sensors
Review
Fault Tolerance Structures in Wireless Sensor Networks
(WSNs): Survey, Classification, and Future Directions
Ghaihab Hassan Adday 1,2, * , Shamala K. Subramaniam 1 , Zuriati Ahmad Zukarnain 1
Citation: Adday, G.H.; Subramaniam,
S.K.; Zukarnain, Z.A.; Samian, N.
Fault Tolerance Structures in Wireless
Sensor Networks (WSNs): Survey,
Classification, and Future Directions.
Sensors 2022, 22, 6041. https://
doi.org/10.3390/s22166041
Academic Editor: Jaime Lloret
Received: 6 July 2022
Accepted: 10 August 2022
Published: 12 August 2022
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4.0/).
Sensors 2022, 22, 6041. https://doi.org/10.3390/s22166041
and Normalia Samian 1
1 Department of Communication Technology and Network, Faculty of Computer Science and Information
Technology, University Putra Malaysia, Serdang 43400, Malaysia
2 Computer Science Department, Faculty of Computer Science and Information System, University of Basrah,
Basrah 61004, Iraq
* Correspondence: gs59192@student.upm.edu.my or ghaihab.aday@uobasrah.edu.iq; Tel.: +60-11-5993-3674
Abstract: The Industrial Revolution 4.0 (IR 4.0) has drastically impacted how the world operates.
The Internet of Things (IoT), encompassed significantly by the Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs), is
an important subsection component of the IR 4.0. WSNs are a good demonstration of an ambient
intelligence vision, in which the environment becomes intelligent and aware of its surroundings.
WSN has unique features which create its own distinct network attributes and is deployed widely
for critical real-time applications that require stringent prerequisites when dealing with faults to
ensure the avoidance and tolerance management of catastrophic outcomes. Thus, the respective
underlying Fault Tolerance (FT) structure is a critical requirement that needs to be considered
when designing any algorithm in WSNs. Moreover, with the exponential evolution of IoT systems,
substantial enhancements of current FT mechanisms will ensure that the system constantly provides
high network reliability and integrity. Fault tolerance structures contain three fundamental stages:
error detection, error diagnosis, and error recovery. The emergence of analytics and the depth of
harnessing it has led to the development of new fault-tolerant structures and strategies based on
artificial intelligence and cloud-based. This survey provides an elaborate classification and analysis
of fault tolerance structures and their essential components and categorizes errors from several
perspectives. Subsequently, an extensive analysis of existing fault tolerance techniques based on
eight constraints is presented. Many prior studies have provided classifications for fault tolerance
systems. However, this research has enhanced these reviews by proposing an extensively enhanced
categorization that depends on the new and additional metrics which include the number of sensor
nodes engaged, the overall fault-tolerant approach performance, and the placement of the principal
algorithm responsible for eliminating network errors. A new taxonomy of comparison that also
extensively reviews previous surveys and state-of-the-art scientific articles based on different factors
is discussed and provides the basis for the proposed open issues.
Keywords: Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs); Fault Tolerance (FT); error detection; error diagnosis;
error recovery
1. Introduction
The exponential growth of the Industry Revolution 4.0 (IR4.0) concept is a fundamental
paradigm that encompasses, among other future industrial innovations, the IoT, the Internet
of Services (IoS), and WSNs [1]. WSN is the backbone of the IoT architecture, which allows
us to detect our surroundings, collect vital statistics, and send them to the final destination
called the Base Station (BS) [2]. Therefore, the IoT is highly oriented toward the WSN as a
critical platform for data sensing and communication [3]. WSN offers the infrastructure for
the evolving IoT involving a wide spectrum of areas and fields [4]. For example, intelligent
products such as sensor devices, camera systems, and wearable technology are used in a
wide range of situations such as intelligent homes and intelligent transportation. Smart
https://www.mdpi.com/journal/sensors
Sensors 2022, 22, 6041 2 of 39

items are also used in various other applications such as agriculture, smart communities,
innovative medical services, and military applications [5,6].
WSNs have become more prevalent in wireless communication, generally described
as multi-hop network systems composed of a broad variety of smart sensor nodes. These
nodes consisting of dual roles, which are sensing and routing, have attributes that are
distributed auto-organizing and energy-constrained [7]. Each sensor node has the ability
to collect data from the environment required for a particular application and can also
function as a data forwarder to ensure that the data have reached their final destination.
The independent and versatile nature of WSN operations is always desired in many critical
and real-time application scenarios, such as earthquake and glacial movement monitoring,
volcano activities monitoring, forest fire monitoring, and so on [8].
The expected number of sensors that will be deployed around the world is projected
to reach one trillion by 2025 [9]. Consequently, an enormously high volume of data are
being collected from a highly diversified and wide range of WSNs [10]. Thus, parallel to
this rise in diversity and importance is the constant pressing need to address and provide
dynamic solutions. Prerequisites of data integrity, data accuracy, and data reliability are
compulsory, especially when dealing with hazardous environments [11]. Fault tolerance is
the network’s ability to proffer a desirable and required degree of functionality and reliable
data when faults are present [2]. FT is one of the essential requirements to be constantly
monitored and adhered to in WSNs due to the high probability of hardware failures such
as sensor failure, link failure, and malicious attacks. As long as the WSN is an error-prone
network [12], well-organized fault detection is needed to locate the errors which occur
in the network. Fault tolerance structure consists of fault identification, diagnosis, and
correction methods [13]. FT is a crucial aspect of WSN, and it is important to embed the
network with a technique for detecting measurement errors before this incorrect data
reaches the BS.
FT is also correlated to the primary notion of network reliability [14]. Therefore,
the fault-tolerance must satisfy two main clauses. First, faults will produce erroneous
readings that may pose a high risk in certain situations before and when they reach the BS.
Second, these fault readings consume a huge amount of energy due to the meaningless and
additional high cost associated with the respective sending operations. In addressing these
attributes many routing protocols in WSNs contain built-in techniques for differentiating
between a real event and a measurement fault [15]. The spectrum of strategies to address
these attributes has provided a rich and heterogeneous repository of routing algorithms. In
relation to providing the analytics to extract the distinction in each of them, this study has
the following objectives to be met:
• A comprehensive and extensively analyzed literature survey of the latest and funda-
mentally critical studies that address in detail fault tolerance approaches in WSNs.
• A new taxonomy that provides a comprehensive classification for fault tolerance
techniques for research in this area was conducted within a significant time frame that
has not been previously addressed in an extensive manner, which is 2016–May 2022.
• To identify and discuss the open issues deduced from the proposed taxonomy of com-
parison and the enhanced fault tolerance management architecture needed in WSN.
The remainder of this paper is organized into eight sections. Section 2 discusses in
detail the state-of-the-art survey and motivation of fault tolerance classification methods.
Fault classifications will be addressed in Section 3. The main aspects of FT structures
are reviewed in Section 4. Proposed performance metrics within the FT techniques are
presented in Section 5. In Section 6, a proposed classification of fault tolerance approaches
is presented. Comparative analysis and detail discussions of the FT approach in WSNs are
presented in Section 7. Open research issues are discussed extensively in Section 8. The
conclusion is drawn in Section 9.
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×× ×     
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Sensors 2022, 22, 6041 4 of 39

5. Many studies were on a specific type of fault tolerance, such as fault tolerance via
clustering approaches, fuzzy approaches, or statistical approaches.

Table 2. Surveys Classifications based on Year, Citation, and Main Contribution.

Survey Article Main Contribution

Presented a comprehensive review of fault-tolerant approaches developed for Underwater Sensor
[17]
Networks (USNs).
Presented new future directions and unsolved issues in routing protocols for Flying Ad Hoc Network
[18] (VANET). One issue is related to the critical need for having a high fault tolerance ability embedded
with routing protocols.
Presented a summarization and analysis of many previous fault management frameworks developed
[19]
and designed for WSN.
[20] Presented a review of the fault-tolerant strategies used to create trustworthy WSNs.
Presented and analyzed a group of methods for fault detection in WSNs. The study showed a need
[21] for a clearer, more accurate, and more comprehensive fault detection and fault tolerance strategy that
would maximize the energy savings of the sensor nodes.
Presented a discussion on previous and fundamental in the context of time of fault tolerance
[22]
algorithms that deals with errors and radiation effects on sensor behavior.
Presented a study on different fault recovery techniques and analyzed their methodology in terms of
[23]
energy use.
Presented a discussion of some approaches used not just for fault detection but also to prevent faults
[24] from occurring, such as data aggregation. The authors classified the fault tolerance approaches
according to only two factors: the number of nodes and the region size.
Presented a classification of fault diagnosis approaches
[25] (From 2013 to 2018) into three categories based on the decision
hubs and key characteristics of employed algorithms.
Presented an analysis for specific methods in fault tolerance
[26]
such as deployment, redundancy, and clustering.
Presented state of the art for self-healing techniques. The study divided the self-healing mechanisms
[27]
into four steps: information collection, fault detection, fault classification, and fault recovery.
Presented a detail review on the sensor nodes failures detection and fault tolerance in Ambient
[28]
Assisted Living (AAL) systems based on WSNs.
Presented a brief investigation of many problems that a sensor node may encounter with a general
[29]
classification of fault tolerance structure.
Presented a comparative study for several fault management techniques and compared them
[30]
according to dominant criteria such as overhead, bandwidth, and scalability.
Presented a comprehensive review of several approaches to the notion of fault tolerance. The study
[31]
proposed a categorization for fault frameworks based on the structure of task management.
Presented a summarization of the key ideas for existing fault-tolerant techniques in routing protocols
[32]
in WSNs.
Presented a review of frameworks for particular applications and then categorized various fault
[33]
management according to the types of problems that occur in each implementation.
Presented a new approach related to the security risks that must be handled throughout all operating
[34]
stages of a fault-tolerant system in WSN.

As a result, with the continued exponential growth of WSN and the paradigm changes
of operating prerequisites there is a definite multifold benefit in presenting a more compre-
hensive and state-of-the-art review. The pressing need is to give an exhaustive examination
and analysis of all the modern methods for fault tolerance that work in WSNs. The detailed
review and analysis will address different open issues and carefully selected performance
Sensors 2022, 22, 6041 5 of 39

Sensors 2022, 22, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 38

metrics that distinctly complement but differ from other survey articles. Thus, this paper’s
key goals are as follows:
Sensors 2022, 22, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 38
classifying

Network fault in A
Lifetime: a sensor
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lifespan based on new as
is defined metrics,
the periodwhichbetween
are faultnetwork
pattern
Sensors 2022, 22, x FOR PEER REVIEW and stability, 11 of 38
initiation and network
the moment components,
when the and firstfault-affected
node dies in the area. network [63,64].
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Network
The fault-tolerance faults into
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approaches based
lifespan
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definedaccountastime,
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lifetime affected
and try
Sensors 2022, 22, x FOR PEER REVIEW area, and layers. 11 of 38
initiation
within its and the moment
functionality whenminimizing
to avoid the first node thedies in the lifespan.
network network [63,64].
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network
and try
reported
Sensors 2022, 22, x FOR PEER REVIEW architecture which are: error detection, error diagnosis, and error recovery. 11 of 38
initiation
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Figure 1. A taxonomy for the different fault types in WSNs.

Sensors 2022, 22, 6041 6 of 39

The remainder of this section explains in detail the general classification of faults in
WSNs. Faults can be classified, depending on the behavior-base, into two types of errors. A
hard fault happens once a sensor node is unable to connect with other nodes due to module
failure for example the case of a dead node owing to energy depletion, while soft faults
occur when sensor nodes continue to function and communicate through other sensor
nodes but they sense, process, or send incorrect data [38,39].
Permanent, transient, intermittent, and noisy are the four types depending on the du-
ration of the failures. Permanent faults are long-lasting and persistent. A faulty battery, for
example, is an example of a permanent fault. On the other hand, the failure may temporar-
ily affect the node. Transient faults are not permanent or continuous; they may develop
due to transient environmental changes. They appear briefly and then disappear, although
they may reappear. Diagnosing and handling transitory problems is very challenging [40].
Unlike transitory errors, intermittent errors occur over an extensive length of period.
They may occur at irregular intervals and with a predictable frequency; they are easy to
detect and treat [41]. When there are noise errors, the sensor values become more variable.
Noise faults impact a series of sensor node interpretations, unlike transient faults, which
disturb one sensor node reading at a time [42].
Another type is based on network components: node, network, BS, and backend
faults [43]. The node failure is so popular in WSNs because the node plays a significant
role in the network. Two main reasons cause node errors. Firstly, hardware errors include
microcontroller failures, sensing unit failures, memory failures, and battery failures [21,24].
Secondly, software errors have routing failures, Media Access Control (MAC) failures,
and application failures. In general, node failures result in erroneous network judgments,
particularly when the failures are linked to cluster heads. When incorrect data are collected,
and inaccurate information is delivered to the BS, improper information will be from the
whole network. As a result, the majority of research focuses on failure detection and
recovery in sensor nodes, particularly cluster heads, master nodes, and backbone nodes.
One of the most serious network flaws is routing process failure, which may result in
the transmission of erroneous data or excessive delays [16]. Because all networks are prone
to a connection failure, unstable relationships between nodes result in network separation
and dynamic changes in network topology. Network failures include radio interference,
path faults, permanent or temporary path blockages, and simultaneous transmission. The
data are sent to the backend system via the BS. This section may include errors resulting in
the loss of network-wide data. For example, a problem with the BS may prohibit duties
from being sent to sensors. Furthermore, congestion in a local region may extend to the BS,
affecting data reception from other areas of the network [30]. The lack of energy in this part
of the network is one of the serious faults. Because BS is often situated distant from cities,
it has limited and restricted energy and is prone to developing errors. Furthermore, the
software utilized in BS may develop faults.
Lastly, the data collected in the BS is examined and assessed in the backend faults.
Hackers may cause backend errors, resulting in defective nodes and network failure [30,31].
This failure impacts the whole network, resulting in system inefficiencies. Brief descriptions
of faults are categorized according to their area of effect. A local fault occurs when a
fault impacts one or more nodes. Nevertheless, some key nodes, such as the cluster
head, backbone node, or manager node, have known issues regarded as global faults.
Disregarding efforts to correct local problems creates global errors. For example, errors in
sensor nodes lead to erroneous data being delivered to the BS.
Another perspective is that the faults are broken down into four types based on the
layers in which the errors have occurred [23]. Hardware layer errors are the first type in
this classification. The quality of the node’s component, the restricted power resource,
and the harsh environment are some examples of hardware faults in WSNs. Hence, faults
in this layer are malfunction caused by one or some node components. Software layer
errors are the second class that is represented by two parts. The system’s software, such as
the operating system, and the system’s middleware, such as the routing and aggregation
Sensors 2022, 22, 6041 7 of 39

procedures. Network layer errors are the third type of fault in WSNs. The network layer is
crucial because the wireless links are prone to failure in every wireless network. The errors
in this layer are caused by the harsh environment and interference phenomena among
the nodes [44].
Application layer errors are the fourth and last type in this taxonomy. Each application
has its own set of faults that are distinct from those of the other applications. The most
frequently encountered errors at the application layer relate to coverage and connectivity.
In conclusion, WSN is described as a network prone to failure, with many error
types within it. Therefore, it is compulsory to have a complete fault tolerance structure to
minimize the effect of these errors. The next section clarifies the concept of fault tolerance
and its main structure that deal with faults in any WSN.

4. The Main Aspects of Faults Management Structure in WSNs

FT refers to a system’s ability to handle mistakes while still delivering its optimal
performance [24,32]. The result of a combination of fault detection, diagnosis, and repair is
fault tolerance. It is a significant problem in WSN applications for delivering trustworthy
data. It should guarantee that a system is available for usage during a duration of a
failure or disruption. Therefore, fault tolerance improves the WSN structure’s availability,
reliability, and dependability [45]. It is necessary to review a summary of the three major
principles of fault tolerance management structures. Fault management is one of the most
popular methods for increasing fault tolerance [46].
As previously stated, the fault management structure in WSNs consists of three stages:
error detection, diagnosis, and recovery as shown in Figure 2. The following subsections
describe the three phases of the fault management framework.

Figure 2. General steps for fault tolerance structure in WSN.

4.1. Error Detection

Error or fault detection refers to identifying any unexpected failure or damaging forces
that affect a network’s or node’s optimum condition [47]. Based on their performance,
fault detection methods are divided into three categories: centralized, self-supervision, and
decentralized [19,31,34]. They will be addressed further down.
A sensor node detects problems centrally in a centralized error detection method [48].
The central node in this approach gets status messages from other nodes regularly and
Sensors 2022, 22, 6041 8 of 39

uses them to identify problematic nodes [49]. The central node in this approach gets status
messages from other nodes regularly and uses them to identify problematic nodes [35]. In
addition, as the number of nodes grows, so does the number of messages deliver to the
center. As a result, detection latency increases, making the technique unsuitable for use in
real-time settings [41]. As a result, centralized techniques cannot be used in every WSN. In
addition, a method known as self-supervision is used, whereby a sensor node examines
and evaluates its abilities and physical conditions. In addition, sensor nodes monitor the
remaining energy of their batteries and estimate the battery’s lifespan by studying and
calculating the amount of time and rate at which the battery is discharged. This technique
has a low detection latency, and it is scalable. However, since the focus of self-supervision
techniques is on persistent defects in nodes, they cannot identify all errors in a network [25].
The use of exact assumptions and threshold values is needed in self-supervision methods;
however, it is not feasible to acquire these values in some WSNs due to technical limitations.
The goal is to include all nodes in the detecting process in the decentralized (dis-
tributed) method [19,21]. Faults are identified in this method via the cooperation of adjacent
nodes and the use of clustering algorithms, respectively. When using the former method,
data from neighbors are used in conjunction with particular techniques, for instance, major-
ity vote or analyzing the information obtained with the average of the information received
from neighbors [27]. Cluster Heads (CHs) are used to identify problems in clustering tech-
niques. Because cluster heads may become inaccessible when faults arise, the detection of
defective clusters has piqued the attention of researchers worldwide. Nowadays, strategies
for decentralized fault management are gaining popularity [19,25]. The accuracy of defect
detection improves as the number of nodes involved increases. However, updated data
from neighbors are required to identify errors with neighbor-cooperation-based techniques.
In addition, as the number of participating nodes grows, so does the amount of control mes-
sages transmitted across the network, resulting in increased energy usage and congestion.
Cluster-based techniques aim to increase the scalability and reduce the amount of energy
consumed, whereas detection latency methods are the most compatible in WSNs [16].

4.2. Error Diagnosis

To properly fulfill the fault-tolerance principle, it is necessary to identify the kind of
error and remark faulty nodes. The source, nature, and impact of failures on the network’s
status should all be determined [50]. One well-known approach is to use specific reference
nodes in a network with particular geographical positions to assist other nodes in locating
their location. The need to monitor the WSN is raised to investigate and locate network
errors. Monitoring may be divided into four categories: passive, active, proactive, and
reactive. They will be discussed and judged further below. The passive model triggers
alerts to notify the BS whenever a fault is discovered in the passive monitoring model [51].
Because the technique does not need the transmission of consecutive messages to assess
the network, it consumes less energy and generates less traffic than active monitoring, for
example. However, it is more complex compared to the active approach [52].
In an active monitoring paradigm, sensor nodes continuously transmit updated or
aware messages to the BS, informing it of their presence and updating it on its status. With
an active diagnosis, a series of messages are sent to the BS in order to keep track of the
status of the nodes [19,28]. The delay of error diagnosis is reduced in this case; nevertheless,
delivering consecutive messages increases the amount of traffic that must be carried by
the WSN. Furthermore, transmitting a massive number of messages mains to a rise in the
energy usage of sensor nodes, making the approach inefficient in terms of energy usage. In
proactive diagnosis, the structure dynamically collects and analyzes data from a network
to diagnose previous occurrences and anticipate future events in order to keep the WSN
operating at peak performance levels. Compared to other techniques, this error detection
method’s accuracy is higher. However, the process of implementing training and testing
stages leads to increased latency, which is particularly noticeable in real-time applications
of WSNs. The isolation technique is achieved via reactive monitoring, which is the last type
Sensors 2022, 22, 6041 9 of 39

of error diagnosis. This method collects status data from the WSN to see if any noteworthy
measures have occurred and then takes adaptive steps to reorganize the network [53]. The
management system isolates a fault once it has been located. Reactive techniques look for
faults by comparing parameters to thresholds or assessing data correlation. Compared to
proactive approaches, the methods are less complex but more accurate [30].

4.3. Error Recovery

WSNs are restored or reconstructed so that damaged nodes do not hurt the network’s
optimum performance; this is the true meaning of the “recovery”. Recovery is defined as
the process of replacing a faulty condition with an ideal one [20]. Forward and backward
recovery are the two fault recovery techniques that may be used depending on the fault [19].
Backward recovery is used to restore a malfunctioning network to a good condition.
This technique requires recording the network’s status at every instant and recovering
it. One of the most utilized methods to record the present status of the network is the
check-pointing technique [21]. The checkpoint technique saves data and restores them
when it changes. This method also retains data, but only changes are recorded. The
primary benefit of these techniques is that they are neither network nor process dependent.
Their primary issue is that network recovery is costly. There is also no guarantee that the
same or comparable problems will not recur in the future. Asset aside in the checkpoint,
information is available, and recovery takes place quicker, which is the key benefit of a
backward recovery approach. Furthermore, the cost of implementation is cheap; thus,
there is no need for redundancy. Nevertheless, it is more difficult to choose an appropriate
location to store the network status. Furthermore, the storage of the network state requires
huge messaging and thus generates a higher energy usage. In addition, the error cannot
be retrieved when the check-point is faulty. If a failure occurs in the network, a set of
redundancy devices is placed in the network and is triggered in the event of the failure.
In contrast to the previous approach, forward recovery restores the network to a normal
condition, allowing it to continue its mission without interruption. Compared to the
previous technique, this one is less complicated, and it is unnecessary to know the specific
kind of error [19]. When a failure occurs in this network, the network’s state is reset to a
new state, increasing the time required for recovery. Additionally, redundancy increases
the cost of the network and cannot be incorporated into all sensor neks.

5. Proposed Performance Parameters within Fault Tolerance Technique in WSNs

In recent years, various studies have been done to enhance the fault tolerance concept
in WSNs. Numerous studies dealt with open issues and challenging matters to reach
to ideal fault tolerance structure as referred to in Table 2. Many of these studies used
different performance metrics to compare and evaluate different fault-tolerance approaches.
Moreover, some researchers are involved to optimize some specific performances during
the design stage of fault tolerance structure [54,55]. These different performance metrics
represent the main evaluation characteristics of the fault-tolerance approach design. Many
of these metrics include detection accuracy, delay, energy consumption, scalability, commu-
Sensors 2022, 22, x FOR PEER REVIEW 11 of 38
nication cost, network lifetime, and false alarm rate [56–58]. Following is the discussion of
the main performance parameters that fault management schemes use in detail.
 DetectionLifetime:
Network AccuracyA(DA): The ratio
network’s between
lifespan the successfully
is defined recognized
as the period betweenfaulty sensor
network
nodes divided
initiation and the bymoment
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number theoffirst
actual
nodedefective nodes
dies in the represents
network the detection
[63,64].
accuracy
The [19]. Improving
fault-tolerance error have
approaches detection accuracy
to take is possible
into account by growing
the network the number
lifetime and try
of nodes that involved in the fault detection process
within its functionality to avoid minimizing the network lifespan. inside a specific region [59].
Sensors 2022, 22, x FOR PEER REVIEW Therefore, 11 of 38
 False Alarmcollaboration
Rate (FAR): The among
ratioall neighbors
between the in the same
number eventnodes
of faulty regionthatfor reported
example
will enhance
error error
reports to thedetection in general.
total number Increasing
of faulty faultIndetection
nodes [59]. time also there
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are
accuracy
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the BS, especially
 Energy
Network
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monitoring Energy
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lifespan
Fault is considered
is defined
tolerance as thehave
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network
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wrong fault alarms that consume energy, congest the network, and disturb the con- or impossibility
[63,64].
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error reports
6. Proposed to the total
Classification number
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many situations,
in WSN there are
special cases in which some nodes produce an error report towards the BS, especially
Generally, no single fault tolerance structure fits all WSN applications due to its va-
with monitoring applications. Fault tolerance approaches have a harsh fight with the
Sensors 2022, 22, 6041 10 of 39

energy consumption and network failure control go hand in hand. Therefore, a

fault tolerance system is needed to identify and recover problems with low energy
Sensors 2022, 22, x FOR PEER REVIEW usage [58,59]. Reducing the sending operations to the BS will play a vital 11 roleof to
38
improve energy consumption [61]. Less messaging reduces energy usage in fault
control while Increasing fault detection accuracy increases energy usage.
 Delay: Is Lifetime:
Network well-defined as the amount
A network’s lifespanof time that elapses
is defined as the between
periodthe occurrence
between network of a
Sensors 2022, 22, x FOR PEER REVIEW fault and andthe discovery of the error. 11 of 38
initiation the moment when theAfirstlonger
node delay
diesincreases
in the network the likelihood
[63,64].of a failure
spreading
The inside the
fault-tolerance network and
approaches have affects
to take entire networkthe
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of the delay [62].
within its functionality to avoid minimizing the network lifespan.
 Scalability:
Network
False Alarm Many(FAR):
Lifetime:
Rate important
A network’s
The ratioaspects
lifespan
betweenin WSNs
is the
defined suchasasthe
number offault tolerance
period
faulty between
nodes andreported
that routing,
network
Sensors 2022, 22, x FOR PEER REVIEW should have the ability to be scalable. Scalability means the network’s 11 of to
capacity 38
initiation
error reports andto thethemoment when the
total number of first
faulty nodenodes dies[59].in the In network [63,64]. there are
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accept
The
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Sensors 2022, 22, x FOR PEER REVIEW performance, several fault 11 of 38
The fault-tolerance
special
integrity cases
andin which
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produce into have
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Network
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reports the A Anetwork’s
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Sensors 2022, 22, x FOR PEER REVIEW
trol center
Generally,
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riety and
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specialwide
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categorization
which Many some approaches
divided
nodes fault
produceand frameworks
management
an error have
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report been
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thecentralized,
BS, for
especially the
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special cases in which approaches
some nodes have to takean
produce into account
error report the network
towards thelifetime
BS, and try
especially
same primary
centralized,
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Fault istolerance
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consume of fault
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 False
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that
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applications
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duced in this
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[65,66]. Such ofathese
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riety error
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[67]. total
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integrity categorization
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same special
integrity
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reliability.
purpose: some
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centralized, and hybrid. category is subdividedconcept into many to gain a high levelFigure
subcategories. of relia-3
bilitywith monitoring
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Classification ofofFault
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duced wrong
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to make ofconsume
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the representation congest
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these the network,
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schemes and disturb
in WSN
more understandable. the con-
Generally,
trol no single
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with fault tolerance
incorrect structure fits WSN applications due to its variety
The Generally,
suggested no single faultreadings
tolerancefault
divided [65,66].
structure Such fitsa fake
management all WSN alarm willinto
affect
applications
structures the
duenetwork’s
to its de-
centralized, va-
and wide use
integrity [67].
and Many
reliability. approaches and frameworks have been proposed for the same
riety and
centralized, wide
and use [67].
hybrid. Many
Each approaches
category is and frameworks
subdivided into
primary purpose: to satisfy the fault-tolerance concept to gain a high level of reliability and have
many been proposed
subcategories. for
Figure the3
same primary
illustrates
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categorization
general to satisfy
categorizationof faultthe fault-tolerance
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been level of
suggested. this
introduced relia-
6. Proposed
bility and Classification
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categorization Management
of fault management Approaches mechanismsin WSNis in intro-
section to make the representation of these schemes more understandable. The suggested
duced Generally,
in this no single
section to fault the
make tolerance structureoffits
representation all WSN
these schemes applications
more due to its va-
understandable.
categorization divided fault management structures into centralized, decentralized, and
riety
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use [67].isMany
categorization approaches
divided
subdivided fault
into manyand frameworks
management
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structures beenintoproposed
3centralized,
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the
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hybrid. to satisfy
Each the
category fault-tolerance
is subdivided
categorization of fault management schemes that have been suggested. concept
into to
many gain a high
subcategories. level of
Figurerelia-3
bility and the
illustrates integrity. A general
categorization of categorization
fault management of fault
schemes managementthat havemechanisms
been suggested. is intro-
duced in this section
6.1. Centralized to make Approaches
Fault Tolerance the representation of these schemes more understandable.
The suggested categorization
The center administrator or BS takes divided fault management
responsibility forstructures
fault detection into centralized,
and occurrence de-
centralized,
choices. By and hybrid.
regularly Each category
injecting networkisstatus subdivided
queries intointo many subcategories.
the network to collect Figure state3
illustrates the categorization of fault management schemes
information and evaluate this information to find faults, the BS identifies and handles all that have been suggested.
errors in the WSN. Although this method is easier for smaller networks, it has several
drawbacks, including high message traffic near the BS and high energy usage [68].
Based on their effectiveness, centralized approaches may be divided into statistical-
based, soft computing-based, and time-based. With statistical methods, the statistics are
transmitted to the BS and aggregated; then, it is examined to be assessed via the fault
tolerance framework [69]. This approach uses statistical methods to identify outliers in the
data set under consideration, such as the sigma test, median, and mean.
Sensors 2022, 22, 6041 11 of 39

Figure 3. General taxonomy of fault tolerance approaches in WSNs.

Methods based on soft computing are algorithms primarily focused on machine

learning methods [70]. There are two types of learning methods: supervised learning and
unsupervised learning. In supervised learning, an input-output collection is provided to a
system, and the system is instructed to train a given input to outcome pairs in the group.
To train the system, this technique needs some input data. Neural networks, support
vector machines, K-nearest neighbor, Bayesian statistics, decision trees, and fuzzy logic
are examples of learning methods [21,24,31,62]. However, in certain situations, supervised
learning will not provide the desired results. Another machine learning technique is
Sensors 2022, 22, 6041 12 of 39

unsupervised learning. Learning is done on un-marked raw data to uncover unseen forms
in unsupervised learning. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) and K-means clustering
are examples of unsupervised learning [71].
In time-based fault tolerance approaches, nodes utilize Carrier-Sense Multiple Access
with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA) and constantly listen to the medium while the
network is deployed. To begin, the BS builds a tree structure that links nodes and routes
traffic. Data from adjacent nodes is collected at this stage. Finally, the BS allocates a slot
to each sensor node for information transmission. Many slots are also allocated to nodes
for time synchronization and error handling. Nodes use CSMA/CA for communication
listening during the listening time to identify problems [72]. Even though these methods
depend on the nodes to detect the errors, the BS will make the main decision. As aforemen-
tioned, all centralized approaches suffer from high overhead and lack in scalability matter
even though there are simple to implement. Generally, centralized methods have many
drawbacks. First, because of the network’s size and density, a lot of information is commu-
nicated to the BS, rapidly depleting the energy of nodes nearby. Centralized paradigms are
incompatible with large networks. The approaches also need a huge database to hold a
huge number of data, increasing installation costs. Additionally, the BS is a weak point in
centralized systems and it may have its own errors. When it fails, the output is inaccurate
or absent. A faulty BS is tough to replace in many environments. Because the BS receives
all network data, it becomes congested, affecting network performance. Lastly, centralized
approaches transmit a huge amount of information over the wireless network to obtain
information about its status, leading to increased energy consumption, bandwidth waste,
and scalability issues [73].

6.2. Decentralized Fault Tolerance Approaches

The decentralized fault-tolerant mechanisms will be tackled particularly in this sub-
section. Unlike centralized control, these structures use numerous management stations
spread throughout the whole wireless network. In decentralized frameworks, each node,
cluster head, backbone node, or master node is in charge of a portion of the network. It has
the ability to interact directly with other nodes to execute fault detection tasks performed by
the BS in the last category [19]. In distributed systems, sensor nodes control their resources
and management systems. There is less need to communicate with BS when the nodes can
make decisions regarding their status. In terms of functionality, distributed fault-tolerant
structures are divided into six categories: neighborhood cooperation-based, statistical-
based, probability-based, machine learning-based, cloud storage-based, and agent-based.
The basic idea behind the neighborhood-based techniques is a correlation among nodes in
the same region [74].
Neighborhood voting may be split into majority voting and weighted majority voting.
To determine the fault state of nodes, the majority of votes presume that neighboring nodes
have the majority of error situations. For each node in the WSN, the weighted majority
approach gathers weighted votes from all nearby nodes and forecasts a higher number
of votes. Statistical methods are algorithms that identify errors in data using analytical
techniques. Time-series-based and descriptive statistical-based are two subcategories of
statistical methods. The time-series approach examines time-series data to identify patterns
and calculate variations. Deviations in WSNs data are detected using tests. One of the
preferable tests is the Kolmorgov Smirnov [75]. On the other hand, descriptive statistical-
based techniques are for determining defects that utilize one of the central tendency
metrics, such as the mean of neighborhood nodes. Probability fault tolerance methods
rely on the probability of node failure to identify the fault state of nodes in a distributed
network environment.
A node’s fault probability and the fault probability of its neighbors are used to compute
the posterior fault probability, which is then used to identify the faulty nodes. Based on the
Bayes theorem, Bayesian statistical approaches are used to determine the probability that a
Sensors 2022, 22, 6041 13 of 39

node is inaccurate. Machine-learning methods are a subclass of decentralized approaches

that have lately received a lot of interest [76].
These approaches may be divided into supervised and non-supervised detection
techniques. Training data sets are used in supervised error detection methods to learn the
difference between real and error data and to anticipate many sensor failures.
The node’s weight is used in neural network-based methods to anticipate data mis-
takes. Unlike supervised learning methods, unsupervised learning methods have not been
given any datasets to work with and have not trained with any database. This area includes
clustering methods. Clustering-based methods group nodes into different clusters and link
them to a cluster head that examines each node. In agent-based algorithms, the ultimate
error status of a sensor node is decided by agents chosen from across the WSN or by the
sensor nodes themselves, depending on the methodology. Even though these methods
use various information from neighbors, individual nodes or agents make the ultimate
choice [77]. Cloud-based methods take advantage of cloud-based resources to decrease the
cost of computing tasks [78].
The basic concept behind this method is to move the input data from the nodes to
cloud storage and then utilize map reduction to parallelize the error detection process,
which would decrease the time it takes to identify faults in the entire system [79]. However,
this method is not used commonly in WSN.
The goal of decentralized fault tolerance approaches is to solve the issues that cen-
tralized fault management frameworks have, such as increasing energy efficiency and
minimizing the total overhead [19,27]. Various numbers of nodes manage faults to achieve
the goal instead of entirely depending on BS. However, distributed fault management
systems still suffer from delays. They concentrate on lowering energy usage and increas-
ing the accuracy of problem detection. The structures based on neighbor collaboration
are focused on improving fault detection accuracy. Neighbor cooperation techniques are
gaining popularity due to the requirement for more accurate fault tolerance frameworks
in WSNs [58,59].

6.3. Hybrid Fault Tolerance Approaches

The last category in the proposed taxonomy is the hybrid fault tolerance structure,
a combination of centralized and decentralized management approaches. Hybrid ap-
proaches can be divided into two main subcategories: multi-tiered based and statistical
with neighboring based [59]. Hybrid algorithms are employed in a large multi WSN, where
nodes are grouped into clusters with cluster heads [80]. Each cluster’s nodes transmit
their information to the cluster leaders. Cluster heads then send the data to a central base
station for processing [2]. In the trust matrix method, a trust matrix is utilized to assess the
trustworthiness of data. Hybrid algorithms also combine many detection methods that
have been mentioned before into a single algorithm.
An example of this category is neighborhood algorithms in conjunction with descrip-
tive statistical methods like mean and median. Hybrid methods’ main goal is to reduce
energy usage and reduce the delay in fault detection. The fault detection time is minimal
since nodes are responsible for detecting their own problems. Furthermore, implementing
a fault tolerance system in the cluster heads and master nodes lowers node energy usage
since nodes with more energy can detect and recover problems. However, the correct
distribution of clusters in a network and their distance from the BS cause the network to
become more complicated [81].

7. Comparative Analysis, Discussion, and Open Issues

A total of 62 scientific papers have been synthesized and have been reviewed. The
collection of these scientific articles has been selected carefully to cover all the previous
fault tolerance structures and techniques. The basic information for every article, the
explanation of each methodology, and the representation of all performance metrics have
Sensors 2022, 22, 6041 14 of 39

been included in Table 3. The performance metrics for each study have been used to clarify
the enhancement and modification of previous works.

Table 3. Primary Information, Methodology, and Performance Metrics.

References Area of Study Methodology Main Performance Metrics

1. Network Lifetime.
2. Number of Dead Cluster Head.
Internet of Things (IoT) and Wireless 3. Number of Dead Sensor Node.
[2] MATLAB
Sensor Networks (WSNs) 4. Average Succuss Rate.
5. Average Survival Rate.
6. Average End to End (E2E) Delay.

1. Residual Signal.
2. Weighting Fault Signals.
[7] Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) MATLAB 3. States Responses of the Distributed
Fuzzy Filters.
4. Disturbance Input and Fault Input.

1. Energy Consumption.
Wireless Sensor Networks
[13] MATLAB 2. E2E Delay.
(WSNs)
3. Total Throughput.

Wireless Sensor Networks

[14] MATLAB 1. Detection Accuracy.
(WSNs)

1. False Positive Rate.

2. Fault Detection Accuracy.
Internet of Things (IoT) and Wireless
[37] NS3 3. False Alarm Rate.
Sensor Networks (WSNs)
4. Network Lifetime.
5. Throughput.

1. Energy Balance.
[45] Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) MATLAB 2. Intrusion Tolerance.
3. Fault tolerance.

1. Residing Energy.
2. Energy Consumption.
[46] Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) MATLAB
3. Number of Cluster Heads.
4. Network Lifetime.

Industry Revolution (IR 4.0) and 1. Probability of Detection.

[57] Statistical Model
Internet of Things (IoT) 2. Probability of False Alarm.

1. Packet Error Rate.

2. Latency.
Wireless Sensor Networks
[59] NS2 3. Network Lifespan.
(WSNs)
4. False Alarm Rate.
5. Detection Accuracy.

1. Detection Accuracy.
Wireless Sensor Actor
2. Message Received Per Node.
[82] Networks Castalia
3. False Alarm Rate.
(WSANs)
4. Message Sent Per Node.
Sensors 2022, 22, 6041 15 of 39

Table 3. Cont.

References Area of Study Methodology Main Performance Metrics

1. Accuracy.
Wireless Sensor Networks 2. Precision.
[83] Python
(WSNs) 3. F1 score/F Measures.
4. Training Time.

1. Network Lifetime.
Wireless Sensor Networks
[84] OMNET++ 2. Packet Loss Rate.
(WSNs)
3. E2E Delay.

1. Localization Accuracy.
Wireless Sensor Networks
[85] MATLAB 2. Localizations Errors.
(WSNs)
3. Fault Ratio.

1. E2E.
Wireless Sensor Networks
[86] Testbed 2. Deployment Cost.
(WSNs)
3. Number of Bad Links in each Path.

1. Fault Response Time.

Wireless Sensor Networks
[87] Testbed 2. Detection Accuracy.
(WSNs)
3. False Alarm Rate.

1. Communication Cost.
Vienna Scientific Cluster
[88] Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) 2. Average Message per Node.
VSC
3. Communication Overhead.

1. Fault Recovery Time.

Wireless Sensor Networks
[89] Castalia 2. Consumed Energy.
(WSNs)
3. Network Lifetime.

1. Network Lifetime.
Underwater
2. Recovery of Nodes.
[90] Wireless Sensor Networks NS2
3. Probability of Failure Nodes.
(UW_WSNs)
4. Coverage Ratio.

1. Fault Detection Accuracy.

Wireless Sensor Networks 2. False Alarm Rate.
[91] MATLAB
(WSNs) 3. Energy Cost.
4. Network Lifetime.

1. Energy Consumption.
Wireless Sensor Networks Testbed and 2. Network Lifetime.
[92]
(WSNs) TOSSIM 3. Received Byte Account.
4. Transmitted Byte Account.

1. Total Throughput.
Internet of Things (IoT) and Wireless 2. E2E.
[93] Sensor Networks NS2 3. Network Lifetime.
(WSNs) 4. Power Consumption.
5. Hop Count.

1. Detection Rate.
Wireless Sensor Networks
[94] Testbed 2. Distance Covered.
(WSNs)
3. Recovery Rate.
Sensors 2022, 22, 6041 16 of 39

Table 3. Cont.

References Area of Study Methodology Main Performance Metrics

1. Average Dissipated Energy.

Internet of Things (IoT) and Wireless
2. Average Delay.
[95] Sensor Networks NS2
3. Average Packet Delivery Ratio.
(WSNs)
4. Functional Complexity.

1. E2E.
2. Throughput.
Wireless Sensor Networks 3. Packet Delivery Ratio.
[96] NS2
(WSNs) 4. Latency.
5. Packet Loss Rate.
6. Fault Probability.

1. Delay.
Wireless Sensor Networks 2. Average Data Loss.
[97] MATLAB
(WSNs) 3. Average correct Data.
4. Energy Consumption.

1. Mean Square Deviation.

Wireless Sensor Networks
[98] Testbed 2. Fraction of Disconnectivity.
(WSNs)
3. Average Path Length.

1. False Classification Rate.

Wireless Sensor Networks Testbed and 2. False Alarm Rate.
[99]
(WSNs) MATLAB 3. Fault Detection Accuracy.
4. False Positive Rate.

1. Fault Detection Accuracy.

2. Fault Probability Rate.
[100] Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) MATLAB
3. False Alarm Rate.
4. Fault Positive Rate.

1. Packet Transmission Ratio.

Wireless Body Area Network
[101] MATLAB 2. Average Delay.
(WBAN)
3. Energy Saving.

1. Average Localization Error is Studied

[102] Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) MATLAB by Varying the Number of Faulty
Nodes.

1. False Positive Ratio.

[103] Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) NS2 2. Detection Accuracy.
3. Energy Consumption.

1. Fault Detection Accuracy.

[104] Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) Testbed and NS2 2. False Positive Rate.
3. Network Overhead.

1. Fault Detection Performance.

[105] Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) Testbed
2. Event Detection Performance.

1. False Alarm Rate (FAR).

[106] Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) MATLAB
2. Correct Detection Rate (CDR).
Sensors 2022, 22, 6041 17 of 39

Table 3. Cont.

References Area of Study Methodology Main Performance Metrics

1. Consumed Energy.
2. Network Lifespan.
[107] Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) OMNET++
3. Classification Accuracy.
4. False Alarm Rate.

1. True Positive Rate.

2. False Positive Rate.
[108] Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) Testbed
3. Detection Accuracy.
4. Precision.

1. Fault Detection Accuracy.

[109] Wireless Sensor Networks MATLAB 2. Energy Consumption.
3. False Alarm Rate.

Industrial Wireless Sensor Networks 1. False Alarm Rate.

[110] MATLAB
(IWSNs) 2. Detection Accuracy.

1. False Alarm Rate.

2. Fault Detection Accuracy.
[111] Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) NS2 3. Energy Consumption.
4. Fault Detection Latency.
5. False Positive Rate.

1. Remaining Energy.
[112] Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) MATLAB 2. Packet Delivery Ratio.
3. Error Detection Accuracy.

1. Sensor Fault Probability.

[113] Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) MATLAB 2. Total Energy Consumption.
3. Detection Accuracy.

1. Fault Detection Accuracy.

[114] Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) Testbed 2. Average Error rate.
3. Standard Deviation.

1. Network Lifetime.
2. Energy consumption.
[115] Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) Testbed and MATLAB
3. False Alarm Rate.
4. Fault Detection Accuracy.

1. Detection Accuracy.
[116] Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) NS2 2. False Alarm Rate.
3. False Positive Rate

1. Energy Consumption.
2. Delay.
[117] Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) MATLAB
3. Packet Drop Rate.
4. Delivery Ratio.

1. Detection Time.
2. Percentage of Failure Detection.
[118] Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) NS2 3. Mean Detection Time.
4. Percentage of Suspicious.
5. Mean Time to Detect Failure in CHs.
Sensors 2022, 22, 6041 18 of 39

Table 3. Cont.

References Area of Study Methodology Main Performance Metrics

1. Energy Consumption.
Mobile Wireless Sensor Networks
[119] OMNET++ 2. Packet Drop Rate.
(WSNs)
3. Packet Delivery Ratio.

1. Average Delay.
[120] Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) NS2 2. Packet Delivery Ratio.
3. Throughput.

1. Detection Accuracy Rate.

[121] Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) MATLAB 2. Relative Restoration Error.
3. Energy Consumption Rate.

1. Detection Accuracy.
2. Matthews Correlation Coefficient
[122] Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) Python (MCC).
3. True Positive Rate.
4. F1 Score.

1. Network Efficiency.
2. Overload-Tolerance Coefficient.
[123] Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) MATLAB
3. Congestion-Tolerance Coefficient.
4. Traffic Variance.

1. Cooperative Detection Probability.

[124] Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) Simulation
2. Surveillance Quality.

1. Network Energy Consumption.

Internet of Things (IoT) and Wireless
2. Failure Rate.
[125] Sensor Networks C++
3. Deadline Missing Ratio.
(WSNs)
4. Network Lifetime.

1. Probability of a Node Failing.

Monte Carlo and 2. Root Mean Square Error (RMSE).
[126] Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs)
MATLAB 3. Cumulative Distribution Function
(CDF).

1. Delivery Ratio.
[127] Internet of Things (IoT) Castalia 2. E2E Delay.
3. Energy Consumption.

1. Detection Accuracy.
[128] Wireless Sensor Networks (WSNs) MATLAB
2. False Positive Rate.

Internet of Things (IoT) and Wireless 1. Communication Delay.

[129] NS2
Sensor Networks (WSNs) 2. Fault Tolerance Optimization.

1. Throughput.
Internet of Things (IoT) and Wireless
[130] MATLAB 2. Energy Consumption.
Sensor Networks (WSNs)
3. Average Delay.
Sensors 2022, 22, 6041 19 of 39

Table 3. Cont.

References Area of Study Methodology Main Performance Metrics

1. Barrier Construction Efficiency.

2. Reliability Index (RI).
Internet of Things (IoT) and Wireless
[131] NS2 3. Energy Cost.
Sensor Networks (WSNs)
4. Percentage Coverage Area with Time.
5. Percentage of coverage holes.

1. Packet Loss Rate.

2. Throughput.
Internet of Things (IoT) and Wireless
[132] NS3 3. Total Energy Consumption.
Sensor Networks (WSNs)
4. Latency of Recovery.
5. Number of Dead Nodes.

5G, Industrial Internet of Things 1. System Cost.

[133] (IIoT) and Wireless Sensor Networks Python 2. Energy Consumption.
(WSNs) 3. Total Delay.

1. Network Connectivity.
Internet of Things (IoT) and Wireless
[134] MATLAB 2. Coverage Efficiency.
Sensor Networks (WSNs)
3. Hole Recovery.

Table 4 classified the aforementioned scientific articles according to error types, fault
tolerance approaches, and fault management structure detailed in Sections 3, 4 and 6,
according to the main parameters related to presenting and designing an efficient fault
management structure for WSNs, represented in Section 5. The constraints include detection
accuracy, energy consumption, latency, scalability, and communication cost, among others.
The assessment of the existing frameworks is shown in Appendix A.

Table 4. Network Type, Fault Type, and Fault Management Structure.

Fault Tolerance Fault Tolerance Procedures

References Network Type Fault Type Approach Detection Diagnosis Recovery
Node Faults (CH
[2] Heterogeneous Hybrid Based Decentralized Reactive -
Failure)
[7] Homogeneous Node Faults Centralized Based Self-Supervision Active -
Self-Supervision
Node Faults and
[13] Homogeneous Decentralized Based and Proactive Forward
Network Faults
Decentralized
[14] Homogeneous Node Faults Decentralized Based Self-Supervision Reactive -
[37] Heterogeneous Node Faults (CH Faults) Decentralized Based Decentralized Active-Proactive -
Node Faults (CH
[45] Heterogeneous Decentralized Based Decentralized Active -
Failure)
Node Faults (CH Faults)
[46] Heterogeneous and Network Faults Decentralized Based Decentralized Active Backward
(Links)
[57] Homogeneous Node Faults Centralized Based Centralized Passive -
Node Faults and
[59] Homogeneous Decentralized Based Decentralized Reactive -
Network Faults
[82] Heterogeneous Node Faults Hybrid Based Decentralized Active Backward
[83] Homogeneous Node Faults Centralized Based Decentralized Proactive -
[84] Heterogeneous Node Faults Decentralized Based Self-Supervision Active -
[85] Heterogeneous Node Faults Decentralized Based Decentralized Reactive Forward
Sensors 2022, 22, 6041 20 of 39

Table 4. Cont.

Fault Tolerance Fault Tolerance Procedures

References Network Type Fault Type Approach Detection Diagnosis Recovery
Node Faults and
[86] Homogeneous Centralized Based Decentralized Active- Proactive -
Network Faults
[87] Homogeneous Node Faults Decentralized Based Decentralized Passive -
[88] Homogeneous Node Faults Decentralized Based Decentralized Reactive -
[89] Heterogeneous Node Faults Decentralized Based Decentralized Reactive -
[90] Heterogeneous Node Faults Centralized Based Self-Supervision Active Backward
[91] Heterogeneous Node Faults Centralized Based Decentralized Active Backward
[92] Heterogeneous Node Faults Decentralized Based Decentralized Proactive
Network Faults (Link
[93] Heterogeneous Decentralized Based Decentralized Reactive -
Failure)
Network Faults
[94] Homogeneous Centralized Based Centralized Passive -
(Link Failure)
[95] Heterogeneous Node Faults Decentralized Based Decentralized Active Forward
Node Faults and
[96] Homogeneous Decentralized Based Decentralized Active -
Network Faults
Node Faults and
[97] Heterogeneous Decentralized Based Decentralized Active Backward
Network Faults
Network Faults (Link
[98] Heterogeneous Decentralized Based Decentralized Active -
Failure)
Network Faults (Link
[99] Heterogeneous Decentralized Based Decentralized Active -
Failure)
[100] Heterogeneous Node Faults Decentralized Based Decentralized Proactive -
Network Faults (Link
[101] Homogeneous Centralized Based Centralized Passive -
Failure)
[102] Heterogeneous Node Faults Decentralized Based Decentralized Active -
[103] Heterogeneous Node Faults Centralized Based Decentralized Reactive -
[104] Heterogeneous Node Faults Decentralized Based Decentralized Active Forward
Active and
[105] Homogeneous Node Faults Centralized Based Centralized -
Proactive
Self-Supervision
[106] Homogeneous Node Faults Centralized Based Passive Backward
and Centralized
Self-Supervision
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[107] Heterogeneous Decentralized Based and Active Forward
Failure)
Decentralized
[108] Homogeneous Node Faults Centralized Based Centralized Active -
Node Faults and
[109] Homogeneous Centralized Based Self-Supervision Active -
Network Faults
[110] Heterogeneous Node Faults Decentralized Based Decentralized Active Backward
[111] Heterogeneous Node Faults Decentralized Based Decentralized Active -
[112] Heterogeneous Node Faults Hybrid Based Decentralized Proactive -
Passive and
[113] Heterogeneous Node Faults Decentralized Based Decentralized -
Active
[114] Homogeneous Node Faults Centralized Based Centralized Active -
[115] Homogeneous Node Faults Decentralized Based Centralized Active -
[116] Heterogeneous Node Faults Centralized Based Decentralized Passive Forward
[117] Heterogeneous Node Faults Decentralized Based Decentralized Active Backward
Node Faults (CH Passive and
[118] Heterogeneous Centralized Based Decentralized -
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Node Faults (CH
[119] Heterogeneous Centralized Based Centralized Active Forward
Failure)
Sensors 2022, 22, 6041 21 of 39

Table 4. Cont.

Fault Tolerance Fault Tolerance Procedures

References Network Type Fault Type Approach Detection Diagnosis Recovery
[120] Heterogeneous Node Faults Decentralized Based Decentralized Proactive Backward
[121] Heterogeneous Node Faults Hybrid Based Decentralized Proactive Backward
Self-Supervision
[122] Homogeneous Node Faults Decentralized Based and Proactive -
Decentralized
Node Faults and
[123] Heterogeneous Decentralized Based Decentralized Active -
Network Faults
[124] Homogeneous Node Faults Decentralized Based Decentralized Active -
Self-Supervision
[125] Heterogeneous Node Faults Decentralized Based and Passive -
Decentralized
Node Faults and
[126] Heterogeneous Decentralized Based Self-Supervision Proactive -
Network Faults
[127] Homogeneous Node Faults Centralized Based Centralized Active -
Self-Supervision
[128] Homogeneous Node Faults Centralized Based Active -
and Centralized
[129] Heterogeneous Network Faults Centralized Based Decentralized Reactive -
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Node Faults and
[130] Heterogeneous Decentralized Based and Active -
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Decentralized
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Network Faults
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[133] Heterogeneous Network Faults Decentralized Based Decentralized Active -
Self-Supervision
[134] Heterogeneous Network Faults Decentralized Based and Active Forward
Decentralized

After analyzing various fault management architectures while considering the multiple
parameters discussed in Section 5, our survey displayed and synthesized the findings in
Table A1 (Appendix A). The review study examined the energy consumption of various
fault management methodologies based on the data collected from energy consumption. As
fault management systems’ energy usage decreases, nodes have longer lifetimes, resulting
in an increase in the total lifespan of the network as a consequence [135].
Most centralized fault tolerance techniques exhaust a tremendous amount of power
due to the high sending operations toward the BS. Unlike centralized fault tolerance ap-
proaches, the majority of decentralized and hybrid fault tolerance approaches minimize
energy consumption. In the same context of the speech, the centralized fault manage-
ment frameworks do not involve the error recovery process in deep, which results in
keeping fault data moving back and forth inside the network, causing more and more
energy consumption.
A primary strategy for estimating network congestion in fault tolerance techniques is
based on the amount of traffic flowing through the network. It is possible to employ this
strategy by examining the number of error messages that have been issued and received
over time. As a result of using the congestion control strategy, the traffic load for the
complete fault management structure is improved [136]. Centralized approaches congest
the WSN since all the sensed data (fault measurements and true events) are forwarded
toward the BS for central processing [59].
On the other hand, decentralized methods keep the traffic flow low, and fewer mes-
sages are kept passing among neighboring nodes. Hybrid fault tolerance methods have
Sensors 2022, 22, 6041 22 of 39

the second-highest congestion level because they force the central station to be involved
in some steps of their procedures. What should be mentioned here, according to the error
diagnosis phase, is that any fault tolerance structure used in the active technique also
produces high congestion and consumes more energy.
The false alarm rate in various fault management systems has discussed in Table A1
(Appendix A). The false alarm rate examines the number of malfunctioning nodes that
reported problems to the base station and the overall number of faulty nodes. When
the number of malfunctioning sensor nodes in a single location is large, the rate of false
alarms grows considerably [37,59]. Many neighborhoods’ cooperation-based approaches,
statistically based methods, and machine learning-based methods have a low false alarm
rate compared to other methods. Furthermore, we examined the error recovery techniques
that are used to diagnose faults in order to assess the delay of fault tolerance structure since
the time that elapses between the incidence of an error and the discovery of the failure
is the fundamental idea of delay [137]. Any fault management system that includes an
active error diagnosis approach and backward monitoring recovery approach will incur
reduced latency as a result of these considerations. Aside from that, employing a mobile
sink inside the same network will result in less latency overall. It should go without saying
that there is a link between fault detection accuracy and the overall time taken to discover
an issue [19].
Consequently, boosting the precision of mistake detection will result in a significant
increase in latency. The outcome of studying decentralized fault management solutions
reveals that these techniques continue to encounter a delay, mainly because most of these
approaches focus on reducing energy usage and increasing detection accuracy.
To estimate the cost of a fault tolerance structure, it was necessary to utilize a cal-
culation dependent on the number of nodes in which the error detection and recovery
techniques were implemented [21,31]. Therefore, centralized and hybrid techniques are
less expensive to adopt as compared to decentralized ones in terms of implementation
costs [19]. To estimate the scalability of the fault tolerance approach, this study examines
the changing number of nodes in different frameworks because the scalability concept is
related to the ability to increase the number of nodes. Therefore, the clustering method,
especially decentralized methods, is generally more scalable than other methods. Lastly, the
evaluation of network lifespan came to a basic conclusion. The decentralized fault tolerance
management frameworks maximize the network lifespan because many procedures within
their work prevent the sensor nodes from consuming their power resource rapidly [59].
Some core challenges attracted our attention through analyzing various fault-tolerance
approaches. First, neighboring cooperation-based techniques within the decentralized
category provided low traffic. Unlike other strategies, these approaches do not depend
on the BS in their operations. Second, they have a low false alarm rate compared with
many other methods [37,59]. However, neighboring cooperation-based approaches can be
enhanced and renovated by optimizing the majority voting techniques and eliminating the
source of the faults. More investigation on these open issues could improve the performance
of the decentralized approach, especially when embedded with a routing algorithm.

8. Open Research Issues

FT term is related directly to network reliability and data integrity. Thus, there is a
real need to provide real attention to this concept. Novel techniques must be discovered
to build and propose more suitable and satisfactory fault tolerance structures in WSNs.
Therefore, overcoming current problems and challenges is crucial. This section summarizes
five challenging open issues, and the aim is to provide attractively and still stand research
directions for other researchers. In the following, the open research issues are presented
according to the proposed taxonomy of current fault tolerance approaches.
Sensors 2022, 22, 6041 23 of 39

8.1. Energy Efficiency

Energy efficiency is one of the significant concerns in WSNs. It is essential to consider
the energy-efficient related issues incurred by any algorithm due to its respective design
for WSNs [16]. In one way or another, all FT techniques consume power to accomplish
the fault detection phase. However, there is a difference in the consumed energy amount
depending on the different fault-tolerance approaches regarding the main three categories
in the fault tolerance structures.
Centralized approaches, for example, waste more energy than other approaches [59],
which represents the main issue that still stands with these kinds of strategies. This is due
to the massive amount of sensed data that are sent to the BS. Analyzing the sensed data in
a centralized way is insufficient and should be organized well.

8.2. Communication Overhead

Overhead still represents a challenging task in fault tolerance management. Numerous
studies proposed several approaches to minimize the overhead during error detection, di-
agnosis, and recovery. However, most fault tolerance algorithms suffer from high overhead
at the node level, especially decentralized ones. For instance, the neighboring cooperation
is based on exchanging many control messages among neighbors to gain high detection
accuracy far from the central BS [138]. Such actions come with a high overhead as the
network becomes more crowded.

8.3. Security
Security in WSNs is one of the critical requirements. Taking the fault-tolerance con-
cept into consideration, there is a clear correlation between security and faults in the
environment of the WSN. Errors will increase the doubt term and make the protection
from attackers even more complicated. An intrusion can cause faults. Additionally, faults
dramatically can allow and facilitate a new intrusion to attack the WSN [17]. Moreover,
disambiguation between a faulty node and a malicious node is a tricky task in WSNs needs
to be investigated widely.

8.4. Scalability and Density Deployment

The evaluation process performed on the previous studies clarifies that scalability and
density deployment of the nodes are restricted and have high requirements that need to be
handled. For example, centralized approaches are not fit for the large-scale networks and
do not provide the scalability option to run additional new nodes added to the network.
Unlike centralized approaches, hybrid and decentralized methods are more appropri-
ate for networks that constantly gain more nodes. However, these approaches’ performance
decreases gradually in the high-density deployment of nodes. This is because high-density
deployment requires an extra layer of complexity in terms of synchronization and location
system of nodes [139].

8.5. Latency
Latency time is a high priority in WSNs because faults must be detected and eliminated
from the network as soon as possible. In many real-time applications, responses that take
a long period of time may pose a high risk in certain situations. Latency represents a
continued open issue in the fault-tolerance methods due to the average time taken to detect
and dealt with faults.
All fault tolerance algorithms consume time to finish the error detecting stage and the
error recovering phase [59]. However, centralized algorithms have low delay as compared
to other approaches since they have all data positioned at the central point. In contrast,
decentralized systems, especially those bases on neighbor voting, have a high delay.
Sensors 2022, 22, 6041 24 of 39

9. Conclusions
As deliberated extensively, FT refers to the network’s ability to deal successfully with
faults, and it is crucial for WSNs. Decreasing overall WSN errors is related to the initial
implementation of a fault-tolerance approach which leads to the optimal functionality for
the network. Due to its importance for satisfying network reliability, numerous scientific
studies have been proposed to develop new structures and techniques.
This work presented a comprehensive survey of fault tolerance strategies in WSNs,
consisting of many main stages. First, we classified error types into five general categories
with many subcategories. Second, the study discussed the three main principles in fault
tolerance structure: error detection, error diagnosis, and error recovery. Third, this study
designed a new taxonomy for the current fault tolerance structures. The proposed taxon-
omy divided the current techniques into three main classes: centralized, decentralized,
and hybrid.
Additionally, our extensively enhanced taxonomy has divided each class into many
subclasses. The classification process was based on the nature of the fault tolerance system
process, the kind of network topology, the type of fault, the kind of diagnosis process, the
type of error recovery, and the performance metrics. Moreover, a brief description of the
eight main performance metrics used to evaluate the fault-tolerance approaches has been
demonstrated. In addition, a deep analysis was conducted on a broad range of studies
from 2016 to May 2022 to estimate the weaknesses in the current fault tolerance approaches
using the performance evaluation metrics. Lastly, open issues related to the mentioned
term have been presented according to our extensive review.

Author Contributions: Supervision: S.K.S.; validation: G.H.A.; visualization and writing—original

draft: G.H.A.; review and editing: S.K.S., Z.A.Z. and N.S. All authors have read and agreed to the
published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement: The data that support the findings of this study are available from the
corresponding author [G.H.A] upon reasonable request.
Acknowledgments: For their support and efforts throughout this study, the authors would like
to express their gratitude to the Communication Technology and Network Research Group at the
Faculty of Computer Science and Information Technology (FSKTM). The authors would like to
acknowledge University Putra Malaysia (UPM) for providing facilities during the preparation of this
paper. Ghaihab owes his deepest gratitude to the University of Basrah for financial support in his
Ph.D. study. The authors would also like to express their appreciation to the Editor as well as the
anonymous reviewers for their insightful comments and suggestions.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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