OSCILLATION AND WAVES

OSCILLATION & WAVES

1. INTRODUCTION 2 m m
Time period (T) =  2 as  
(1) A motion which repeats itself over and over again after a  k k
regular interval of time is called a periodic motion.
3. Frequency
(2) Oscillatory or vibratory motion is that motion in which a
The frequency of a particle executing S.H.M. is equal to
body moves to and fro or back and forth repeatedly about
the number of oscillations completed in one second.
a fixed point in a definite interval of time.
(3) Simple harmonic motion is a specific type of oscillatory  1 k
v 
motion, in which 2 2 m
(a) partical moves in one dimension, 4. Phase
(b) particle moves to and fro about a fixed mean position The phase of particle executing S.H.M. at any instant is its
(where Fnet = 0), state as regard to its position and direction of motion at
(c) net force on the particle is always directed towards that instant. it is measured as argument (angle) of sine in
means position, and the equation of S.H.M.
(d) magnitude of net force is always proportional to the Phase = (t + )
displacement of particle from the mean position at that At t = 0, phase = ; the constant  is called initial phase of
instant. the particle or phase constant.
So, Fnet = –kx 1.2 Important Relations
where, k is known as force constant
1. Position
 ma = – kx
k
 a x or a  2 x +a
m
where,  is known as angular frequency. T/2 T
O
d2 x
  2 x –a
dt 2
This equation is called as the differential equation of If mean position is at origin the position (X coordinate)
S.H.M. depends on time in general as :
The general expression for x(t) satisfying the above x (t) = sin (t + )
equation is :
 At mean position, x = 0
x (t) = A sin (t + )
 At extremes, x = + A, –A
1.1 Some Important terms
2. Velocity
1. Amplitude
The amplitude of particle executing S.H.M. is its maximum Vmax
displacement on either side of the mean position.
T/2 T
A is the amplitude of the particle. O
2. Time Period
Time period of a particle executing S.H.M. is the time taken
to complete one cycle and is denoted by T.  At any time instant t, v (t) = A  cos (t + )
 OSCILLATION AND WAVES

At any position x, v (x) = ±  A 2  x 2 1 2 1

 Ux  kx  mA 2 2 sin 2  t   
2 2
 Velocity is minimum at extremes because the particles
is at rest.
i.e., v = 0 at extreme position. U max

 Velocity has maximum magnitude at mean position.

T/2 T
|v|max = A at mean position.

3. Acceleration
1 2
 U is maximum at extremes Umax = kA
2
Amax
 U is minimum at mean position
T/2 T
O Total Energy

T.E.
 At any instant t, a (t) = – 2 A sin (t + )
 At any position x, a (x) = – 2x
 Acceleration is always directed towards mean position.
 The magnitude of acceleration is minimum at mean
position and maximum at extremes. 1 2 1
T.E.  kA  mA 2 2
|a|min = 0 at mean position. 2 2

|a|max = 2 A at extremes. and is constant at all time instant and at all positions.
4. Energy Energy position graph

Kinetic energy
Energy
1 1
 K  mv 2  K  m2 A 2  x 2
2 2
  Total energy (E)

Potential energy (U)

1
 m2 A 2 cos 2  t   
2
Kinetic energy (K)
x=–a x=0 x=+a
K max

2. TIME PERIOD OF S.H.M.

T/2 T
To find whether a motion is S.H.M. or not and to find its
time period, follow these steps :
 K is maximum at mean position and minimum at extremes. (a) Locate the mean (equilibrium) position mathematically by
balancing all the forces on it.
1 1
 K max  m 2 A 2  kA 2 at mean position (b) Displace the particle by a displacement ‘x’ from the mean
2 2
position in the probable direction of oscillation.
 Kmin = 0 at extemes. (c) Find the net force on it and check if it is towards mean
Potential Energy position.
If potential energy is taken as zero at mean position, (d) Try to express net force as a proportional function of its
then at any position x, displacement ‘x’.
 OSCILLATION AND WAVES

 If step (c) and step (d) are proved then it is a simple

m
harmonic motion.  Time period : T  2
k
(e) Find k from expression of net force (F = – kx) and find time
(c) Combination of springs :
m
period using T  2 . 1. Springs in series
k
2.1 Oscillations of a Block Connected to a Spring When two springs of force constant K 1 and K2 are
connected in series as shown, they are equivalent to a
(a) Horizontal spring :
single spring of force constant K which is given by
Let a block of mass m be placed on a smooth horizontal
surface and rigidly connected to spring of force constant 1 1 1
 
K whose other end is permanently fixed. K K1 K 2

K1 K 2
K
K1  K 2

block in equilibrium

mean position
K1 K
x

block displaced K2
K1K2
K = ––––––
K1 + K2
 Mean position : when spring is at its natural length.

m
 Time period : T  2 2. Springs in parallel
k
For a parallel combination as shown, the effective
(b) Vertical Spring : spring constant is K = K1 + K2
If the spring is suspended vertically from a fixed point
and carries the block at its other end as shown, the
block will oscillate along the vertical line.

elongation block elongation

=d displaced =d+x
downwards
by x K1 K2

block in equilibrium
K1 + K2

mg
 Mean position : spring in elongated by d 
k
OSCILLATION AND WAVES

2.2 Oscillation of a Cylinder Floating in a liquid R

 Time period : T  2 = 84.6 minutes
Let a cylinder of mass m and density d be floating on g
the surface of a liquid of density . The total length of where, R is radius of earth.
cylinder is L.
2.5 Angular Oscillations

Instead of straight line motion, if a particle or centre of

mass of a body is oscillating on a small arc of circular
L path then it is called angular S.H.M.
l l +x For angular S.H.M., = – k
 I = –k

cylinder in equilibrium cylinder displaced downwards I

 Time period, T  2
by a distance x k
Ld 2.5.1 Simple Pendulum
 Mean position : cylinder is immersed upto  

Ld  
 Time period : T  2  2  Time period : T  2
g g g

 Time period of a pendulum in a lift :

2.3 Liquid Oscillating in a U–Tube

Consider a liquid column of mass m and density  in a U- 

T  2 (if acceleration of lift is upwards)
tube of area of cross section A. ga


T  2 (if acceleration of lift is downwards)
x ga
x
 Second’s pendulum
Time period of second’s pendulum is 2s.
Length of second’s pendulum on earth surface  1m.

In equilibrium liquid displaced by x 2.5.2 Physical Pendulum

 Mean position : when height of liquid is same in both I

Time period : T  2
limbs. mg

m L
 Time period : T  2  2
2Ag 2g
O
where, L is length of liquid column.

2.4 Body Oscillation in tunnel along any chord of earth l

mg
 Mean position : At the centre of the chord
 OSCILLATION AND WAVES

where, I is moment of inertia of object about point of  is the density of the solid.
suspension, and Speed of longitudinal wave in fluid is given by
l is distance of centre of mass of object from point of
suspension. B
v

3. DAMPED AND FORCED OSCILLATIONS
where, B is the bulk modulus,
1. Damped Oscillation :
 is the density of the fluid.
(i) The oscillation of a body whose amplitude goes on
(b) Newton’s formula
decreasing with time is defined as damped oscillation.
Newton assumed that propagation of sound wave in
(ii) In this oscillation the amplitude of oscillation gas is an isothermal process. Therefore, according to
decreases exponentially due to damping forces like
frictional force, viscous force etc. P
Newton, speed of sound in gas is given by v 

+a where P is the pressure of the gas and  is the density
of the gas.
According to the Newton’s formula, the speed of sound
O t
x in air at S.T.P. is 280 m/s. But the experimental value of
t h e s p e e d o f
–1
s. Newton could not
o u n d i n a i r i s 3 3 2 m s

–a explain this large difference. Newton’s formula was

corrected by Laplace.
(iii) Due to decrease in amplitude the energy of the (c) Laplace’s correction
oscillator also goes on decreasing exponentially. Laplace assumed that propagation of sound wave in
2. Forced Oscillation : gas in an adiabatic process. Therefore, according to
(i) The oscillation in which a body oscillates under the Laplace, speed of sound in a gas is given by
influence of an external periodic force are known as
P
forced oscillation. v

(ii) Resonance : When the frequency of external force is
equal to the natural frequency of the oscillator, then According to Laplace’s correction the speed of sound
this state is known as the state of resonance. And this in air at S.T.P. is 331.3 m/s. This value agrees farily well
frequency is known as resonant frequency. with the experimental values of the velocity of sound
in air at S.T.P.
4. WAVES
5. WAVES TRAVELLING IN OPPOSITE DIRECTIONS
(a) Speed of longitudinal wave
Speed of longitudinal wave in a medium is given by When two waves of same amplitude and frequency
travelling in opposite directions
E y1 = A sin (kx – t)
v
 y2 = A sin (kx + t)
where, E is the modulus of elasticity, interfere, then a standing wave is produced which is
given by,
 is the density of the medium.
y = y1 + y2
Speed of longitudinal wave in a solid in the form of rod
is given by  y = 2A sin kx cos t
Hence the particle at location x is oscillating in S.H.M.
Y with angular frequency  and amplitude 2A sin kx. As
v
 the amplitude depends on location (x), particles are
oscillating with different amplitude.
where, Y is the Young’s modulus of the solid,
 OSCILLATION AND WAVES

Nodes : Amplitude = 0
L L
2A sin kx = 0
x = 0, /k, 2/k.......
A A A
x = 0, /2, , 3/2, 2........ N N
N N N
Antinodes : Amplitude is maximum.
sin kx = ± 1
x = /2k, 3/2k Fundamental frequency (x = 1)
x = /4, 3/4, 5/4
v
0 
Nodes are completely at rest. Antinodes are oscillating 2L
with maximum amplitude (2A). The points between a
It is also called first harmonic.
node and antinode have amplitude between 0 and 2 A.
Second harmonic or first overtone
Separation between two consecutive (or antinodes)
= /2. 2v

Separation between a node and the next antinode=/4. 2L

Nodes and antinodes are alternately placed. The nth multiple of fundamental frequency is known
as nth harmonic or (n – 1)th overtone.

t=0 t = T/2 2. Fixed at one end

Transverse standing waves with node at fixed end and
t = T/8 t = 3T/8 antinode at open end are formed.


t = T/4 So, length of string    2n  1 if there are n nodes
N1 N2 t = T/4 N N 4
and n antinodes.
t = 3T/8 t = T/8 Frequency of oscillations

t = T/2 t=0 v  2n  1 v
  
 4
It is clear from the figure that since nodes are, at rest Fundamental frequency, (n = 1)
they don’t transfer energy. In a stationary wave, energy
v
is not transferred from one point to the other. 0 
4L
5.1 Vibrations in a stretched string It is also called first harmonic.
1. Fixed at both ends. First overtone or third harmonic.
Transverse standing waves with nodes at both ends 3v
  3 0
of the string are formed. 4

n Only odd harmonics are possible in this case.

So, length of string,   if there are (n + 1) nodes
2 5.2 Vibrations in an organ pipe
and n antinodes.
1. Open Organ pipe (both ends open)
Frequency of oscillations is
The open ends of the tube becomes antinodes because
v nv the particles at the open end can oscillate freely.
  
 2 If there are (n + 1) antinodes in all,
 OSCILLATION AND WAVES

n Let us consider net effect of two waves of frequencies

length of tube,    1 and  2 and amplitude A at x = 0.
2
nv y1  A sin 21 t
So, Frequency of oscillations is  
2 y 2  A sin 2 2 t

 y = y1 + y2

 y = A  sin 21 t  sin 2 2 t 

y   2A cos   1   2  t  sin   1   2  t

Thus the resultant wave can be represented as a

   2 
travelling wave whose frequency is  1  and
 2 
amplitude is 2A cos  ( 1–  2) t.
As the amplitude term contains t, the amplitude varies
periodically with time.
2. Closed organ pipe (One end closed) For Loud Sounds : Net amplitude = ± 2A
The open end becomes antinode and closed end  cos  ( 1 –  2) t = ± 1
become a node.   ( 1 –  2) t = 0, , 2, 3 .......
If there are n nodes and n antinodes,
1 2 ........
L = (2n – 1) /4  t  0, ,
1   2 1   2
So frequency of oscillations is
Hence the interval between two loud sounds is given as :
v  2n  1 v
  1
 4L 
1   2

 the number of loud sounds per second =  1 –  2

 beat per second =  1 –  2
Note that 1 – 2 must be small (0 – 16 Hz) so that sound
variations can be distinguished.

Filling a tuning form increases its frequency of vibration.

Loading a tuning for k decreases its frequency of vibration.

6. DOPPLER EFFECT
There are only odd harmonics in a tube closed at one end.
According to Doppler’s effect, whenever there is a relative
5.3 Waves having different frequencies motion between a source of sound and listener, the apparent
frequency of sound heard by the listener is different from
Beats are formed by the superposition of two waves of
the actual frequency of sound emitted by the source.
slightly different frequencies moving in the same
direction. The resultant effect heard in this case at any Apparent frequency,
fixed position will consist of alternate loud and weak v  vL
  
sounds. v  vs
 OSCILLATION AND WAVES

Sing Convention. All velocities along the direction S

to L are taken as positve and all velocities along the v   vL  v  vL
    i.e. v’ > 
direction L to S are taken as negative. v v
When the motion is along some other direction the
(e) If the source and listener are approaching each other,
component of velocity of source and listener along the
then v s is positive and v L is negative (figure e).
line joining the source and listener is considered.
Therefore,
Special Cases :
(a) If the source is moving towards the listener but the v   vL   v  vL 
listener is at rest, then v s is positive and vL = 0 (figure      i.e. ’ > 
v  vs  v  vs 
a). Therefore,
(f) If the source and listener are moving away from each
v
    i.e. ’ >  other, then vs is negative and vL is positive, (figure f).
v  vs
Therefore,
(b) If the source is moving away from the listener, but the
v  vL v  vL
listener is at rest, then v s is negative and vL = 0 (figure     i.e. ’ < 
b). Therefore, v    vs  v  vs

v v (g) If the source and listener are both in motion in the

    i.e. ’ <  same direction and with same velocity, then v s = vL = v’
v    vs  v  vs
(say) (figure g). Therefore,
(c) If the source is at rest and listener is moving away from
the source, the vs = 0 and v L is positive (figure c).  v  v 
   i.e. ’ = 
Therefore,  v  v 

It means, there is no change in the frequency of sound

heard by the listerner.
Apparent wavelength heard by the observer is
  s
 


If case the medium is also moving, the speed of sound

 
with respect to ground is considered. i.e.    m

7. CHARACTERISTICS OF SOUND
Loudness of sound is also called level of intensity of
sound.
In decibel the loudness of a sound of intensity I is

 I 
 v  vL  given by L = 10 log10   . (I0 = 10 –12 w/m2)
   i.e. ’ <   I0 
v
Pitch : It is pitch depends on frequency, higher the
(d) If the source is at rest and listener is moving towards frequency higher will be the pitch and shriller will be
the source, then vs = 0 and vL is negative (figure d). the sound.
Therefore,