Mechanical Metallurgy

(ME23005)

Unit II
Mechanical Properties of Material
Hot and Cold working

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 Mechanical Properties of Materials
 Elasticity
 Plasticity
 Ductility
 Brittleness
 Hardness
 Strength
 Malleability
 Toughness
 Resilience
 Impact Strength etc.
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 Elasticity or Elastic Deformation
Elasticity is the ability of a material to resist a deformation influence and to return
to its original size and shape when that influence or force is removed.
Solid objects will deform when adequate loads are applied to them; if the material
is elastic, the object will return to its initial shape and size after removal of load.

1. Initial 2. Small load 3. Unload

bonds
stretch
return to
initial
d
F F
Linear
elastic
Non
Linear
d elastic
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 Plasticity or Plastic Deformation
Plasticity is the ability of a solid material to undergo permanent deformation, a
non-reversible change of shape in response to applied forces. Solid piece of metal
being bent into a new shape displays plasticity as permanent changes occur within
the material itself.

F
F
linear linear
elastic elastic
d
Plastic means permanent dplastic 4
 Ductility
Ductility is a measure of a material's ability to undergo significant plastic
deformation before rupture or breaking, which may be expressed as
percent elongation or percent area reduction from a tensile test.

Plastic tensile strain at failure: %EL = L f - L o x 100

Lo
smaller %EL
Engineering
stress, s Ao
Lo Af Lf
larger %EL

Engineering strain, e

Another ductility measure: Ao - A f

%RA = x 100
Ao Cup-Cone Fracture
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 Brittleness
A material is brittle if, when subjected to stress, it breaks with little elastic deformation
and without significant plastic deformation.

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Brittle Fracture
 Strength
The strength of a material is its ability to withstand an
applied load without failure or plastic deformation.
The strength is the capacity to resist force or pressure.

Malleability
Malleability is a physical property of metals that defines their ability to be hammered,
pressed, or rolled into thin sheets without breaking. In other words, it is the property
of a metal to deform under compression and take on a new shape

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Gold is the most malleable metal.
 Impact Strength
Impact strength is the capability of the material to withstand a suddenly applied load
and is expressed in terms of energy.
Often measured with the Izod impact strength test or Charpy impact test, both of
which measure the impact energy required to fracture a sample

Impact Strength Test

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 Toughness
 Energy to break a unit volume of material
 Approximate by the area under the stress-strain curve.

small toughness (ceramics)

Engineering large toughness (metals)

stress, s
very small toughness
(unreinforced polymers)

Engineering strain, e

Brittle fracture: elastic energy

Ductile fracture: elastic + plastic energy
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 Resilience, Ur

• Ability of a material to store energy

– Energy stored best in elastic region

ey
Ur =  sde
0

If we assume a linear stress-strain curve this

simplifies to

Ur @ 1 sy e y
2
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 Elastic Strain Recovery

2. Unload
Stress

1. Load 3. Reapply
load
Strain
Elastic strain
recovery
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 Hardness
• Resistance to permanently indenting the surface.
• Large hardness means:
-- resistance to plastic deformation or cracking in compression/Indentation.
-- better wear properties.

apply known force measure size

of indent after
10 mm sphere removing load

Smaller indents
D d mean larger
hardness.

most brasses easy to machine cutting nitrided

plastics Al alloys steels file hard tools steels diamond

increasing hardness
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 Hardness: Measurement
Table 6.5

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 Surface fatigue
Two surfaces contacting to each other under
pure rolling, or rolling with a small amount of
sliding in contact

Rail road
Contact fatigue
• As one element rolls many times
over the other element
• Maximum shear stress is higher
than fatigue limit
Metal spalling from gear tooth 10
 Engineering Stress
Tensile stress, s:
Ft

Area, Ao

Ft
Ft N
s= = 2
Ao m
original area
before loading
 Stress has units: N/m2 15
 Simple compression:

Ao

F
s=
Ao

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Torsion (a form of shear):
drive shaft
• Shear stress, t:
M Fs Ft F
Ac Ao
Area, Ao Fs
M
2R
Fs
Fs Ft
t= F
Ao

Fs
t =
Ao
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 Engineering Strain
Tensile/Axial strain: Lateral strain:
d/2
-dL
e = d eL =
Lo Lo wo
wo

dL /2
Shear strain:
q
x g = x/y = tan q

y 90º - q
90º Strain is always dimensionless.
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 Linear Elastic Constant and its Relationships
Young’s modulus or Modulus of elasticity (E) = Normal
stress/ Normal strain

Shear modulus or Modulus of Rigidity (G) = Shear stress/

Shear strain

Bulk modulus (K) = Direct stress/ Volumetric strain

eT
Poisson's ratio =-
e
e = Longitudinal / Axial Strain
e T = Transverse / Lateral Strain

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 Linear Elastic Properties
Modulus of Elasticity or Young's modulus), E:
Modulus of elasticity is a quantity that measures an object resistance to being
deformed elastically when a stress is applied to it.
The elastic modulus of an object is defined as the slope of its stress–strain curve in
the elastic deformation region.
s F
Hooke's Law:
sαe E

s=Ee e
Linear-
F
E = Stress/Strain elastic simple
tension
test
Hooke's law states that the strain of the material is proportional to the
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applied stress within the elastic limit of that material.
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 Shear modulus or Modulus of Rigidity (G)
When a body is subjected to shear stress the shape of the body gets
changed, the ratio of shear stress to the corresponding shear strain is
called rigidity modulus or modulus of rigidity.
It is denoted by the letters “G” or “C”.
Unit of rigidity modulus is MPa.

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Bulk modulus (K) = Direct stress/ Volumetric strain
When a body is subjected to mutually perpendicular direct stresses which
are alike and equal, within its elastic limits, the ratio of direct stress to the
corresponding volumetric strain is found to be constant.
This ratio is called bulk modulus and is represented by letter “K”.
Unit of Bulk modulus is MPa.

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 Poisson's ratio
Poisson's ratio,n : the expansion or contraction of a material in directions
perpendicular to the direction of loading.
It is the ratio of transverse strain to Longitudinal strain.

eT d L Wo
=- =-
e d Lo F
d/2
Ao
e = Longitudinal / Axial Strain
Lo
e T = Transverse / Lateral Strain wo
metals: μ ~ 0.33
ceramics: μ ~ 0.25 dL /2
polymers: μ ~ 0.40

Units: μ : dimensionless
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 Linear Elastic Relationships
Simple tension:

=E e
s= d = FL o d = - μ Fw o
L
EA o EA o
F
eT d L Wo d/2
=- =-
e d Lo Ao
Lo
wo
e = Longitudinal / Axial Strain
e T = Transverse / Lateral Strain dL /2

Material, geometric, and loading parameters all contribute to deflection.

Larger elastic moduli minimize elastic deflection. 25
 Linear Elastic Relationships
The relationship between Young's Modulus (E), rigidity Modulus (G)
and Poisson's ratio (  ):
E = 2G (1   )

The relationship between Young's Modulus (E), Bulk Modulus (K)

and Poisson's ratio (  ):
E = 3K (1 - 2  )

The relationship between Young's Modulus (E), Bulk Modulus (K)

and rigidity Modulus (G):
9 KG
E=
 3K  G  26
 Linear Elastic Relationships

Poisson's ratio ( ) can be expressed in terms of Bulk Modulus (K)

and rigidity Modulus (G) as:
(3K - 2G )
=
(6 K  2G )

A prismatic bar of diameter 30 mm is subjected to axial tensile

load 5000 kN. It is found that the diameter is change to 29.891
mm. Determine Modulus of elasticity (E), Poisson’s ratio (μ),
change, if L = 1 m, Modulus of rigidity (G) = 70 GPa.
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Linear Elastic Relationships

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Linear Elastic Relationships

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Linear Elastic Relationships

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Linear Elastic Relationships

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Linear Elastic Relationships

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Linear Elastic Relationships

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Linear Elastic Relationships

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 Plastic Deformation

Simple tension test:

Elastic+Plastic
engineering stress, s at larger stress

Elastic
initially
permanent (plastic)
after load is removed

ep engineering strain, e

plastic strain
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 Stress-Strain Testing
Tensile test machine
Tensile specimen

extensometer specimen

gauge
length

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Stress & Strain Curve

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Stress & Strain Curve

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 Yield Strength

Stress at which noticeable plastic deformation has occurred.

when ep = 0.002
tensile stress, s sy = yield strength
sy

engineering strain, e
ep = 0.002
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Reading:

Core Problems:

Thank
Self-help Problems:
You

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