TOPIC 4

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF VIRUSES

OBJECTIVES:
At the end of the topic, the students will be able to:
A. describe the characteristics/properties of viruses which make them unique
microbial pathogens;
B. examine the structure and composition of viruses;
C. classify viruses;
D. explain the replication strategies of viruses

PRETEST:
____________ 1. The complete virus particle in the extra cellular phase
____________ 2. The largest virus
____________ 3. The smallest virus
____________ 4. Virus can grow in corn meal agar. (True or False)
____________ 5. Virus is the smallest eukaryote. (True or False)
____________ 6. The protein coat of the virus to protect the viral genome
____________ 7. What is present in the viral spikes? (Antibody or Antigen)
____________ 8. The substance present in the cytoplasm that breaks the capsid
coating of the virus
____________ 9. SARS-CoV-2 is the virus and covid-19 is the disease. (True or
False)
____________10. RNA viruses replicate in the cytoplasm. (True or False)

Figure 4.1Virus through an electron microscope Figure 4.2 The spikes’ H and N antigens

Properties of Virus:
1. Virus is defined as a nucleoprotein complex which infects cells and uses their
metabolic processes to replicate
2. Smallest known infective agents
3. Metabolically inert - no metabolic activity outside host cell;
4. Obligate intracellular pathogens – must live inside the cell
5. Must enter host cell to replicate
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6. Most are highly species specific – virus infects a specific cell, Ex. HIV – T-
lymphocyte (CD4)
7. Can infect all types of life forms, from animals and plants to microorganisms,
including bacteria and archaea
8. Acellular - neither prokaryotic nor eukaryotic
9. NO ribosomes
10. NOT susceptible to antibiotics
11. Taxonomy: -virales (order); -viridae (family); -virus (genera)
12. some viruses require specific cell host inorder to procreate; Ex:
a. Human cells ex. measles
b. Animal cells ex. distemper (canine)
c. Others less specific – ex. ornithosis- - disease in birds & human
d. Arborvirus – insects & man
13. Within the host, virus may be discriminative ex:
a. poliomyelitis enters the cells of the anterior horn of the spinal cord
b. mumps virus – enters the cells of the salivary gland, pancreas, & nervous
system
c. bacteriophage – are specific as to the strain of bacteria that they will infest
Phage – attaches itself to the cell and injects its DNA or RNA, leaving the
protein coat outside the cell 

Figure 4.3 The bacteriophage

Virus versus Virion

Virus is a broad general term for any aspect of the infectious agent and includes:
a. the infectious or inactivated virus particle
b. viral nucleic acid and protein in the infected cell

Virion is the physical particle in the extra-cellular phase which is able to spread
to new host cells; complete intact virus particle (nucleocapsid/ nucleocapsid +
envelope)
Viroid –defective/incomplete virus

Table 4.1 Characteristics of infectious microorganisms

PROPERTY BACTERIA VIRUSES FUNGI PROTOZOA
Size (nm) 100-10,000 30-300 4,000-40,000 4,000-40,000
(0.03-0.3µm)
Nuclear Prokaryotes ----- Eukaryotes Eukaryotes
structure
Obligate No Yes No No
intracellular
Nucleic acid DNA/RNA DNA or RNA DNA/RNA DNA/RNA
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Haploid
Culture on Yes No Yes Yes
artificial media

Figure 4.4 The sizes of viruses relative to RBC

Figure 4.5 Structure of a virus

Virus Structure:
1. Viruses contain a viral genome of either RNA or DNA
2. consist of a core of nucleic acid surrounded by a protein coat called Capsid
3. may have envelope or may NOT have envelope (naked)

COMPONENTS OF VIRUS PARTICLE INCLUDE:

1. nucleic acid - DNA or RNA
- genome can be single stranded (ss) - or double – stranded (ds)
- genome and its protein coat together – called nucleocapsid ;-
intact / fragmented;

2. NOTE: Envelopes are not present on all viruses, and that viruses which
contain envelopes are usually less stable than those that do not have envelope
(naked), Example:
a. herpes-viruses - has envelope
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b. polio and human papillomaviruses (wart viruses) - naked

c. Lipid coat (envelope) is derived from host
- linear / circular
- encodes very few proteins
3. proteins:
a. structural - capsid protects the viral genome which is made of capsomeres
Spikes have antigens which elicit an immune response from the host cell
b. enzymes - differ from host cell
- targets of antiviral therapy
Capsid – are the protein coat protecting nucleic acid are ether resistant
4. some viruses have phospholipids that envelope (surround) it
a. lipoprotein envelope contains viral and host cell components
b. enveloped viruses are often more succeptible to inactivation by high
temperature (thermolabile), extreme pH and chemicals than (naked)
non-enveloped viruses
c. enveloped viruses are destroyed by lipid solvents (ether susceptible)
d. envelopes are of host origin but contain virus-encoded proteins
e. enveloped viruses acquire the lipid membrane as they bud from the host
cells

Morphology - virus particles exhibit three types of capsid symmetry:

1. helical - tubular: most helical viruses possess an outer envelope (eg.
measles)
– (-) sense RNA viruses
2. icosahedral – a geometric shape w/ 20 triangular sides isometric or cubic;
may (ex. herpes)
- or may not (ex. adenovirus) possess an outer envelope
- DNA viruses except Poxvirus; (+) sense RNA viruses
3. complex - does not conform to either of above (ex. Vaccinia, Pox virus) also
called binal

• The envelope masks the shape of the virion, so most enveloped viruses are
pleomorphic, or variably shaped
• Pox virus are large viruses (250 x 350 nm)
• Ebola virus – 970 nm (largest)
• Polio virus – the smallest human virus, 25-30 nm in diameter

Figure 4. 6 The capsid symmetry

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Figure 4.7 The naked and enveloped viruses

Figure 4.8 The mastadenovirus as polyhedral

Figure 4.9 Ebola virus as helical symmetry

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Figure 4.10 The (a) bacteriophage and

(b) oval or brick shaped orthopoxvirus (small pox or variola virus)

Figure 4.11 Different shapes of bacteriophage

Figure 4.12 The structures of bacteriophage

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Figure 4.13 The structures of naked and enveloped viruses

Herpesviridae Influenza Virus

Figure 4.14 Viruses under electron microscope

Figure 4.15 Smallpox virus

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Virus Classification:
1. Historically it was based on: (before – acc. To host range and type of disease):
a. Host preference: Plant, insect, animal, human
b. Target organ: respiratory, hepatic, enteric, etc.
c. Vector: arboviruses
The early classification was overlapping and inconsistent.
2. Currently the virus classification was based on molecular biology of genome
and biophysical structure

Virus Classification (current):

Order – according to group of related families (Ex. virales)
Families – group of viruses with similar structural, genomic & replication
properties (suffix: viridae) ex. Herpesviridae
Families is subdivided into genera/genus (suffix: virus) ex. Herpes simplex virus,
Cytomegalovirus, Varicella zoster virus
Species or Subtypes based on nucleotide sequence and antigenic reactivities
as individual virus e.g. Herpes simplex virus type 1, Herpes simplex virus type 2

International Committee on Viral Taxonomy (ICTV) - emphasized the viral

genome as the primary determinant for viral taxonomy (genomics)
TAXONOMIC LEVEL SUFFIX (COMMENT) EXAMPLE
Order -virales (a group of related Mononegavirales
families)
Family -viridae Paramyxoviridae
Subfamily -virinae Paramyxovirinae
Genus -virus Morbillivirus
Species (an individual virus) Measles virus

Figure 4.16 Another classification of viruses

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Figure 4.18 The strands of DNA and RNA

Table 4.2 Classification of viruses based on ICTV (International Committee on Viral

Taxonomy) classification

Figure 4.19 Baltimore System for virus classification

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Figure 4.20 The viruses according to morphology

Below are the common viruses classified according to nucleic acid. SARS-CoV ,
Dengue, Chikungunya , Zika, Ebola belong to RNA

Table 4.3 Classification of viruses according to nucleic acid

Genetic Content of Viruses:

1. DNA viruses: Almost all DNA viruses which infect animals contain double-
stranded DNA. Exceptions include the Parvoviridae (ex. Parvovirus B19,
adeno-associated virus) and the Circoviridae (these include the recently
discovered TT virus, which may be related to the development of some cases
of hepatitis).
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TT – transfusion transmitted virus – ss DNA(circoviridae)

2. RNA viruses: Almost all RNA viruses contain single-stranded RNA.
Exceptions include the Reoviridae (ex. rotaviruses) which contain double-
stranded RNA.

RNA viruses:
1. Viruses with positive strand (+) RNA genomes – ex. genomes of the same
polarity as mRNA. Viruses in this category include picornaviruses and
caliciviruses. In addition, retroviruses contain two copies of +RNA, although
they replicate by a unique mechanism.
2. Viruses with negative strand (-) RNA genomes – ex. genomes of opposite
polarity to mRNA. Viruses in this category all have helical capsids. Three
members of the class are sufficiently closely related to comprise a distinct
taxonomic order – the Mononegavirales (rhadboviruses, paramyxoviruses
and filoviruses).
The other (-) strand RNA viruses have segmented genomes
(orthomyxoviruses have eight segments while arenaviruses and bunyaviruses
have either two or three segments, respectively. The arenaviruses and some
bunyaviruses are also unique in that they possess ambisense genomes
which means their genomes contain both (+) and (-) strand RNAs.

Viral Replication:
Virus are obligate intracellular parasites. They must be inside a living cell in order to
replicate resulting to infected cell. The processes are as follows:
1. Adsorption (attachment)
2. Entry (penetration/engulfment)
3. Uncoating (nucleic acid release)
4. Transcription
5. Synthesis of virus components/Eclipse –protein synthesis; intact virions are
undetectable
6. Assembly/Maturation/Morphogenesis –virion formation
7. Release - exit

1. Adsorption (attachment):
Most host cell receptors are glycoproteins, some includes: :
Ex.a. the immune globulin superfamily for polio virus
b. acetylcholine –for rabies virus
c. sialic acid – for influenza virus
d. CD4 – for HIV
e. complement receptor C3d – for Epstein Barr virus (EBV)
Virus attaches to specific receptors on the surface of a succeptible cell – called
adhesion molecules.

Figure 4.21 Bacteriophage attaching to outer membrane

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Figure 4.22 Spikes of the viruses attached to the host cell receptor

In adsorption:
a. there is random collision which means that not all cells carrying a receptor
for a particular virus can be productively infected by that virus.
b. There is interaction between specific proteins on viral surface and specific
receptors on target cell membrane (tropism)
c. some viruses may use more than one host cell receptor (e.g. HIV)
d. some viruses may able to infect a limited spectrum of cell types (host range)
e. most neutralizing antibodies are specific for virion attachment proteins

2. Entry (penetration): the next step in viral replication, has 2 mechanisms:

a. penetration - Naked virion can directly penetrate the cell membrane
b. fusion - for virus enveloped with cell membrane
endocytosis – enveloped virus enters the cell in a cytoplasmic vacuole; once inside
the cell, virus loses its protein coat - - releasing genome

Figure 4.23 The fusion of the virion and the host cell

3. Uncoating: - RNA viruses release viral genome into the cytoplasm; most DNA
viruses release their genome into the host nucleus.
- viral genome directs host cell to make viral proteins & replicate the viral
genome
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- Depending on the virus, the metabolism of the host cell may be completely
stopped (ex. polio viruses); or it may continue on a restricted scale (like
influenza virus
- cell enzymes (lysosomes) strip off the virus protein coat
- virion can no longer be detected; known as the “eclipse period”

Figure 4.24 Endocytosis in graphic and under the microscope

Figure 4.25 a. Endocytosis, b. fusion and viral uncoating

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Figure 4.26 Maturation and release of enveloped viruses

4. Transcription/Translation/Synthesis:
In maturation of virus particles the capsid protein subunits aggregate to form
capsomers; and capsomers combine to form the capsid. The capsid and genome
associate to form nucleocapsid. The new virions are released by the lysis of the
cell, if infected with naked virus, or by budding through the cell, plasma
membrane if infected by enveloped virus, from the cell wall of the host with lipids
becomes the viral envelope.
a. DNA viruses:
-replicate their DNA in host cell nucleus mediated by viral enzymes
- synthesize (break) capsid and other proteins in cytoplasm using host cell
enzymes, releasing the DNA
- new viral proteins move to nucleus where they combine with new DNA
to form new viruses
- Exception - Poxviruses synthesize their parts in host cell’s cytoplasm
b. RNA viruses:
– “+” sense RNA acts as mRNA - viral proteins are made immediately in
cytoplasm mediated by viral enzymes (makes a copy of DNA as
cDNA by Reverse Transcription, then enters nucleus for integration
with the nucleus’ DNA and transcription again takes place to be back
to RNA as released from the nucleus (RNA out nucleus); translation
– “-” sense RNA (ex. influenza) - lst makes a “+” sense RNA copy via viral
enzyme
- Retroviridae (ex. HIV); Contain enzyme “Reverse transcriptase”
“+” sense Viral RNA acts as mRNA change to cDNA then integrated
into host cell chromosome;
mRNA (for viral proteins) and progeny;
virion RNA are synthesized from integrated viral DNA by host cell
enzymes (RNA polymerases)
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• RNA virus appears to replace host messenger RNA and replicates itself at
newly formed ribosomes w/c replace the normal ribosomes of the cell.
• ultimately new units of virus appear and may be seen in the nucleus or
cytoplasm of the cell as elementary bodies or inclusion bodies.
• The inclusion bodies aggregated (assembly or maturation) elementary
bodies. - - capsid protein subunits aggregate to form capsomers.
• Capsomers combine to form the capsids.
• Capsid and genome to form nucleocapsid.
new virions

Figure 4.27 RNA virion undergoing RT in host cell

5. Synthesis:
a. Protein synthesis - 2 types
- structural
- non-structural (enzymes for replication)
b. Nucleic acid synthesis
- new virus genome
- most often by a virus - coded polymerase or replicase; with some DNA
viruses a cell enzyme carries this out

6. Assembly:
may take place in cell nucleus, cytoplasm or (with most enveloped viruses) at
the plasma membrane

7. Release (exit)
a. sudden rupture of cell (lysis) for naked viruses
b. gradual extrusion (budding) of enveloped viruses through the cell
membrane
• may occur together with assembly
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Figure 4.28 Replication of enveloped virus

Figure 4. 29 Replication of naked virus

New virions are released:

1. by lysis of the cell if infected w/ naked virus
2. by budding through the cell, plasma membrane if infected by enveloped viruses.
During budding, part of the plasma membrane surrounds the viral capsid and
becomes the viral enveloped
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• Finally, virus break out and infects other cells, leaving the original host a
gutted remnant.

Figure 4.30 Replication of RNA virus

DNA VIRUSES GENERAL CHARACTERISTCIS (Morphology and Structure)

1. DS-DNA except Parvovirus
2. Enveloped except Parvovirus, Adenovirus, Pavovavirus (PAP)
3. Icosahedral except Poxvirus
4. Multiply in the nucleus except Poxvirus (cytoplasm)

RNA VIRUSES GENERAL CHARACTERISTCIS (Morphology and Structure):

1. SS-RNA except Parvovirus
2. Enveloped except Picornavirus, Calicivirus, Reovirus (PCR)
3. Non-segmented except Reovirus, Orthomyxovirus, Bunyavirus, Arenavirus
(ROBA)
4. Icosahedral – (+) sense; Helical – (-) sense

Outcome of Viral Infections

Virus-host cell interaction may result in:
1. Cell death (lytic) - due to cytopathic effect of virus (change in cell morphology)
2. Cell transformation - cell converted to malignant or cancerous cell
3. Latent infection (occult) - persistent infection in quiescent state which may be
reactive anytime to produce disease; continuous or intermittent shedding
4. Cell fusion to form multinucleated cells
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Figure 4.31 The viral infection

Persistent Viral Infections:

3 types of persistent viral infection (some overlap):
1. Chronic carrier - ex. Hepatitis B; results in chronic illness
2. Latent infection - ex. Herpesviridae; result in symptomatic or asymptomatic
shedding
3. Slow virus infections - due to prolonged incubation period (ex. Measles
virus )
Interferon – a class of mediators that increase the resistance of cells to viral
infection by   inhibiting viral replication and the growth of some euplastic cells.
Euplastic – healing readily

Host - Organism Relationship:

• Interaction between host and organism affecting the development and
outcome of an infection includes:
1. Host’s primary physical barriers – the skin, facemask, face shield, physical
distancing, frequent hand washing, use of alcohol are some of the
examples
2. Host’s immunologic ability to control and eliminate the invading organisms –
taking vitamins especially vitamin C and minerals like Zinc and eating
nutritious foods to stay healthy
3. Organism’s ability to evade destruction/virulence
4. Ability of organism to spread in the body

Virulence of Viruses & Evasion of the Immune Response:

• Poorly understood processes:
a. Antigenic variation
b. Some viruses encode receptors for various mediators of immunity (ex. IL1 &
TNF) thus blocking their ability to interact with receptors on their intended
targets (TNF, Tumor Necrosis Factor – participate in vasodilation and
edema formation; leukocyte adhesion, Asthma, malaria, regulates blood
coagulation)
c. Some viruses (ex. HIV) reduce expression of class I MHC proteins, thus
reducing ability of cytotoxic T cells to kill the virus-infected cells
d. Direct cell-to-cell propagation
e. Attenuated viruses (ex. Vaccine strains)
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MHC (Major Histocompatibility Complex) – groups of genes that code proteins

found on the surface of the cells that help immune system recognize foreign
substances
In human, also called HLA (Human Leukocyte Antigen) system ;
In T cells to discriminate between self (our cell) and non-self

What is cytokine storm?

COVID-19  virus copies itself very quickly once it infects a cell. The cell begins to
send SOS signals according to Mukesh Kumar, PhD, virologist and immunologist at
Georgia State University in Atlanta; April 17, 2020) . 
“When any cell senses that there is something foreign, that there is something
bad happening, the immediate response of the cell is to kill itself,” he says, “It’s a
protective mechanism so it doesn’t spread to other cells.” Certain kinds of cytokines
trigger cell death. When you have many cells doing this at the same time, a lot of tissue
can die. In COVID-19, that tissue is mostly in the lung. As the tissue breaks down, the
walls of the lungs’ tiny air sacs become leaky and fill with fluid, causing pneumonia and
starving the blood of oxygen. Cells will die because of the cytokine storm. Cytokine
storms are known to happen in autoimmune diseases like juvenile arthritis. They also
occur during certain kinds of cancer treatment, and can be triggered by infections,
like the flu. One study of patients who died of H1N1 influenza, found that 81% had
features of a cytokine storm. Kumar says the amount of cytokines he sees being
produced by cells in response to a SARS-CoV-2 infection is about 50 times higher than
he has seen in response to Zika or West Nile virus (encephalitis; meningitis) infections.

Cytokine - any of a number of substances, such as interferon, interleukin, and

growth factors, which are secreted by certain cells of the immune system and have
an effect on other cells. "Cytokine" is derived from a combination of two Greek
words - "cyto" meaning cell and "kinos" meaning movement. Cytokines are cell
signaling molecules that aid cell to cell communication in immune responses and
stimulate the movement of cells towards sites of inflammation, infection and
trauma.. (Dr. Ananya Mandal. Calcutta, retrieved July 20, 2021).

https://
www.news-medical.net/health/What-are-Cytokines.aspx

Figure 4.32 The cytokine

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Definitions
Exposure - contact with a potentially infectious agent
Infection - persistence on or within another living organism
Disease - end product (damage) resulting from an infectious process
Incubation - time from infection to development of symptoms / disease

Figure 4.33 Incubation periods of some viruses

Routes of Transmission:
1. Horizontal transmission:
a. Direct contact (secretions, blood etc.)
b. Respiratory (aerosol)
c. Contaminated inanimate objects
d. Insect vector (mosquitoes, ticks, etc.)
e. Zoonoses
2. Vertical transmission- Mother to fetus [Transplacental (Congenital),
Perinatally]

Viruses – Transmission:
Can occur -with or without disease
- during asymptomatic
- shedding
- during incubation period
Transmission results in primary infection with or without disease; reactivation
results in secondary disease (Sequelae)

Viruses – Epidemiology:
1. mode of transmission
2. age
3. gender
4. ethnic background / country of origin
5. travel history
6. occupation
7. season
8. underlying medical condition(s)

Reasons why other viruses have entered human populations only recently:
(‘drivers’ of the emergence of novel viruses or other pathogens.)
1. due to changes in agriculture (use of domestic animals)
2. population dynamics (urbanization)
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3. migration of populations
4. commerce
5. changes in the environment

POSTTEST:
____________ 1. The complete virus particle in the extra cellular phase
____________ 2. The largest virus
____________ 3. The smallest virus
____________ 4. Virus can grow in corn meal agar. (True or False)
____________ 5. Virus is the smallest eukaryote. (True or False)
____________ 6. The protein coat of the virus to protect the viral genome
____________ 7. What is present in the viral spikes? (Antibody or Antigen)
____________ 8. The substance present in the cytoplasm that breaks the capsid
coating of the virus
____________ 9. SARS-CoV-2 is the virus and covid-19 is the disease. (True or
False)
____________10. RNA viruses replicate in the cytoplasm. (True or False)

ANSWER KEY:
1. Virion
2. Ebola virus
3. Polio virus
4. False
5. False
6. Capsid
7. Antigen
8. Lysosomes
9. True
10. True

REFERENCES:

Mazzulli, Tony, MD, FRCPC. (September 21, 2009). Introdcution to virology.

Ontario, Canada.

https://www.webmd.com/lung/news/20200417/cytokine-storms-may-be-fueling-some-covid-
deaths

https://www.news-medical.net/medical/authors/ananya-mandal

https://www.news-medical.net/health/What-are-Cytokines.aspx

https://www.google.com/url?sa=i&url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.khanacademy.org
%2Fscience%2Fbiology%2Fbiology-of-viruses%2Fvirus-biology%2Fa
%2Fbacteriophages&psig=AOvVaw3pvSkhmYZv9_ujHEuJTc44&ust=1625617193
704000&so

urce=images&cd=vfe&ved=0CAsQjhxqFwoTCODzn66VzfECFQAAAAAdAAAAABAP

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