management 151
Engineering of Democritus University of Thrace, Xanthi, Greece. His Bachelor’s Degree is in
Business Administration and his Postgraduate Degree in International Economics. His academic
interests include research methods, international economics and production management.
Charalampos Tsairidis is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Social Administration
of Democritus University of Thrace, Komotini, Greece. He studied Mathematics and completed

his PhD thesis at the University of Ioannina, Ioannina, Greece. The topic of his thesis was:
“Statistical information theory and censoring”. His main research interests are in the areas of
statistical information theory, statistical data analysis and social statistics.
Georgios Theriou holds a PhD degree from the Department of Production and Management
Engineering of Democritus University of Thrace, Xanthi, Greece. His academic interests include
human resource management, research methods and corporate responsibility.
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The Impact of Intellectual Capital Greece

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Department of Production and Management Engineering,

bibliography (Andrikopoulos, 2005; Chaminade and Roberts, 2003; Fincham and

3. The conceptual framework

3.1 IC and market value

4.2 Variable definition

CE ¼ Total assets* 2 intangible assets

HU ¼ Total investment on employees ðsalary; wages; etc:Þ

140 VAIC ¼ VACA þ VAHU þ STVA:

The use of the above measurement methodology is argued to provide certain

MV ¼ Number of shares £ Stock price at the end of the year:

BV* ¼ Stockholders’ equity 2 Paid in capital of preferred stocks:

ROE ¼ Net Income=Shareholder’s Equity:

ROE measures an organizations profitability by revealing how much profit a

ROA ¼ Net Income=Total Assets:

ROA is an indicator of how profitable a company is in relation to its total

H 1a; H 1b and H 1c : M=B ¼ a0 þ a1 VACA þ a2 VAHU þ a3 STVA þ e: ð2Þ

H 2 : ROA ¼ b0 þ b1 VAIC þ e ð3bÞ

H 2a; H 2b and H 2c : ROE ¼ a0 þ a1 VACA þ a2 VAHU þ a3 STVA þ e ð4aÞ

H 2a; H 2b and H 2c : ROA ¼ b0 þ b1 VACA þ b2 VAHU þ b3 STVA þ e ð4bÞ

H 2a; H 2b and H 2c : GR ¼ c0 þ c1 VACA þ c2 VAHU þ c3 STVA þ e: ð4cÞ

5.2 Hypotheses verification

Variable Mean Standard deviation Minimum Maximum

M/B 1.694 1.862 0.123 7.365

Variable M/B VAIC VACA VAHU STVA

Independent variable Coefficient t-statistic Significance

Constant 2 1,971.535 20.495 0.622

Independent variables Coefficient t-statistic Significance

Constant 23,457.817 2 0.706 0.483

Constant 1,907.369 2,948 * 2,253.304 2.423 * 7,124.459 1.005

Constant 3,392.369 4.689 * 2,555.276 2.276 * 6,881.598 0.890

. The implementation of other IC methodologies (Economic value added (EVA),

7. Limitations and future research

The above limitations may be considerably “healed” by applying slight modifications

Moreover, future research should focus on the following directions:

Malaysian industries”, Journal of Intellectual Capital, Vol. 1 No. 1, pp. 85-100.

institutions of higher learning”, The Electronic Journal of Knowledge Management, Vol. 5

International Journal of Human Resource Management, Vol. 20 No. 3, pp. 562-77.

of Democritus University of Thrace, Komotini, Greece. He studied Mathematics and completed

To purchase reprints of this article please e-mail: reprints@emeraldinsight.com

1. YusufYahaya, Yahaya Yusuf, GunasekaranAngappa, Angappa Gunasekaran, PapadopoulosThanos, Thanos

4. GinestiGianluca, Gianluca Ginesti, CaldarelliAdele, Adele Caldarelli, ZampellaAnnamaria, Annamaria

Applied Accounting Research 19:1, 42-59. [Abstract] [Full Text] [PDF]

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