Australian Curriculum

The
Australian
Curriculum
Learning areas (Version 8.4)
English (Version 8.4), General Mathematics (Version 8.4), Chemistry (Version
Subjects
8.4)
Unit 1,Unit 2,Unit 3,Unit 4,Bridging Unit 1,Bridging Unit 2,Bridging Unit
3,Bridging Unit 4,Unit 1: Investigating the Ancient World,Unit 2: Ancient
Societies,Unit 3: People, Power and Authority,Unit 4: Reconstructing the
Ancient World,Unit 1: Natural and ecological hazards,Unit 2: Sustainable
Year levels
places,Unit 3: Land cover transformations,Unit 4: Global transformations,Unit
1: Understanding the Modern World,Unit 2: Movements for Change in the
20th century,Unit 3: Modern Nations in the 20th century,Unit 4: The Modern
World since 1945
Page 1 of 152
Table of Contents
English 4
How the Learning Area works 5
Overview of the senior secondary Australian Curriculum 5
Senior secondary English subjects 5
Links to Foundation to Year 10 6
Representation of Cross-curriculum priorities 7
Glossary 8
English 26
How the Subject works 27
Rationale 27
Structure of English 27
Texts 29
Representation of General capabilities 30
Curriculum Senior Secondary 32
Unit 1 33
Unit 2 35
Unit 3 37
Unit 4 39
Units 1 and 2 Achievement Standard 41
Mathematics 49
Overview of the senior secondary Australian Curriculum 50
Senior secondary Mathematics subjects 50
Glossary 51
Glossary 52
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General Mathematics 56
Rationale 57
Structure of General Mathematics 59
Glossary 61
Unit 1 62
Unit 2 65
Unit 3 68
Unit 4 72
Science 91
Overview of senior secondary Australian Curriculum 92
Senior secondary Science subjects 92
Safety 94
Animal ethics 94
Glossary 95
Chemistry 105
Rationale/Aims 106
Structure of Chemistry 107
Unit 1: Chemical fundamentals: structure, properties and reactions 113
Unit 2: Molecular interactions and reactions 119
Unit 3: Equilibrium, acids and redox reactions 125
Unit 4: Structure, synthesis and design 131
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The Australian Curriculum
English (Version 8.4)
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The Australian Curriculum English
English How the Learning Area works
Overview of the senior secondary Australian Curriculum
ACARA has developed a senior secondary Australian Curriculum for English, Mathematics, Science and
Humanities and Social Sciences.
The senior secondary Australian Curriculum specifies content and achievement standards for each senior
secondary subject. Content refers to the knowledge, understanding and skills to be taught and learned within
a given subject. Achievement standards refer to descriptions of the quality of learning (the depth of
understanding, extent of knowledge and sophistication of skill) expected of students who have studied the
content for the subject.
The senior secondary Australian Curriculum for each subject has been organised into four units. The last two
units are cognitively more challenging than the first two units. Each unit is designed to be taught in about half
a 'school year' of senior secondary studies (approximately 50–60 hours duration including assessment and
examinations). However, the senior secondary units have also been designed so that they may be studied
singly, in pairs (that is, yearlong), or as four units over two years.
State and territory curriculum, assessment and certification authorities are responsible for the structure and
organisation of their senior secondary courses and will determine how they will integrate the Australian
Curriculum content and achievement standards into their courses. They will continue to be responsible for
implementation of the senior secondary curriculum, including assessment, certification and the attendant
quality assurance mechanisms. Each of these authorities acts in accordance with its respective legislation and
the policy framework of its state government and Board. They will determine the assessment and certification
specifications for their local courses that integrate the Australian Curriculum content and achievement
standards and any additional information, guidelines and rules to satisfy local requirements including advice
on entry and exit points and credit for completed study.
The senior secondary Australian Curriculum for each subject should not, therefore, be read as a course of
study. Rather, it is presented as content and achievement standards for integration into state and territory
courses.
Senior secondary English subjects
The senior secondary Australian Curriculum for English is presented in four subjects that share common
features. These include the continuing development of students’ knowledge, understanding and skills in
listening, speaking, reading, viewing and writing. Differences between the subjects lie in the emphasis on how
knowledge and skills are developed and the contexts in which they are applied. Each of the four senior
secondary Australian Curriculum subjects emphasises different aspects of the study of the English learning
area.
In all subjects, teachers and students choose from a wide range of fiction and nonfiction (complete texts or
extracts) in a range of forms and from a variety of contexts including earlier times, popular culture and
different cultures.
English is a study of literature, media and language in which students critically and creatively
engage with a variety of texts in all language modes. English extends students’ language, literature
and literacy skills for a range of purposes and audiences and builds on the knowledge and skills
ACARA | The Australian Curriculum (Version 8.4)
The Australian Curriculum is licensed under Creative Commons. Page 5 of 152
developed in the Foundation to Year 10 curriculum. Students engage in a detailed study of
increasingly complex texts and language. They learn how to analyse different interpretations of
texts and how to use language modes to achieve specific effects.
Essential English is designed to develop students’ literacy skills and for those who wish to undertake
a practical English course. Students examine the purpose and language of a range of texts,
expanding their ability to understand, evaluate and communicate effectively in and for a range of
contexts. Essential English develops and refines students’ language, literature and literacy skills
which enable them to interact confidently and effectively with others in everyday, community, social
and applied learning contexts.
Literature provides students with the opportunity to study literature at an intensive level and aims to
engage students in the detailed study of literary texts. It builds on the knowledge and skills
developed in the Foundation to Year 10 curriculum. Literature deepens students’ understanding of
conventions common to different types of composition, and refines their understanding of the
effects of language through shared experience of texts and the creative process. Learning to
appreciate literary texts, and to create their own, enriches students’ understanding of human
experiences and the capacity for language to communicate those experiences.
English as an Additional Language or Dialect (EAL/D) is designed to develop students’ knowledge,
understanding and skills in Standard Australian English (SAE). Students studying this subject will
benefit in all curriculum areas from explicit teaching of the structure, linguistic features and
sociolinguistic and sociocultural aspects of SAE. EAL/D provides a variety of language, literature
and literacy experiences to accommodate the diverse range of starting points for students learning
English as an additional language or dialect. EAL/D focuses on how language and texts can vary in
structure and usage depending on cultural and social context, and how language can change
according to audience and purpose. One of the key focuses of EAL/D is the development of
students’ oral language skills.
EAL/D Units 1–4 are designed for students undertaking a senior secondary program of study and extend
students’ language, literature and literacy skills in and for a range of contexts, purposes and audience.
Students respond to and create texts in all language modes. EAL/D Unit 4 presents an equivalent level of
cognitive challenge to Unit 4 of English.
EAL/D Bridging Units 1–4 are designed for students who are at the emerging phase (or early developing
phase) of the Foundation to Year 10 EAL/D Learning Progression. These students may include:
students who have had limited exposure to SAE. These students may have recently exited an
Intensive English Centre, or be in a rural, remote or very remote setting with limited or no access to
EAL/D specialist intervention
students who are new to the Australian educational setting or who have had little or no prior formal
education.
Students may choose to complete 2, 4, 6 or 8 EAL/D units, and units can be studied sequentially or
concurrently.
As EAL/D students may perform at different levels of competence in oral communication skills and written
ability, it is advised that all language modes be considered equally for appropriate placement into units.
Links to Foundation to Year 10
Each senior secondary English subject draws upon, develops and emphasises different knowledge,
understandings, skills and processes related to the strands of Language, Literature and Literacy used in the
Foundation to Year 10 curriculum. The emphasis differs according to the nature of each subject. While each
senior secondary English subject places a different emphasis on the three strands, each subject is expected
The Australian Curriculum is licensed under Creative Commons.
to advance skills in each of the strands.
Examples
English
English retains a balance of each strand whereas Literature has its primary focus on engagement with and
analysis of literary texts.
English as an Additional Language or Dialect
While students encounter, respond to, analyse and create a wide range of literary texts in EAL/D, the focus of
the units is on language learning and the development of oral language and literacy skills in SAE.
Essential English
In Essential English, although literary texts remain an important component of the subject, the primary focus is
on the development and demonstration of literacy and language skills in everyday, social and community
contexts.
Literature
Literature has as its primary focus, engagement with and analysis of literary texts.
Representation of Crosscurriculum priorities
The senior secondary English curriculum values the histories, cultures, traditions and languages of Aboriginal
and Torres Strait Islander Peoples, and their central place in contemporary Australian society and culture.
Through the study of texts, students are provided with opportunities to develop their understanding and
appreciation of the diversity of cultures and histories of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples and their
contribution to Australian society. The illustrative text lists for each subject include a selection of Aboriginal
and Torres Strait Islander literature.
There are strong social, cultural and economic reasons for Australian students to engage with Asia and with
the contribution of Asian Australians to our society and heritage. It is through the study of texts from Asia that
a creative and forwardlooking Australia can engage with our place in the region. Through story articulated in
a range of mediums, students are provided with opportunities to develop understanding of the diversity of
Asia’s peoples, environments and traditional and contemporary cultures. Texts relevant to this priority are
included in the illustrative lists for each subject.
Each of the senior English subjects provides the opportunity for the development of informed and reasoned
points of view, discussion of issues, research and problem solving. In this context, teachers are encouraged
to select texts and issues for discussion connected with sustainability. Through analysis of media articles,
documentaries and digital texts, students have the opportunity to research and discuss this global issue and
learn the importance of respecting and valuing a wide range of world views.
Glossary
Abstract
Abstract scenario: a scenario for which there is no concrete referent provided.
Account
Account for: provide reasons for (something).
Give an account of: report or describe an event or experience.
Taking into account: considering other information or aspects.
Active listening strategies
Verbal and nonverbal behaviour used to promote accurate listening.
Adverb
A word class that may modify a verb (for example, ‘beautifully’ in ‘She sings beautifully’), an adjective (for
example ‘really’ in ‘He is really interesting’) or another adverb (for example ‘very’ in ‘She walks very slowly’).
In English many adverbs have an –ly ending.
Aesthetic
A sense of beauty or an appreciation of artistic expression.
Analyse
Consider in detail for the purpose of finding meaning or relationships, and identifying patterns, similarities
and differences.
Anaphoric and cataphoric reference
Anaphoric reference: when a word in a text refers back to other ideas in the text for its meaning, for
example ‘I saw Jim. He is well.’
Cataphoric reference: When a word refers to ideas later in the text, for example ‘It is amazing! This car is
the best new deal around!’
Apply
Use, utilise or employ in a particular situation.
Appraisal
How attitudes are expressed in texts; that is, interpersonal meanings which convey an author's evaluation
of something or someone and which help to position the audience.
Appreciation
The act of discerning quality and value of literary texts.
Assess
Determine the value, significance or extent of (something).
Attitude
A way of thinking about a situation/idea/character. For example, an author or audience may be subjective,
supportive or antagonistic towards something or someone.
Audience
The group of readers, listeners or viewers that the writer, designer, filmmaker or speaker is addressing.
Audience includes students in the classroom, an individual, the wider community, review writers, critics and
the implied audience.
Author
The composer or originator of a work (for example, a novel, film, website, speech, essay, autobiography).
Authors
The composer or originator of a work (for example, a novel, film, website, speech, essay, autobiography).
Clause
A grammatical unit that refers to a happening or state (for example, ‘The netball team won’ [happening],
‘The cartoon is an animation’ [state]).
A clause usually contains a subject and a verb group/phrase (for example, ‘The team [subject] has played
[verb group/phrase] a fantastic game’), which may be accompanied by an object or other complements
(elements that are closely related to the verb – for example, ‘the match’ in ‘The team lost the match’) and/or
adverbials (for example, ‘on a rainy night’ in ‘The team won on a rainy night’).
A clause can be either a ‘main’ or ‘subordinate clause’ depending on its function:
main clause does not depend on or function within the structure of another clause.
subordinate clause depends on or functions within the structure of another clause – it may
function directly within the structure of the larger clause, or indirectly by being contained within a
group/phrase.
In these examples square brackets have been used to indicate the subordinate clause:
‘I took my umbrella [because it was raining].’
‘[Because I am reading Shakespeare], my time is limited.’
‘The man [who came to dinner] is my brother.’
Clause type
Clause type is also referred to as mood. It refers to the classification of clauses in terms of their primary
function. There are four main clause types in English: declarative, interrogative, imperative, and
exclamative.
Coherent
Orderly, logical, and internally consistent relation of parts.
Cohesion
Grammatical or lexical relationships that bind different parts of a text together and give it unity. Cohesion is
achieved through various devices such as connectives, ellipses and word associations (sometimes called
lexical cohesion). These associations include synonyms, antonyms (for example, ‘study/laze about’,
‘ugly/beautiful’), repetition (for example, ‘work, work, work – that’s all we do!’) and collocation (for example,
‘friend’ and ‘pal’ in, ‘My friend did me a big favour last week. She’s been a real pal.’).
Collocation
Words that commonly occur in close association with one another (for example, ‘blonde’ goes with ‘hair’,
‘butter’ is ‘rancid’ not ‘rotten’, ‘salt and pepper’ not ‘pepper and salt’.
Communicates
Conveys knowledge and/or understandings to others.
Complex sentence
A complex sentence has one or more subordinate clauses. In the following examples, the subordinate
clauses are indicated by square brackets: ‘I took my umbrella [because it was raining].’; ‘[Because I am
reading Shakespeare], my time is limited.’; ‘The man [who came to dinner] is my brother.’
Compound sentence
A sentence with two or more main clauses of equal grammatical status, usually marked by a coordinating
conjunction such as ‘and’, ‘but’ or ‘or’. In the following examples, the main clauses are indicated by square
brackets: ‘[Jill came home this morning] [but she didn't stay long].’; ‘[Kim is an actor], [Pat is a teacher], [and
Sam is an architect].’
Comprehension strategies
Strategies and processes used by readers to make meaning from texts. Key comprehension strategies
include:
activating and using prior knowledge
identifying literal information explicitly stated in the text
making inferences based on information in the text and their own prior knowledge
predicting likely future events in a text
visualising by creating mental images of elements in a text
summarising and organising information from a text
integrating ideas and information in texts
critically reflecting on content, structure, language and images used to construct meaning in a
text.
Conceptual metaphor
Seeing one thing in terms of another, for example, argument is war; prices are rising.
Conjunction
A word class that joins other words, phrases or clauses together in logical relationships such as addition,
time, cause or comparison. There are two types of conjunctions: coordinating conjunctions and
subordinating conjunctions.
Coordinating conjunctions are words that link words, groups/phrases and clauses in such a way that the
elements have equal grammatical status. They include conjunctions such as ‘and’, ‘or’, ‘but’:
‘Mum and Dad are here’ (joining words)
‘We visited some of our friends, but not all of them’ (joining noun groups/phrases)
‘Did he miss the train or is it just late?’ (joining clauses).
Subordinating conjunctions introduce certain kinds of subordinate clauses. They include conjunctions such
as ‘after’, ‘when’, ‘because’, ‘if’ and ‘that’:
‘When the meeting ended we went home’ (time)
‘That was because it was raining’ (reason)
‘I'll do it if you pay me’ (condition)
‘I know that he is ill’ (declarative)
‘I wonder whether/if she’s right?’ (interrogative).
Context
The environment in which a text is responded to or created. Context can include the general social,
historical and cultural conditions in which a text is responded to and created (the context of culture) or the
specific features of its immediate environment (context of situation). The term is also used to refer to the
wording surrounding an unfamiliar word that a reader or listener uses to understand its meaning.
Convention
An accepted practice that has developed over time and is generally used and understood, for example, the
use of specific structural aspects of texts such as in report writing with sections for introduction,
background, discussion and recommendations.
Critical perspectives
Critical perspectives are formed by students when they make meaning from literature based on engaging
with aspects of the text(s) studied. In Literature, students discuss and debate aspects of texts establishing
their views through logical argument. Students reflect on the aesthetic qualities of literary texts, appreciate
the power of language and inquire into the relationship between personal preference and texts, authors,
audiences and contexts, thereby forming their own critical perspectives.
Dialect
Refers to English as an Additional Language or Dialect. EAL/D is the educational acronym referring to those
students whose home language is a language or dialect other than Standard Australian English (SAE) and
who require additional support to develop proficiency in SAE, which is the variety of spoken and written
English used formally in Australian schools. The acronym EAL/D foregrounds the English language learning
needs of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander students who speak an Aboriginal or Torres Strait creole, or a
variety of Aboriginal English, as their home language, as well as those who speak a traditional or heritage
Indigenous language, and migrant and refugee students who speak an Englishbased creole, pidgin or
dialect as their home language, as well as those who are learning English as a second or additional
language (ESL/EAL).
Digital forms
Audio, visual or multimodal texts produced through digital or electronic technology, which may be interactive
and include animations and/or hyperlinks. Examples of digital texts include DVDs, websites, eliterature.
Digital texts
Audio, visual or multimodal texts produced through digital or electronic technology, which may be interactive
and include animations and hyperlinks. Examples of digital texts include DVDs, websites and eliterature.
Discourse markers
Words and phrases used in speaking and writing to ‘signpost’ discourse by showing turns, joining ideas
together, showing attitude, and generally controlling communication. Some people regard discourse
markers as a feature of spoken language only (for example, ‘actually’, ‘so’, ‘OK’, ‘right?’, ‘anyway’).
Dramatic irony
When the words and actions of the characters have a different meaning for the reader than they do for the
characters.
Engagement
The perspective of the author (for example, ‘It is obvious that...’).
Everyday texts
Texts that are encountered in people’s daily lives; for example, transport schedules, maps, emails,
invitations, casual conversations, making an appointment with a doctor/dentist/health centre, an interaction
with a retail person, a waiter taking orders, storytelling.
Figurative language
Word groups/phrases used in a way that differs from the expected or everyday usage. They are used in a
nonliteral way for particular effect (for example, simile – ‘white as a sheet’; metaphor – ‘all the world’s a
stage’; personification – ‘the wind grabbed at my clothes’).
Form
The shape and structure of texts (for example, poetry, novels, short stories, film)
Genre
The categories into which texts are grouped. The term has a complex history within literary theory and is
often used to distinguish texts on the basis of their subject matter (for example, detective fiction, romance,
science fiction, fantasy fiction), form and structure (for example, poetry, novels, biography, short stories).
Grammar
The language we use and the description of language as a system. In describing language, attention is paid
to both structure (form) and meaning (function) at the level of the word, the sentence and the text.
Group/phrase
The terms ‘group’ and ‘phrase’ are used by different schools of linguistics to refer to units intermediate
between the clause and the word. In the English curriculum, ‘group/phrase’ is used to recognise these
different usages. For example, the units enclosed in brackets in the following sentence are examples of a
group/phrase: ‘(The carnival) (had made) (the two little girls with the red shirts) (very tired)’.
In the example, ‘the carnival’ and ‘the two little girls with the red shirts’ are called noun groups/phrases
because they have a noun (‘carnival’ and ‘girls’) as their major element; similarly, ‘had made’ is a verb
group/phrase and ‘very tired’ an adjective group/phrase.
Hybrid texts
Composite texts resulting from a mixing of elements from different sources or genres (for example,
infotainment). Email is an example of a hybrid text, combining the immediacy of talk and the expectation of
a reply with the permanence of print.
Idiom
A group of (more or less) fixed words having a meaning not deducible from the individual words. Idioms are
typically informal expressions used by particular social groups and need to be explained as one unit (for
example, ‘I am over the moon’, ‘on thin ice’, ‘a fish out of water’, ‘fed up to the back teeth’).
Intonation
The rise and fall of one’s voice when speaking; sometimes used for emphasis.
Language features
The features of language that support meaning (for example, sentence structure, noun group/phrase,
vocabulary, punctuation, figurative language, framing, camera angles). Choices in language features and
text structures together define a type of text and shape its meaning. These choices vary according to the
purpose of a text, its subject matter, audience, and mode or medium of production.
Language patterns
The arrangement of identifiable repeated or corresponding elements in a text. These include patterns of
repetition or similarity (for example, the repeated use of verbs at the beginning of each step in a recipe, or
the repetition of a chorus after each verse in a song). The patterns may alternate (for example, the call and
response pattern of some games, or the to and fro of a dialogue). Other patterns may contrast (for
example, opposing viewpoints in a discussion, or contrasting patterns of imagery in a poem). The language
patterns of a text contribute to the distinctive nature of its overall organisation and shape its meaning.
Layout
The spatial arrangement of print and graphics on a page or screen, including size of font, positioning of
illustrations, inclusion of captions, labels, headings, bullet points, borders and text boxes.
Lexical chains
A sequence of related words in writing.
Lexis
Vocabulary of a language.
Media texts
Spoken, print, graphic or electronic communications with a public audience. They often involve numerous
people in their construction and are usually shaped by the technology used in their production. The media
texts studied in English can be found in newspapers and magazines and on television, film, radio, computer
software and the internet.
Medium
The resources used in the production of texts, including the tools and materials used (for example, digital
text and the computer, writing and the pen or typewriter).
Metalanguage
Language used to discuss language (for example, language used to discuss film or literary study such as
miseenscène, symbolism, characterisation or language used to talk about grammatical terms such as
‘sentence’, clause’, ‘conjunction’).
Modality
An area of meaning having to do with possibility, probability, obligation and permission. In the following
examples, the modal meanings are expressed by the auxiliary verbs ‘must’ and ‘may’:
‘Sue may have written the note’ (possibility)
‘Sue must have written the note’ (probability)
‘You must postpone the meeting’ (obligation)
‘You may postpone the meeting’ (permission).
Modality can also be expressed by several different kinds of words:
adverbs (for example, ‘possibly’, ‘necessarily’, ‘certainly’, ‘perhaps’)
adjectives (for example, ‘possible’, ‘probable’, ‘likely’, ‘necessary’)
nouns (for example, ‘possibility’, ‘necessity’, ‘obligation’)
modal verbs (for example, ‘permit’, ‘oblige’)
Mode
The various processes of communication: listening, speaking, reading/viewing and writing/creating. Modes
are also used to refer to the semiotic (meaning making) resources associated with these communicative
processes, such as sound, print, image and gesture.
Mood
The atmosphere or feeling in a particular text. For example, a text might create a sombre, reflective,
exhilarating or menacing mood or atmosphere depending on the imagery or other language used.
Morpheme
The smallest meaningful or grammatical unit in language. Morphemes are not necessarily the same as
words. The word ‘cat’ has one morpheme, while the word ‘cats’ has two morphemes: ‘cat’ for the animal
and ‘s’ to indicate that there is more than one. Similarly, ‘like’ has one morpheme, while ‘dislike’ has two:
‘like’ to describe appreciation and ‘dis’ to indicate the opposite. Morphemes are very useful in helping
students work out how to read and spell words.
Multimodal text
Combination of two or more communication modes (for example, print, image and spoken text, as in film or
computer presentations).
Narrative
A story of events or experiences, real or imagined. In literary theory, narrative includes the story (what is
narrated) and the discourse (how it is narrated).
Narrative point of view
The ways in which a narrator may be related to the story. For example, the narrator might take the role of
first or third person, omniscient or restricted in knowledge of events, reliable or unreliable in interpreting
what happens.
Nominalisation
A process for forming nouns from verbs (for example, ‘reaction’ from ‘react’ or ‘departure’ from
‘depart’) or adjectives (for example, ‘length’ from ‘long’, ‘eagerness’ from ‘eager’).
Also, a process for forming noun groups/phrases from clauses (for example, ‘their destruction of
the city’ from ‘they destroyed the city’).
Nominalisation is a way of making a text more compact and is often a feature of texts that contain
abstract ideas and concepts.
Personification
The description of an inanimate object as though it were a person or living thing.
Perspective
The way a reader/viewer is positioned by the author through the text, or how a particular ideology is
embedded in a text, for example, a feminist perspective.
Phrase
A unit intermediate between clause and word, consisting of a head word alone or accompanied by one or
more dependents. The class of a phrase is determined by the head: a phrase with a noun as head is a
noun group/phrase (for example, ‘men’ or ‘the men who died’); one with a verb as head is a verb
group/phrase (for example, ‘went’ or ‘had gone’).
Point of view
The opinion or viewpoint expressed by an individual in a text, for example an author, a narrator, a character
or an implied reader.
Preposition
A word class that usually describes the relationship between words in a sentence:
space (for example, ‘below’, ‘in’, ‘on’, ‘to’, ‘under’, and so on: 'She sat on the table.')
time (for example, ‘after’, ‘before’, ‘since’: 'I will go to the beach after lunch.')
those that do not relate to space and time (for example, ‘of’, ‘besides’, ‘except’, ‘despite’, and so
on: ‘He ate all the beans except the purple ones')
Prepositions usually combine with a noun group/phrase to form a prepositional phrase (for example, ‘in the
office’, ‘besides these two articles’).
Pronunciation
The way a word or language is spoken. This may vary regionally (for example, American English, British
English), socially (by social class of speakers, their age, educational background, sexual orientation) and
according to the setting (for example, formal, informal).
Register
The degree of formality or informality of language used for a particular purpose or in a particular social
setting.
Rhetoric
The language of argument, using persuasive and forceful language.
Rhetorical devices
Language techniques used in argument to persuade audiences (for example, rhetorical questions,
repetition, propositions, figurative language).
Rhetorical question
A question that is asked to provoke thought rather than require an answer.
rhythm
The ‘beat’ of spoken language. In a stresstimed language such as SAE, speakers put roughly equal time
lags between stressed syllables, with the timing of the unstressed syllables between them being adjusted to
accommodate the stress timing.
Salience
A strategy of emphasis, highlighting what is important in a text. In images, salience is created through
strategies like placement of an item in the foreground, size and contrast in tone or colour. In writing,
salience can occur through placing what is important at the beginning or at the end of a sentence or
paragraph or through devices such as underlining or italics.
Scanning
When reading, moving the eyes quickly down the page seeking specific words and phrases. Scanning is
also used when readers first find a resource to determine whether it will answer their questions.
Sentence
In writing, a sentence is marked by punctuation, but in speech, the boundaries between sentences are not
always so clear.
There are different types of sentences:
simple sentence – has the form of a single clause (for example, ‘David walked to the shops’ or
‘Take a seat.’)
compound sentence – has two or more main clauses of equal grammatical status, usually marked
by a coordinating conjunction such as ‘and’, ‘but’ or ‘or’. In the following examples, the main
clauses are indicated by square brackets: ‘[Jill came home this morning] [but she didn't stay
long].’; ‘[Kim is an actor], [Pat is a teacher], [and Sam is an architect].’
complex sentence – has one or more subordinate clauses. In the following examples, the
subordinate clauses are indicated by square brackets: ‘I took my umbrella [because it was
raining].’; ‘[Because I am reading Shakespeare], my time is limited.’; ‘The man [who came to
dinner] is my brother.’
Sociocultural
The way language is affected by the society and culture within which it is situated.
Sociolinguistic
The way language is affected by society and its social structures and attitudes.
Standard Australian English
The variety of spoken and written English language in Australia used in more formal settings such as for
official or public purposes, and recorded in dictionaries, style guides and grammars. While it is always
dynamic and evolving, it is recognised as the ‘common language’ of Australians.
Stress
The relative emphasis that may be given to certain syllables in a word, or to certain words in a phrase or
sentence.
Style
The ways in which aspects of texts (such as words, sentences, images) are arranged and how they affect
meaning. Style can distinguish the work of individual authors (for example, Jennings’s stories, Lawson’s
poems), as well as the work of a particular period (for example, Elizabethan drama, nineteenthcentury
novels), or of a particular genre or type of text (for example, recipes, scientific articles, playbyplay
commentary). Examples of stylistic features are narrative viewpoint, structure of stanzas, juxtaposition,
nominalisation, alliteration, metaphor, lexical choice.
Stylistic choices
The selection of stylistic features to achieve a particular effect.
Stylistic features
The ways in which aspects of texts (such as words, sentences, images) are arranged and how they affect
meaning. Style can distinguish the work of individual authors (for example, Jennings’s stories, Lawson’s
poems), as well as the work of a particular period (for example, Elizabethan drama, nineteenthcentury
novels), or of a particular genre or type of text (for example, recipes, scientific articles, playbyplay
commentary). Examples of stylistic features are narrative viewpoint, structure of stanzas, juxtaposition,
nominalisation, alliteration, metaphor and lexical choice.
Subject matter
Refers to the topic or theme under consideration.
Syntax
The ways in which sentences are formed from words, group/phrases and clauses. In some education
settings, the terms ‘syntax’ and ‘grammar’ are used interchangeably.
Tense
A grammatical category marked by a verb in which the situation described in the clause is located in time.
For example, present tense ‘has’ in ‘Sarah has a headache’ locates the situation in present time, while past
tense ‘had’ in ‘Sarah had a headache’ locates it in past time.
However, the relation between grammatical tense and (semantic) time is not always as simple as this. For
example, present tense is typically used to talk about:
present states, as in ‘He lives in Darwin’
actions that happen regularly in the present, as in ‘He watches television every night’
‘timeless’ happenings, as in information reports such as ‘Bears hibernate in winter’
references to future events, as in ‘The match starts tomorrow’ where the tense is present but the
time future. Likewise in ‘I thought the match started tomorrow’ where the subordinate clause ‘the
match started tomorrow’ has past tense but refers to future time.
Text structure
The ways in which information is organised in different types of texts (for example, chapter headings,
subheadings, tables of contents, indexes and glossaries, overviews, introductory and concluding
paragraphs, sequencing, topic sentences, taxonomies, cause and effect). Choices in text structures and
language features together define a text type and shape its meaning. Examples of text structures in literary
texts include sonnets, monologues and hypertext.
Text structures
The ways in which information is organised in different types of texts (for example, chapter headings,
subheadings, tables of contents, indexes and glossaries, overviews, introductory and concluding
paragraphs, sequencing, topic sentences, taxonomies, cause and effect). Choices in text structures and
language features together define a text type and shape its meaning. Examples of text structures in literary
texts include sonnets, monologues and hypertext.
Theme
The main idea or message of a text.
Tone
Tone describes the way the ‘voice’ is delivered. For example, the tone of a voice or the tone in a passage of
writing could be friendly or angry or persuasive.
Types of texts
Classifications of texts according to the particular purposes they are designed to achieve. In general, in the
senior subjects in the Australian Curriculum: English, texts are classified as imaginative, interpretive,
analytical or persuasive types of texts, although these distinctions are neither static nor discrete and
particular texts can belong to more than one category.
Analytical texts
Texts whose primary purpose is to identify, examine and draw conclusions about the elements or
components that make up other texts. Analytical texts develop an argument or consider or advance an
interpretation. Examples of these texts include commentaries, essays in criticism, reflective or discursive
responses and reviews.
Imaginative texts
Texts whose primary purpose is to entertain or provoke thought through their imaginative use of literary
elements. They are recognised for their form, style and artistic or aesthetic value. These texts include
novels, traditional tales, poetry, stories, plays, fiction for young adults and children including picture books,
and multimodal texts such as film.
Interpretive texts
Texts whose primary purpose is to explain and interpret personalities, events, ideas, representations or
concepts. They include autobiography, biography, media feature articles, documentary film and other non
fiction texts. There is a focus on interpretive rather than informative texts in the senior years of schooling.
Persuasive texts
Texts whose primary purpose is to put forward a point of view and persuade a reader, viewer or listener.
They form a significant part of modern communication in both print and digital environments. They include
advertising, debates, arguments, discussions, polemics and essays and articles.

Verb
A word class that describes a kind of situation such as a happening (for example, ‘climbed’ in ‘She climbed
the ladder’) or a state (for example, ‘is’ in ‘The koala is an Australian mammal’).
Verbs are essential to clause structure: all clauses contain a verb, except in certain types of ellipsis (for
example, ‘Sue lives in Sydney, her parents in Melbourne’, where there is ellipsis of ‘live’ in the second
clause).
Virtually all verbs have contrasting past and present tense forms. Some are signalled by inflections such as
‘s’ and ‘ed’. For example:
walks (present tense)
walked (past tense).
Other verbs have irregular forms that signal a change in tense. For example:
present – ‘am/is/are’ and past – ‘was/were’
present participle ‘being’ and past participle ‘been’.
Auxiliary verbs and modal verbs are two types of verbs:
auxiliary verbs are also referred to as ‘helping’ verbs. They precede the main verb; for example,
‘draw’ (main verb) ‘has drawn’ (auxiliary verb assisting)
modal verbs express a degree of probability (for example, ‘I might come home’) or a degree of
obligation (for example, ‘You must give it to me’, ‘You are not permitted to smoke in here’).
Visual elements
Visual components of a text such as placement, salience, framing, representation of action or reaction, shot
size, social distance and camera angle.
Voice
In the literary sense, voice can be used to refer to the nature of the voice projected in a text by an author
(for example, ‘authorial voice’ in a literary text, or ‘expert voice’ in an exposition).
Compare
Estimate, measure or note how things are similar or dissimilar.
Complex
Consisting of multiple interconnected parts or factors.
Considered
Formed after careful thought.
Critically analyse
Examine the component parts of an issue or information, for example the premise of an argument and its
plausibility, illogical reasoning or faulty conclusions.
Critically evaluate
Evaluation of an issue or information that includes considering important factors and available evidence in
making critical judgement that can be justified.
Demonstrate
Give a practical exhibition as an explanation.
Describe
Give an account of characteristics or features.
Design
Plan and evaluate the construction of a product or process.
Develop
In history: to construct, elaborate or expand.
In English: begin to build an opinion or idea.
Discuss
Talk or write about a topic, taking into account different issues and ideas.
Distinguish
Recognise point/s of difference.
Evaluate
Provide a detailed examination and substantiated judgement concerning the merit, significance or value of
something.
In mathematics: calculate the value of a function at a particular value of its independent variables.
Explain
Provide additional information that demonstrates understanding of reasoning and/or application.
Familiar
Previously encountered in prior learning activities.
Identify
Establish or indicate who or what someone or something is.
Integrate
Combine elements.
Investigate
Plan, collect and interpret data/information and draw conclusions about.
Justify
Show how an argument or conclusion is right or reasonable.
Locate
Identify where something is found.
Manipulate
Adapt or change.
Nonroutine
Nonroutine problems: Problems solved using procedures not previously encountered in prior learning
activities.
Reasonableness
Reasonableness of conclusions or judgements: the extent to which a conclusion or judgement is sound and
makes sense.
Reasoned
Reasoned argument/conclusion: one that is sound, wellgrounded, considered and thought out.
Recognise
Be aware of or acknowledge.
Relate
Tell or report about happenings, events or circumstances.
Represent
Use words, images, symbols or signs to convey meaning.
Reproduce
Copy or make close imitation.
Responding
In English: When students listen to, read or view texts they interact with those texts to make meaning.
Responding involves students identifying, selecting, describing, comprehending, imagining, interpreting,
analysing and evaluating.
Routine problems
Routine problems: Problems solved using procedures encountered in prior learning activities.
Select
Choose in preference to another or others.
Sequence
Arrange in order.
Solve
Work out a correct solution to a problem.
Structured
Arranged in a given organised sequence.
In Mathematics: When students provide a structured solution, the solution follows an organised sequence
provided by a third party.
Succinct
Written briefly and clearly expressed.
Sustained
Consistency maintained throughout.
Understand
Perceive what is meant, grasp an idea, and to be thoroughly familiar with.
Unfamiliar
Not previously encountered in prior learning activities.
Deduce
Arrive at a conclusion by reasoning.
Substantiate
Establish proof using evidence.
The Australian Curriculum: English English
English How the Subject works
Rationale/Aims
Rationale
English focuses on developing students’ analytical, creative and critical thinking and communication skills in all
language modes. It encourages students to engage with texts from their contemporary world, with texts from
the past and with texts from Australian and other cultures. Such engagement helps students develop a sense
of themselves, their world and their place in it.
Through close study and wide reading, viewing and listening, students develop the ability to appreciate and
evaluate the purpose, stylistic qualities and conventions of literary and nonliterary texts and enjoy creating
their own imaginative, interpretive and analytical responses. English is designed to develop students’ facility
with all types of texts and language modes and to foster an appreciation of the value of English for lifelong
learning.
Students refine their skills across all language modes by engaging critically and creatively with texts, including
literary and media texts. They learn to speak and write fluently in a range of contexts and to create visual and
digital texts. They hone their oral communication skills through discussion, debate and argument, in a range
of formal and informal situations.
Aims
All senior secondary English subjects aim to develop students’:
skills in listening, speaking, reading, viewing and writing
capacity to create texts for a range of purposes, audiences and contexts
understanding and appreciation of different uses of language.
In addition, English aims to develop students’:
understanding of the use of language for communication
appreciation and creation of sustained interpretive, persuasive and imaginative texts in a range of
modes
engagement in critical analysis and reflection.
Structure of English
Units
In Unit 1 students explore how meaning is communicated through the relationships between language, text,
purpose, context and audience. This includes how language and texts are shaped by their purpose, the
audiences for whom they are intended and the contexts in which they are created and received. Through
responding to and creating texts, students consider how language, structure and conventions operate in a
variety of imaginative, interpretive and persuasive texts. Study in this unit focuses on the similarities and
differences between texts and how visual elements combine with spoken and written elements to create
meaning. Students develop an understanding of stylistic features and apply skills of analysis and creativity.
They are able to respond to texts in a variety of ways, creating their own texts and reflecting on their own
learning.
In Unit 2, students analyse the representation of ideas, attitudes and voices in texts to consider how texts
represent the world and human experience. Analysis of how language and structural choices shape
perspectives in and for a range of contexts is central to this unit. By responding to and creating texts in
different modes and mediums, students consider the interplay of imaginative, interpretive and persuasive
elements in a range of texts and present their own analyses. Students examine the effect of stylistic choices
and the ways in which these choices position audiences for particular purposes, revealing attitudes, values
and perspectives. Through the creation of their own texts, students are encouraged to reflect on their
language choices and consider why they have represented ideas in particular ways.
In Unit 3, students explore representations of themes, ideas and concepts through a comparison of texts.
They analyse and compare the relationships between language, genre and context, comparing texts within
and/or across different genres and modes. Students recognise and analyse the conventions of genre in
literary and nonliterary texts and consider how those conventions may assist interpretation and how they may
be challenged. Students compare and evaluate the effect of different mediums on the structure of texts and
how audiences respond to them. Understanding of these concepts is demonstrated through the creation of
imaginative, interpretive and analytical responses.
In Unit 4, students examine different interpretations and perspectives to develop further their knowledge and
analysis of purpose and style. They challenge perspectives, values and attitudes in literary and nonliterary
texts, developing and testing their own interpretations though debate and argument. Through close study of
individual texts, students explore relationships between content and structure, voice and perspective and the
text and its context. This provides the opportunity for students to extend their experience of language and of
texts and explore their ideas through their own reading and viewing. Students demonstrate understanding of
the texts studied through creation of imaginative, interpretive and analytical responses.
Organisation of content
Content descriptions in each unit in English are grouped under an organising framework that presents key
aspects of learning that underpin each subject. Organisers vary between subjects according to the distinctive
focus of each subject. The organising framework in English is:
Texts in contexts
Language and textual analysis
Engaging and responding
Creating texts
Reflecting.
Organisation of achievement standards
The achievement standards have been organised under two dimensions that underpin key aspects of
responding to or creating texts. This structure applies to all subjects in senior secondary English.
Dimension 1 Responding to oral, written and multimodal texts
Dimension 2 Creating oral, written and multimodal texts
Senior secondary achievement standards have been written for each Australian Curriculum senior secondary
subject. The achievement standards provide an indication of typical performance at five different levels
(corresponding to grades A to E) following the completion of study of senior secondary Australian Curriculum
content for a pair of units. They are broad statements of understanding and skills that are best read and
understood in conjunction with the relevant unit content. They are structured to reflect key dimensions of the
content of the relevant learning area. They will be eventually accompanied by illustrative and annotated
samples of student work/ performance/ responses.
The achievement standards will be refined empirically through an analysis of samples of student work and
responses to assessment tasks: they cannot be maintained a priori without reference to actual student
performance. Inferences can be drawn about the quality of student learning on the basis of observable
differences in the extent, complexity, sophistication and generality of the understanding and skills typically
demonstrated by students in response to welldesigned assessment activities and tasks.
In the short term, achievement standards will inform assessment processes used by curriculum, assessment
and certifying authorities for course offerings based on senior secondary Australian Curriculum content.
ACARA has made reference to a common syntax (as a guide, not a rule) in constructing the achievement
standards across the learning areas. The common syntax that has guided development is as follows:
1. Given a specified context (as described in the curriculum content)
2. With a defined level of consistency/accuracy (the assumption that each level describes what the
student does well, competently, independently, consistently)
3. Students perform a specified action (described through a verb)
4. In relation to what is valued in the curriculum (specified as the object or subject)
5. With a defined degree of sophistication, difficulty, complexity (described as an indication of quality)
Terms such as ‘analyse’ and ‘describe’ have been used to specify particular action but these can have
everyday meanings that are quite general. ACARA has therefore associated these terms with specific
meanings that are defined in the senior secondary achievement standards glossary and used precisely and
consistently across subject areas.
The language modes
The processes of listening, speaking, reading, viewing and writing, also known as language modes, are
interrelated. Classroom contexts that address particular content descriptions will necessarily draw from more
than one of these modes in order to support students’ effective learning. To acknowledge these
interrelationships, content descriptions incorporate the processes of listening, speaking, reading, viewing and
writing in an integrated and interdependent way.
Texts
Teachers will use an array of material in class. Texts include literary texts, fiction and nonfiction, media texts,
everyday texts, and workplace texts, from increasingly complex and unfamiliar settings, ranging from the
everyday language of personal experience to more abstract, specialised and technical language drawn from a
range of contexts.
Texts provide important opportunities for learning about aspects of human experience and about aesthetic
appeal. Texts can be written, spoken, multimodal, and in print or digital/online.
Texts are structured for particular purposes; for example, to retell, to instruct, to entertain, to explain and to
argue. Teachers may select whole texts and/or parts of texts depending on units of study, cohorts and level of
difficulty.
‘Literary texts’ refers to past and present texts across a range of cultural contexts that are valued for their
form and style and are recognised as having enduring or artistic value. While the nature of what constitutes
‘literary texts’ is dynamic and evolving, they are seen as having personal, social, cultural and aesthetic appeal
and potential for enriching students’ scope of experience. Literary texts include a broad range of forms such
as novels, poetry, short stories, plays, fiction, multimodal texts such as film, and nonfiction.
Sample text list
The following texts are examples of literary texts suitable for the study of English and are intended to
stimulate thinking about teaching resources in relation to the content of the curriculum. The following
examples are not meant to be prescriptive.
Fiction
Swallow the Air by Tara June Winch (novel)
The Broken Shore by Peter Temple (novel)
The Great Gatsby by F. Scott Fitzgerald (novel)
Interpreter of Maladies by Jhumpa Lahiri (short stories)
The ShoeHorn Sonata by John Misto (play)
A Streetcar Named Desire by Tennessee Williams (play; film directed by Elia Kazan)
Twelfth Night by William Shakespeare (play)
Gattaca directed by Andrew Niccol (film)
Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein by Zdenko Basic and Manuel Sumberac (illustrated version)
Maus by Art Spiegelman (graphic novel)
Cloudstreet by Tim Winton (novel)
The Secret River by Kate Grenville (novel)
Citizen Kane directed by Orson Welles (film)
Poetry
Christina Rossetti
Wilfred Owen
Judith Wright
Romaine Moreton
Australian Poetry Library http://www.poetrylibrary.edu.au/
Windchimes: Asia in Australian poetry edited by Rowe and Smith
Nonfiction
Unpolished Gem by Alice Pung (memoir)
Dear America – Letters Home from Vietnam edited by Bernard Edelman (collection of letters)
I Have a Dream by Martin Luther King Jr (speech)
Australian War Memorial website (multimodal)
The Legacy: An elder’s vision of our sustainable future by David Suzuki (speech)
First Australians directed by Rachel Perkins (documentary)
Cry Freedom directed by Richard Attenborough (film)
The Justice Game by Geoffrey Robertson (essays)
Representation of General capabilities
General capabilities covered in English include: Literacy, Numeracy, Information and communication
technology (ICT) capability, Critical and creative thinking, Personal and social capability, Ethical understanding
and Intercultural understanding.
Literacy
Literacy is important in the development of the skills and strategies needed to express, interpret, and
communicate complex information and ideas. In English students apply, extend and refine their repertoire of
literacy skills and practices as they examine how meaning is communicated and as they engage in creative
response and argument. Students compare texts and consider them in relation to their contexts and
purposes, and they consider how texts are created for specific purposes, contexts and audiences.
Numeracy
Students use numeracy in English when they practise and apply the skills of interpreting and analysing,
comparing and contrasting, making connections, posing and proving arguments, making inferences and
problem solving as they create and respond to a range of texts. For example, students use numeracy skills
when they create and interpret sequences and spatial information in nonfiction texts or consider timing and
sequence when developing photo stories. They draw conclusions from statistical information, interpret and
use quantitative data as evidence in persuasive texts and evaluate the use of statistics in media and other
reports.
Information and communication technology (ICT) capability
There is a particular focus in English on ICT through the use of digital texts and on understanding and
creating multimodal texts. For example, students explore the effects of sound and image as they consider
how ideas are communicated in digital texts. They use digital technologies when they access, manage and
use information and when creating their own texts. They develop skills in reading, viewing and responding to
digital and multimodal texts and analysing the effects of the use of different mediums on meaning and
interpretation.
Critical and creative thinking
Critical and creative thinking is integral to the study of and creation of texts in English. Students analyse and
evaluate issues and ideas presented in texts. In both thinking about and creating their own texts, they
recognise and develop arguments, use evidence and draw reasoned conclusions. Students experiment with
text structures and language features as they transform and adapt texts for different purposes, contexts and
audiences. Students use critical thinking when they use their knowledge of language to analyse a range of
texts in relation to their purpose, context, audience, structural and language features, and underlying and
unstated assumptions. They investigate the ways language is used to position individuals and social and
cultural groups. Creative thinking enables students to apply imaginative and inventive capacities in the
creation of their own original works.
Personal and social capability
Students develop personal and social capability in English by enhancing their communication skills, teamwork
and capacity to empathise with and appreciate the perspectives of others. Close study of texts assists
students to understand different personal and social experiences, perspectives and challenges. Students
identify and express their own opinions, beliefs and responses by interacting with a range of texts. English
actively assists students in the development of communication skills needed for analysis, research and the
expression of viewpoints and arguments. Students work collaboratively in teams and also independently as
part of their learning and research endeavours.
Ethical understanding
In English ethical understanding is explored through the selection of texts for study, for example, when
students engage with ethical dilemmas presented in texts, considering reasons for actions and implications of
decisions. They explore and question values, attitudes, perspectives and assumptions in texts, examining how
they are presented, their impact on audiences and how they are reflected in their own responses. Through
the study of English students come to appreciate and develop greater empathy for the rights and opinions of
others. They develop increasingly advanced communication, research and presentation skills to express
viewpoints.
Intercultural understanding
In English, intercultural understanding encourages students to make connections between their own
experiences and the experiences of others. Through the study of contemporary texts, texts from the past and
texts from diverse cultures, students explore and analyse these connections. Students understand and can
express the interdependence of language, culture, identity and values, particularly in the Australian context,
and are able to appreciate and empathise with the cultural beliefs, attitudes and values of others. They study
how cultural concepts, beliefs, practices and perspectives are represented in a range of textual forms and for
a variety of purposes and audiences. They pay special attention to the contribution of Aboriginal and Torres
Strait Islander Peoples and Asian cultures to literature and other media in Australia.
English Curriculum Senior Secondary
Unit 1
Unit 1 Description
In Unit 1, students explore how meaning is communicated through the relationships between language, text,
purpose, context and audience. This includes how language and texts are shaped by their purpose, the
audiences for whom they are intended and the contexts in which they are created and received. Through
responding to and creating texts, students consider how language, structure and conventions operate in a
variety of imaginative, interpretive and persuasive texts. Study in this unit focuses on the similarities and
differences between texts and how visual elements combine with spoken and written elements to create
meaning. Students develop an understanding of stylistic features and apply skills of analysis and creativity.
They are able to respond to texts in a variety of ways, creating their own texts and reflecting on their own
learning.
Unit 1 Learning Outcomes
Learning Outcomes
By the end of this unit, students:
understand the relationships between purpose, context and audience and how these relationships
influence texts and their meaning
investigate how text structures and language features are used to convey ideas and represent
people and events in a range of texts
create oral, written and multimodal texts appropriate for different audiences, purposes and contexts.
Unit 1 Content Descriptions
Investigate the relationships between language, context and meaning by:
explaining how texts are created in and for different contexts (ACEEN001)
analysing how language choices are made for different purposes and in different contexts using appropriate
metalanguage; for example, personification, voiceover, flashback, salience (ACEEN002)
evaluating the choice of mode and medium in shaping the response of audiences, including digital texts
(ACEEN003)
Examine similarities and differences between imaginative, persuasive and interpretive texts
including:
explaining the ways language features, text structures and conventions communicate ideas and points of view
(ACEEN004)
explaining the ways text structures, language features and stylistic choices are used in different types of texts
(ACEEN005)
analysing how vocabulary, idiom and rhetoric are used for different purposes and contexts (ACEEN006)
evaluating the impact of description and imagery, including , and still and moving images in
evaluating the impact of description and imagery, including figurative language, and still and moving images in
digital and multimodal texts. (ACEEN007)
Analyse and evaluate how responses to texts, including students’ own responses, are influenced
by:
purpose, taking into account that a text’s purpose is often open to debate (ACEEN008)
personal, social and cultural context (ACEEN009)
the use of imaginative, persuasive and interpretive techniques. (ACEEN010)
Create a range of texts:
using appropriate form, content, style and tone for different purposes and audiences in real and imagined
contexts (ACEEN011)
drawing on a range of technologies in, for example, research, communication and representation of ideas
(ACEEN012)
combining visual, spoken and written elements where appropriate (ACEEN013)
using evidencebased argument (ACEEN014)
using appropriate quotation and referencing protocols (ACEEN015)
using strategies for planning, drafting, editing and proofreading (ACEEN016)
using accurate spelling, punctuation, syntax and metalanguage. (ACEEN017)
Reflect on their own and others’ texts by:
analysing textual evidence to assess the purpose and context of texts (ACEEN018)
questioning responses to texts (ACEEN019)
investigating the impact and uses of imaginative, interpretive and persuasive texts. (ACEEN020)
Unit 2
Unit 2 Description
In Unit 2, students analyse the representation of ideas, attitudes and voices in texts to consider how texts
represent the world and human experience. Analysis of how language and structural choices shape
perspectives in and for a range of contexts is central to this unit. By responding to and creating texts in
different modes and mediums, students consider the interplay of imaginative, interpretive and persuasive
elements in a range of texts and present their own analyses. Students examine the effect of stylistic choices
and the ways in which these choices position audiences for particular purposes, revealing attitudes, values
and perspectives. Through the creation of their own texts, students are encouraged to reflect on their
language choices and consider why they have represented ideas in particular ways.
understand the ways in which ideas and attitudes are represented in texts
examine the ways texts are constructed to influence responses
create oral, written and multimodal texts that experiment with text structures and language features
for particular audiences, purposes and contexts.
Compare texts in a variety of contexts, mediums and modes by:
explaining the relationship between purpose and context (ACEEN021)
analysing the style and structure of texts including digital texts (ACEEN022)
evaluating similarities and differences between hybrid texts, for example, infotainment, product placement in
movies, hypertext fiction. (ACEEN023)
Investigate the representation of ideas, attitudes and voices in texts including:
analysing the ways language features, text structures and stylistic choices shape points of view and influence
audiences (ACEEN024)
evaluating the effects of rhetorical devices, for example, emphasis, emotive language and imagery in the
construction of argument (ACEEN025)
analysing the effects of using multimodal and digital conventions such as navigation, sound and image
(ACEEN026)
analysing how attitude and mood are created, for example, through the use of humour in satire and parody.
(ACEEN027)
Analyse and evaluate how and why responses to texts vary through:
the impact of language and structural choices on shaping own and others’ perspectives (ACEEN028)
the ways ideas, attitudes and voices are represented, for example, how events are reported differently in the
media (ACEEN029)
the interplay between imaginative, persuasive and interpretive techniques, for example, how anecdotes are
used in speeches to amuse, inform or influence, or the use of characteristation in advertising (ACEEN030)
analysing changing responses to texts over time and in different cultural contexts. (ACEEN031)
using imaginative, interpretive and persuasive elements for different purposes, contexts and audiences
(ACEEN032)
experimenting with text structures, language features and multimodal devices (ACEEN033)
developing and sustaining voice, tone and style (ACEEN034)
selecting and applying appropriate textual evidence to support arguments (ACEEN035)
analysing the values and attitudes expressed in texts (ACEEN038)
evaluating the effectiveness of texts in representing ideas, attitudes and voices (ACEEN039)
explaining how and why texts position readers and viewers. (ACEEN040)
Unit 3
Unit 3 Description
In Unit 3, students explore representations of themes, ideas and concepts through a comparison of texts.
They analyse and compare the relationships between language, genre and context, comparing texts within
and/or across different genres and modes. Students recognise and analyse the conventions of genre in
literary and nonliterary texts and consider how those conventions may assist interpretation and how they may
be challenged. Students compare and evaluate the effect of different mediums on the structure of texts and
how audiences respond to them. Understanding of these concepts is demonstrated through the creation of
imaginative, interpretive and analytical responses.
understand relationships between texts, genres and contexts
investigate the effects of different conventions and mediums on responses
create, transform and adapt oral, written and multimodal texts in a range of mediums and styles.
Compare texts from similar or different genres and contexts by:
analysing language, structural and stylistic choices (ACEEN041)
explaining how each text conforms to or challenges the conventions of particular genres or modes such as
crime fiction, advertising or short films (ACEEN042)
analysing and evaluating how similar themes, ideas or concepts are treated in different texts. (ACEEN043)
Compare and contrast distinctive features of genres by:
analysing the techniques and conventions used in different genres, mediums and modes (ACEEN044)
considering how the conventions of genres can be challenged, manipulated or parodied (ACEEN045)
examining how genres and their conventions have changed and adapted over time. (ACEEN046)
Analyse and evaluate how the conventions of texts influence responses including:
the ways language patterns can create shades of meaning (ACEEN047)
how expectations of genres have developed and the effect when those expectations are met or not met,
extended or subverted (ACEEN048)
how responses to texts and genres may change over time and in different cultural contexts. (ACEEN049)
transforming and adapting texts for different purposes, contexts and audiences (ACEEN050)
making innovative and imaginative use of language features (ACEEN051)
using and experimenting with text structures and language features related to specific genres for particular
effects (ACEEN052)
sustaining analysis and argument (ACEEN053)
using appropriate referencing, for example, footnotes, inline citations and reference lists (ACEEN054)
analysing and evaluating how different texts represent similar ideas in different ways (ACEEN057)
explaining how meaning changes when texts are transformed into a different genre or medium (ACEEN058)
comparing and evaluating the impact of language conventions used in a variety of texts and genres.
(ACEEN059)
Unit 4
Unit 4 Description
In Unit 4, students examine different interpretations and perspectives to develop further their knowledge and
analysis of purpose and style. They challenge perspectives, values and attitudes in literary and nonliterary
texts, developing and testing their own interpretations though debate and argument. Through close study of
individual texts, students explore relationships between content and structure, voice and perspective and the
text and its context. This provides the opportunity for students to extend their experience of language and of
texts and explore their ideas through their own reading and viewing. Students demonstrate understanding of
the texts studied through creation of imaginative, interpretive and analytical responses.
understand how content, structure, voice and perspective in texts shape responses and
interpretations
examine different interpretations of texts and how these resonate with, or challenge, their own
responses
create cohesive oral, written and multimodal texts in a range of forms, mediums and styles.
Investigate and evaluate the relationships between texts and contexts by:
undertaking close analysis of texts (ACEEN060)
examining how each text relates to a particular context or contexts (ACEEN061)
comparing the contexts in which texts are created and received. (ACEEN062)
Evaluate different perspectives, attitudes and values represented in texts by:
analysing content, purpose and choice of language (ACEEN063)
analysing the use of voice and point of view such as in feature articles, reporting of current events or narration
(ACEEN064)
exploring other interpretations and aspects of context to develop a considered response. (ACEEN065)
Evaluate how texts convey perspectives through:
the selection of mode, medium, genre and t
(ACEEN066)
the ways points of view and values are represented (ACEEN067)
the selection of language features that generate empathy or controversy, for example, juxtaposition of image
and text. (ACEEN068)
using appropriate language and stylistic features to sustain a personal voice and point of view (ACEEN069)
using nuanced language (ACEEN070)
synthesising ideas and opinions to develop complex argument (ACEEN071)
substantiating and justifying their own responses using textual evidence (ACEEN072)
using appropriate referencing, for example, footnotes, inline citations and reference lists (ACEEN073)
analysing and evaluating how different attitudes and perspectives underpin texts (ACEEN076)
questioning the assumptions and values in texts (ACEEN077)
identifying omissions, inclusions, emphases and marginalisations (ACEEN078)
discussing and evaluating different readings of texts. (ACEEN079)
Units 1 and 2 Achievement Standard
Responding to oral written and multimodal texts
A B C D E
evaluates the analyses the explains describes iden

relationships relationships how context contexts, som
between between , purpose purposes aspe
context, context, and and cont
purpose and purpose and audience audiences purp
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effects , conventions and stylistic conventions used
evaluates how and stylistic devices used in diffe
language devices are used in different mod
features used in different modes and med
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and stylistic modes and mediums describes som
devices mediums to explains some in te
combine in influence ideas, ideas, iden
different audiences attitudes attitudes som
modes and analyses and voices and voices conn
mediums to ideas, in texts in texts betw
influence attitudes and explains describes texts
audiences voices in texts similarities some
evaluates how and how they and similarities
ideas, are differences and
attitudes and represented between differences
voices are analyses different between
represented in similarities types of different
texts and the and texts types of
effect of the differences texts
representation between
critically different
analyses types of texts,
similarities demonstrating
and understanding
differences of intention
between and effect
different
types of texts,
demonstrating
insight into
intention and
effect
Creating oral written and multimodal texts
A B C D E
communicates communicates communicates communicates

sophisticated ideas across a ideas in texts ideas in texts
ideas across a range of that address for some
range of effective texts purpose, purposes and
coherent texts for different context and audiences
for different purposes, audience uses some
purposes, contexts and uses text structures
contexts and audiences appropriate and
audiences selects text structures language
selects text structures and features
text structures and language to
and language features communicate
language features to ideas
features to communicate demonstrates
to communicate ideas in a some
communicate ideas range of understanding
ideas effectively in a modes of voice, tone
perceptively in range of demonstrates and style
a range of modes variable communicates
modes demonstrates control of ideas
manipulates consistent voice, tone demonstrating
voice, tone control of and style variable
and style for voice, tone communicates control of
effect and style ideas expression
communicates communicates demonstrating
ideas ideas control of
demonstrating demonstrating expression
fluent and effective and
precise controlled
expression expression
Responding to oral written and multimodal texts
A B C D E
critically analyses how explains how describes ide

analyses how relationships context and some som
relationships between point of view aspects of asp
between context and shape context and con
context and point of view meaning in point of me
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evaluates how mediums to influence aspects of in t
they combine influence audiences ideas or pro
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modes and undertakes a how texts represented res
mediums to comparative represent in texts tex
influence analysis of ideas, describes
audiences texts and how attitudes and own and
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analysis of ideas, reasoned to texts
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evaluates how concepts of a text
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expression
Mathematics (Version 8.4)
Page 49 of 152
The Australian Curriculum Mathematics
Mathematics How the Learning Area works
Overview of the senior secondary Australian Curriculum
courses.
Senior secondary Mathematics subjects
The Senior Secondary Australian Curriculum: Mathematics consists of four subjects in mathematics, with each
subject organised into four units. The subjects are differentiated, each focusing on a pathway that will meet
the learning needs of a particular group of senior secondary students.
Essential Mathematics focuses on using mathematics effectively, efficiently and critically to make
informed decisions. It provides students with the mathematical knowledge, skills and understanding
to solve problems in real contexts for a range of workplace, personal, further learning and
community settings. This subject provides the opportunity for students to prepare for postschool
options of employment and further training.
General Mathematics focuses on using the techniques of discrete mathematics to solve problems
in contexts that include financial modelling, network analysis, route and project planning, decision
making, and discrete growth and decay. It provides an opportunity to analyse and solve a wide
range of geometrical problems in areas such as measurement, scaling, triangulation and
navigation. It also provides opportunities to develop systematic strategies based on the statistical
investigation process for answering statistical questions that involve comparing groups, investigating
associations and analysing time series.
Mathematical Methods focuses on the development of the use of calculus and statistical analysis.
The study of calculus in Mathematical Methods provides a basis for an understanding of the
physical world involving rates of change, and includes the use of functions, their derivatives and
integrals, in modelling physical processes. The study of statistics in Mathematical Methods develops
the ability to describe and analyse phenomena involving uncertainty and variation.
Specialist Mathematics provides opportunities, beyond those presented in Mathematical Methods,
to develop rigorous mathematical arguments and proofs, and to use mathematical models more
extensively. Specialist Mathematics contains topics in functions and calculus that build on and
deepen the ideas presented in Mathematical Methods as well as demonstrate their application in
many areas. Specialist Mathematics also extends understanding and knowledge of probability and
statistics and introduces the topics of vectors, complex numbers and matrices. Specialist
Mathematics is the only mathematics subject that has been designed to not be taken as a stand
alone subject.
The senior secondary Mathematics curriculum values the histories, cultures, traditions and languages of
Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander peoples’ past and ongoing contributions to contemporary Australian
society and culture. Through the study of mathematics within relevant contexts, opportunities will allow for the
development of students’ understanding and appreciation of the diversity of Aboriginal and Torres Strait
Islander peoples’ histories and cultures.
There are strong social, cultural and economic reasons for Australian students to engage with the countries of
Asia and with the past and ongoing contributions made by the peoples of Asia in Australia. It is through the
study of mathematics in an Asian context that students engage with Australia’s place in the region. By
analysing relevant data, students have opportunities to further develop an understanding of the diverse
nature of Asia’s environments and traditional and contemporary cultures.
Each of the senior secondary mathematics subjects provides the opportunity for the development of informed
and reasoned points of view, discussion of issues, research and problem solving. Teachers are therefore
encouraged to select contexts for discussion that are connected with sustainability. Through the analysis of
data, students have the opportunity to research and discuss sustainability and learn the importance of
respecting and valuing a wide range of world perspectives.
Glossary
Essential Mathematics Glossary
General Mathematics Glossary
Mathematical Methods Glossary
Specialist Mathematics Glossary
Glossary
Abstract
Account
Taking into account: considering other information or aspects.
Analyse
and differences.
Apply
Assess
Coherent
Communicates
Compare
Complex
Considered
Critically analyse
Critically evaluate
Demonstrate
Describe
Design
Develop
Discuss
Distinguish
Evaluate
something.
Explain
Familiar
Identify
Integrate
Combine elements.
Investigate
Justify
Locate
Manipulate
Adapt or change.
Nonroutine
activities.
Reasonableness
makes sense.
Reasoned
Recognise
Relate
Represent
Reproduce
Responding
Routine problems
Select
Sequence
Arrange in order.
Solve
Structured
Succinct
Sustained
Synthesise
Combine elements (information/ideas/components) into a coherent whole.
Understand
Unfamiliar
Deduce
Substantiate
The Australian Curriculum: Mathematics General Mathematics
General Mathematics How the Subject works
Rationale/Aims
Mathematics is the study of order, relation and pattern. From its origins in counting and measuring it has
evolved in highly sophisticated and elegant ways to become the language now used to describe many
aspects of the world in the twentyfirst century. Statistics is concerned with collecting, analysing, modelling and
interpreting data in order to investigate and understand real world phenomena and solve practical problems in
context. Together, mathematics and statistics provide a framework for thinking and a means of
communication that is powerful, logical, concise and precise.
General Mathematics is designed for those students who want to extend their mathematical skills beyond
Year 10 level but whose future studies or employment pathways do not require knowledge of calculus. The
subject is designed for students who have a wide range of educational and employment aspirations, including
continuing their studies at university or TAFE.
The proficiency strands of the F10 curriculum – Understanding, Fluency, Problem solving and Reasoning –
are still relevant and are inherent in all aspects of this subject. Each of these proficiencies is essential, and all
are mutually reinforcing. Fluency, for example, might include learning to perform routine calculations efficiently
and accurately, or being able to recognise quickly from a problem description the appropriate mathematical
process or model to apply. Understanding, furthermore, that a single mathematical process can be used in
seemingly different situations, helps students to see the connections between different areas of study and
encourages the transfer of learning. This is an important part of learning the art of mathematical problem
solving. In performing such analyses, reasoning is required at each decisionmaking step and in drawing
appropriate conclusions. Presenting the analysis in a logical and clear manner to explain the reasoning used
is also an integral part of the learning process.
Throughout the subject there is also an emphasis on the use and application of digital technologies.
Aims
General Mathematics aims to develop students’:
understanding of concepts and techniques drawn from the topic areas of number and algebra,
geometry and trigonometry, graphs and networks, and statistics
ability to solve applied problems using concepts and techniques drawn from the topic areas of
number and algebra, geometry and trigonometry, graphs and networks, and statistics
reasoning and interpretive skills in mathematical and statistical contexts
capacity to communicate the results of a mathematical or statistical problemsolving activity in a
concise and systematic manner using appropriate mathematical and statistical language
capacity to choose and use technology appropriately and efficiently.
The General Mathematics subject provides students with a breadth of mathematical and statistical experience
that encompasses and builds on all three strands of the F10 curriculum.
The seven general capabilities of Literacy, Numeracy, Information and Communication Technology (ICT)
capability, Critical and creative thinking, Personal and social capability, Ethical understanding, and Intercultural
understanding are identified where they offer opportunities to add depth and richness to student learning.
Teachers will find opportunities to incorporate explicit teaching of the capabilities depending on their choice of
learning activities.
Literacy in mathematics
In the senior years, literacy skills and strategies enable students to express, interpret and communicate
complex mathematical information, ideas and processes. Mathematics provides a specific and rich context for
students to develop their abilities to read, write, visualise and talk about complex situations involving a range
of mathematical ideas. Students can apply and further develop their literacy skills and strategies by shifting
between verbal, graphic, numerical and symbolic forms of representing problems in order to formulate,
understand and solve problems and communicate results. This process of translation across different
systems of representation is essential for complex mathematical reasoning and expression. Students learn to
communicate their findings in different ways, using multiple systems of representation and data displays to
illustrate the relationships they have observed or constructed.
Numeracy in mathematics
The students who undertake this subject will develop their numeracy skills at a more sophisticated level than
in Foundation to Year 10. This subject contains financial applications of mathematics that will assist students
to become literate consumers of investments, loans and superannuation products. It also contains statistics
topics that will equip students for the everincreasing demands of the information age.
ICT in mathematics
In the senior years students use ICT both to develop theoretical mathematical understanding and to apply
mathematical knowledge to a range of problems. They use software aligned with areas of work and society
with which they may be involved such as for statistical analysis, data representation and manipulation, and
complex calculation. They use digital tools to make connections between mathematical theory, practice and
application; for example, using data, addressing problems, and operating systems in authentic situations.
Critical and creative thinking in mathematics
Students compare predictions with observations when evaluating a theory. They check the extent to which
their theorybased predictions match observations. They assess whether, if observations and predictions do
not match, it is due to a flaw in the theory or in the method of applying the theory to make predictions, or both.
They revise, or reapply, their theory more skilfully, recognising the importance of selfcorrection in the building
of useful and accurate theories and in making accurate predictions.
Personal and social capability in mathematics
In the senior years students develop personal and social competence in mathematics by setting and
monitoring personal and academic goals, taking initiative, building adaptability, communication, teamwork and
decision making.
The elements of personal and social competence relevant to mathematics mainly include the application of
mathematical skills for decision making, lifelong learning, citizenship and selfmanagement. As part of their
mathematical explorations and investigations, students work collaboratively in teams, as well as
independently.
Ethical understanding in mathematics
In the senior years students develop ethical understanding in mathematics through decision making
connected with ethical dilemmas that arise when engaged in mathematical calculation, the dissemination of
results, and the social responsibility associated with teamwork and attribution of input.
The areas relevant to mathematics include issues associated with ethical decision making as students work
collaboratively in teams and independently as part of their mathematical explorations and investigations.
Acknowledging errors rather than denying findings and/or evidence involves resilience and the examined
ethical behaviour. Students develop increasingly advanced communication, research, and presentation skills
to express viewpoints.
Intercultural understanding in mathematics
Students understand mathematics as a socially constructed body of knowledge that uses universal symbols
but has its origins in many cultures. Students understand that some languages make it easier to acquire
mathematical knowledge than others. Students also understand that there are many culturally diverse forms
of mathematical knowledge, including diverse relationships to number, and that diverse cultural spatial
abilities and understandings are shaped by a person’s environment and language.
Structure of General Mathematics
General Mathematics is organised into four units. The topics in each unit broaden students’ mathematical
experience and provide different scenarios for incorporating mathematical arguments and problem solving.
The units provide a blending of algebraic, geometric and statistical thinking. In this subject there is a
progression of content, applications, level of sophistication and abstraction.
Unit 1 Unit 2 Unit 3 Unit 4
Consumer Univariate data analysis and the Bivariate data Time series analysis

arithmetic statistical investigation process analysis Loans, investments
Algebra and Applications of trigonometry Growth and decay and annuities
matrices Linear equations and their graphs in sequences Networks and decision
Shape and Graphs and mathematics
measurement networks
Units
Unit 1 has three topics: ‘Consumer arithmetic’, ‘Algebra and matrices’, and ‘Shape and measurement’.
‘Consumer arithmetic’ reviews the concepts of rate and percentage change in the context of earning and
managing money, and provides fertile ground for the use of spreadsheets. ‘Algebra and matrices’ continues
the F10 study of algebra and introduces the new topic of matrices. ‘Shape and measurement’ extends the
knowledge and skills students developed in the F10 curriculum with the concept of similarity and associated
calculations involving simple and compound geometric shapes. The emphasis in this topic is on applying
these skills in a range of practical contexts, including those involving threedimensional shapes.
Unit 2 has three topics: ‘Univariate data analysis and the statistical investigation process’, ‘Linear equations
and their graphs’, and ‘Applications of trigonometry’. ‘Univariate data analysis and the statistical investigation
process’ develops students’ ability to organise and summarise univariate data in the context of conducting a
statistical investigation. . ‘Applications of trigonometry’ extends students’ knowledge of trigonometry to solve
practical problems involving nonrightangled triangles in both two and three dimensions, including problems
involving the use of angles of elevation and depression, and bearings in navigation ‘Linear equations and their
graphs’ uses linear equations and straightline graphs, as well as linearpiecewise and step graphs, to model
and analyse practical situations
Unit 3 has three topics: ‘Bivariate data analysis’, ‘Growth and decay in sequences’, and ‘Graphs and
networks’. ‘Bivariate data analysis’ introduces students to some methods for identifying, analysing and
describing associations between pairs of variables, including using the leastsquares method as a tool for
modelling and analysing linear associations. The content is to be taught within the framework of the statistical
investigation process. ‘Growth and decay in sequences’ employs recursion to generate sequences that can
be used to model and investigate patterns of growth and decay in discrete situations. These sequences find
application in a wide range of practical situations, including modelling the growth of a compound interest
investment, the growth of a bacterial population or the decrease in the value of a car over time. Sequences
are also essential to understanding the patterns of growth and decay in loans and investments that are
studied in detail in Unit 4. ‘Graphs and networks’ introduces students to the language of graphs and the way
in which graphs, represented as a collection of points and interconnecting lines, can be used to analyse
everyday situations such as a rail or social network.
Unit 4 has three topics: ‘Time series analysis’, ‘Loans, investments and annuities’, and ‘Networks and decision
mathematics’. ‘Time series analysis’ continues students’ study of statistics by introducing them to the concepts
and techniques of time series analysis. The content is to be taught within the framework of the statistical
investigation process. ‘Loans and investments’ aims to provide students with sufficient knowledge of financial
mathematics to solve practical problems associated with taking out or refinancing a mortgage and making
investments. ‘Networks and decision mathematics’ uses networks to model and aid decision making in
practical situations.
The achievement standards in Mathematics have been organised into two dimensions: ‘Concepts and
Techniques’ and ‘Reasoning and Communication’. These two dimensions reflect students’ understanding and
skills in the study of mathematics.
The achievement standards in Mathematics have been organised into two dimensions: ‘Concepts and
Techniques’ and ‘Reasoning and Communication’. These two dimensions reflect students’ understanding and
skills in the study of mathematics.
Role of technology
It is assumed that students will be taught the Senior Secondary Australian Curriculum: Mathematics subjects
with an extensive range of technological applications and techniques. If appropriately used, these have the
potential to enhance the teaching and learning of mathematics. However, students also need to continue to
develop skills that do not depend on technology. The ability to choose when and when not to use some form
of technology, and the ability to work flexibly with technology, are important skills in these subjects.
Glossary
General Mathematics Glossary
General Mathematics Curriculum Senior Secondary
Unit 1
Unit 1 Description
This unit has three topics: ‘Consumer arithmetic’, ‘Algebra and matrices’, and ‘Shape and measurement’.
‘Consumer arithmetic’ reviews the concepts of rate and percentage change in the context of earning and
managing money, and provides a fertile ground for the use of spreadsheets.
‘Algebra and matrices’ continues the F10 study of algebra and introduces the new topic of matrices.
‘Shape and measurement’ builds on and extends the knowledge and skills students developed in the F10
curriculum with the concept of similarity and associated calculations involving simple and compound
geometric shapes. The emphasis in this topic is on applying these skills in a range of practical contexts,
including those involving threedimensional shapes.
Classroom access to the technology necessary to support the computational aspects of the topics in this unit
is assumed.
understand the concepts and techniques introduced in consumer arithmetic, algebra and matrices,
and shape and measurement
apply reasoning skills and solve practical problems arising in consumer arithmetic, algebra and
matrices, and shape and measurement
communicate their arguments and strategies, when solving problems, using appropriate
mathematical language
interpret mathematical information, and ascertain the reasonableness of their solutions to problems
choose and use technology appropriately and efficiently.
Topic 1: Consumer arithmetic
Applications of rates and percentages:
review rates and percentages (ACMGM001)
calculate weekly or monthly wage from an annual salary, wages from an hourly rate including situations
involving overtime and other allowances and earnings based on commission or piecework (ACMGM002)
calculate payments based on government allowances and pensions (ACMGM003)
prepare a personal budget for a given income taking into account fixed and discretionary spending
(ACMGM004)
compare prices and values using the unit cost method (ACMGM005)
percentage increase or decrease in various contexts; for example, determining the impact of inflation on
apply percentage increase or decrease in various contexts; for example, determining the impact of inflation on
costs and wages over time, calculating percentage markups and discounts, calculating GST, calculating profit
or loss in absolute and percentage terms, and calculating simple and compound interest (ACMGM006)
use currency exchange rates to determine the cost in Australian dollars of purchasing a given amount of a
foreign currency, such as US$1500, or the value of a given amount of foreign currency when converted to
Australian dollars, such as the value of €2050 in Australian dollars (ACMGM007)
calculate the dividend paid on a portfolio of shares, given the percentage dividend or dividend paid per share,
for each share; and compare share values by calculating a pricetoearnings ratio. (ACMGM008)
Use of spreadsheets:
use a spreadsheet to display examples of the above computations when multiple or repeated computations
are required; for example, preparing a wagesheet displaying the weekly earnings of workers in a fast food
store where hours of employment and hourly rates of pay may differ, preparing a budget, or investigating the
potential cost of owning and operating a car over a year. (ACMGM009)
Topic 2: Algebra and matrices
Linear and nonlinear expressions:
substitute numerical values into linear algebraic and simple nonlinear algebraic expressions, and evaluate
(ACMGM010)
find the value of the subject of the formula, given the values of the other pronumerals in the formula
(ACMGM011)
use a spreadsheet or an equivalent technology to construct a table of values from a formula, including twoby
two tables for formulas with two variable quantities; for example, a table displaying the body mass index (BMI)
of people of different weights and heights. (ACMGM012)
Matrices and matrix arithmetic:
use matrices for storing and displaying information that can be presented in rows and columns; for example,
databases, links in social or road networks (ACMGM013)
recognise different types of matrices (row, column, square, zero, identity) and determine their size
(ACMGM014)
perform matrix addition, subtraction, multiplication by a scalar, and matrix multiplication, including determining
the power of a matrix using technology with matrix arithmetic capabilities when appropriate (ACMGM015)
use matrices, including matrix products and powers of matrices, to model and solve problems; for example,
costing or pricing problems, squaring a matrix to determine the number of ways pairs of people in a
communication network can communicate with each other via a third person. (ACMGM016)
Topic 3: Shape and measurement
Pythagoras Theorem:
review Pythagoras’ Theorem and use it to solve practical problems in two dimensions and for simple
applications in three dimensions. (ACMGM017)
Mensuration:
solve practical problems requiring the calculation of perimeters and areas of circles, sectors of circles,
triangles, rectangles, parallelograms and composites (ACMGM018)
calculate the volumes of standard threedimensional objects such as spheres, rectangular prisms, cylinders,
cones, pyramids and composites in practical situations; for example, the volume of water contained in a
swimming pool (ACMGM019)
calculate the surface areas of standard threedimensional objects such as spheres, rectangular prisms,
cylinders, cones, pyramids and composites in practical situations; for example, the surface area of a
cylindrical food container. (ACMGM020)
Similar figures and scale factors:
review the conditions for similarity of twodimensional figures including similar triangles (ACMGM021)
use the scale factor for two similar figures to solve linear scaling problems (ACMGM022)
obtain measurements from scale drawings, such as maps or building plans, to solve problems (ACMGM023)
obtain a scale factor and use it to solve scaling problems involving the calculation of the areas of similar
figures (ACMGM024)
obtain a scale factor and use it to solve scaling problems involving the calculation of surface areas and
volumes of similar solids. (ACMGM025)
Unit 2
Unit 2 Description
This unit has three topics: ‘Univariate data analysis and the statistical investigation process’, ‘Linear equations
and their graphs’; and ‘Applications of trigonometry’.
‘ Univariate data analysis and the statistical investigation process’ develops students’ ability to organise and
summarise univariate data in the context of conducting a statistical investigation.
‘Linear equations and their graphs’ uses linear equations and straightline graphs, as well as linearpiecewise
and step graphs, to model and analyse practical situations.
‘Applications of trigonometry’ extends students’ knowledge of trigonometry to solve practical problems
involving nonrightangled triangles in both two and three dimensions, including problems involving the use of
angles of elevation and depression and bearings in navigation.
Classroom access to the technology necessary to support the graphical, computational and statistical aspects
of this unit is assumed.
understand the concepts and techniques in univariate data analysis and the statistical investigation
process, linear equations and their graphs, and applications of trigonometry
apply reasoning skills and solve practical problems in univariate data analysis and the statistical
investigation process, linear equations and their graphs, and the applications of trigonometry
implement the statistical investigation process in contexts requiring the analysis of univariate data
communicate their arguments and strategies, when solving mathematical and statistical problems,
using appropriate mathematical or statistical language
interpret mathematical and statistical information, and ascertain the reasonableness of their
solutions to problems and their answers to statistical questions
Topic 1: Univariate data analysis and the statistical investigation process
The statistical investigation process:
review the statistical investigation process; for example, identifying a problem and posing a statistical
question, collecting or obtaining data, analysing the data, interpreting and communicating the results.
(ACMGM026)
Making sense of data relating to a single statistical variable:
classify a categorical variable as ordinal, such as income level (high, medium, low), or nominal, such as place
of birth (Australia, overseas), and use tables and bar charts to organise and display the data (ACMGM027)
classify a numerical variable as discrete, such as the number of rooms in a house, or continuous, such as the
temperature in degrees Celsius (ACMGM028)
with the aid of an appropriate graphical display (chosen from dot plot, stem plot, bar chart or histogram),
describe the distribution of a numerical dataset in terms of modality (uni or multimodal), shape (symmetric
versus positively or negatively skewed), location and spread and outliers, and interpret this information in the
context of the data (ACMGM029)
determine the mean and standard deviation of a dataset and use these statistics as measures of location and
spread of a data distribution, being aware of their limitations. (ACMGM030)
Comparing data for a numerical variable across two or more groups:
construct and use parallel box plots (including the use of the ‘Q1 – 1.5 x IQR’ and ‘Q3 + 1.5 x IQR’ criteria for
identifying possible outliers) to compare groups in terms of location (median), spread (IQR and range) and
outliers and to interpret and communicate the differences observed in the context of the data (ACMGM031)
compare groups on a single numerical variable using medians, means, IQRs, ranges or standard deviations,
as appropriate; interpret the differences observed in the context of the data; and report the findings in a
systematic and concise manner (ACMGM032)
implement the statistical investigation process to answer questions that involve comparing the data for a
numerical variable across two or more groups; for example, are Year 11 students the fittest in the school?
(ACMGM033)
Topic 2: Applications of trigonometry
Applications of trigonometry:
review the use of the trigonometric ratios to find the length of an unknown side or the size of an unknown
angle in a rightangled triangle (ACMGM034)
1
determine the area of a triangle given two sides and an included angle by using the rule Area =
2
ab sin C ,
or given three sides by using Heron’s rule, and solve related practical problems (ACMGM035)
solve problems involving nonrightangled triangles using the sine rule (ambiguous case excluded) and the
cosine rule (ACMGM036)
solve practical problems involving the trigonometry of rightangled and nonrightangled triangles, including
problems involving angles of elevation and depression and the use of bearings in navigation. (ACMGM037)
Topic 3: Linear equations and their graphs
Linear equations:
identify and solve linear equations (ACMGM038)
develop a linear formula from a word description (ACMGM039)
Straightline graphs and their applications:
construct straightline graphs both with and without the aid of technology (ACMGM040)
determine the slope and intercepts of a straightline graph from both its equation and its plot (ACMGM041)
interpret, in context, the slope and intercept of a straightline graph used to model and analyse a practical
situation (ACMGM042)
construct and analyse a straightline graph to model a given linear relationship; for example, modelling the
cost of filling a fuel tank of a car against the number of litres of petrol required. (ACMGM043)
Simultaneous linear equations and their applications:
solve a pair of simultaneous linear equations, using technology when appropriate (ACMGM044)
solve practical problems that involve finding the point of intersection of two straightline graphs; for example,
determining the breakeven point where cost and revenue are represented by linear equations. (ACMGM045)
Piecewise linear graphs and step graphs:
sketch piecewise linear graphs and step graphs, using technology when appropriate (ACMGM046)
interpret piecewise linear and step graphs used to model practical situations; for example, the tax paid as
income increases, the change in the level of water in a tank over time when water is drawn off at different
intervals and for different periods of time, the charging scheme for sending parcels of different weights
through the post. (ACMGM047)
Unit 3
Unit 3 Description
This unit has three topics: ‘Bivariate data analysis’, ‘Growth and decay in sequences’ and ‘Graphs and
networks’.
‘Bivariate data analysis’ introduces students to some methods for identifying, analysing and describing
associations between pairs of variables, including the use of the leastsquares method as a tool for modelling
and analysing linear associations. The content is to be taught within the framework of the statistical
investigation process.
‘Growth and decay in sequences’ employs recursion to generate sequences that can be used to model and
investigate patterns of growth and decay in discrete situations. These sequences find application in a wide
range of practical situations, including modelling the growth of a compound interest investment, the growth of
a bacterial population, or the decrease in the value of a car over time. Sequences are also essential to
understanding the patterns of growth and decay in loans and investments that are studied in detail in Unit 4.
‘Graphs and networks’ introduces students to the language of graphs and the ways in which graphs,
represented as a collection of points and interconnecting lines, can be used to model and analyse everyday
situations such as a rail or social network.
Classroom access to technology to support the graphical and computational aspects of these topics is
assumed.
understand the concepts and techniques in bivariate data analysis, growth and decay in sequences,
and graphs and networks
apply reasoning skills and solve practical problems in bivariate data analysis, growth and decay in
sequences, and graphs and networks
implement the statistical investigation process in contexts requiring the analysis of bivariate data
Topic 1: Bivariate data analysis
The statistical investigation process:
review the statistical investigation process; for example, identifying a problem and posing a statistical
question, collecting or obtaining data, analysing the data, interpreting and communicating the results.
(ACMGM048)
Identifying and describing associations between two categorical variables:
construct twoway frequency tables and determine the associated row and column sums and percentages
(ACMGM049)
use an appropriately percentaged twoway frequency table to identify patterns that suggest the presence of
an association (ACMGM050)
describe an association in terms of differences observed in percentages across categories in a systematic
and concise manner, and interpret this in the context of the data. (ACMGM051)
Identifying and describing associations between two numerical variables:
construct a scatterplot to identify patterns in the data suggesting the presence of an association (ACMGM052)
describe an association between two numerical variables in terms of direction (positive/negative), form
(linear/nonlinear) and strength (strong/moderate/weak) (ACMGM053)
calculate and interpret the correlation coefficient (r) to quantify the strength of a linear association.
(ACMGM054)
Fitting a linear model to numerical data:
identify the response variable and the explanatory variable (ACMGM055)
use a scatterplot to identify the nature of the relationship between variables (ACMGM056)
model a linear relationship by fitting a leastsquares line to the data (ACMGM057)
use a residual plot to assess the appropriateness of fitting a linear model to the data (ACMGM058)
interpret the intercept and slope of the fitted line (ACMGM059)
use the coefficient of determination to assess the strength of a linear association in terms of the explained
variation (ACMGM060)
use the equation of a fitted line to make predictions (ACMGM061)
distinguish between interpolation and extrapolation when using the fitted line to make predictions, recognising
the potential dangers of extrapolation (ACMGM062)
write up the results of the above analysis in a systematic and concise manner. (ACMGM063)
Association and causation:
recognise that an observed association between two variables does not necessarily mean that there is a
causal relationship between them (ACMGM064)
identify possible noncausal explanations for an association, including coincidence and confounding due to a
common response to another variable, and communicate these explanations in a systematic and concise
manner. (ACMGM065)
The data investigation process:
implement the statistical investigation process to answer questions that involve identifying, analysing and
describing associations between two categorical variables or between two numerical variables; for example, is
there an association between attitude to capital punishment (agree with, no opinion, disagree with) and sex
(male, female)? is there an association between height and foot length? (ACMGM066)
Topic 2: Growth and decay in sequences
The arithmetic sequence:
use recursion to generate an arithmetic sequence (ACMGM067)
display the terms of an arithmetic sequence in both tabular and graphical form and demonstrate that
arithmetic sequences can be used to model linear growth and decay in discrete situations (ACMGM068)
deduce a rule for the nth term of a particular arithmetic sequence from the pattern of the terms in an
arithmetic sequence, and use this rule to make predictions (ACMGM069)
use arithmetic sequences to model and analyse practical situations involving linear growth or decay; for
example, analysing a simple interest loan or investment, calculating a taxi fare based on the flag fall and the
charge per kilometre, or calculating the value of an office photocopier at the end of each year using the
straightline method or the unit cost method of depreciation. (ACMGM070)
The geometric sequence:
use recursion to generate a geometric sequence (ACMGM071)
display the terms of a geometric sequence in both tabular and graphical form and demonstrate that geometric
sequences can be used to model exponential growth and decay in discrete situations (ACMGM072)
deduce a rule for the nth term of a particular geometric sequence from the pattern of the terms in the
sequence, and use this rule to make predictions (ACMGM073)
use geometric sequences to model and analyse (numerically, or graphically only) practical problems involving
geometric growth and decay; for example, analysing a compound interest loan or investment, the growth of a
bacterial population that doubles in size each hour, the decreasing height of the bounce of a ball at each
bounce; or calculating the value of office furniture at the end of each year using the declining (reducing)
balance method to depreciate. (ACMGM074)
Sequences generated by firstorder linear recurrence relations:
use a general firstorder linear recurrence relation to generate the terms of a sequence and to display it in
both tabular and graphical form (ACMGM075)
recognise that a sequence generated by a firstorder linear recurrence relation can have a long term
increasing, decreasing or steadystate solution (ACMGM076)
use firstorder linear recurrence relations to model and analyse (numerically or graphically only) practical
problems; for example, investigating the growth of a trout population in a lake recorded at the end of each
year and where limited recreational fishing is permitted, or the amount owing on a reducing balance loan after
each payment is made. (ACMGM077)
Topic 3: Graphs and networks
The definition of a graph and associated terminology:
explain the meanings of the terms: graph, edge, vertex, loop, degree of a vertex, subgraph, simple graph,
complete graph, bipartite graph, directed graph (digraph), arc, weighted graph, and network (ACMGM078)
identify practical situations that can be represented by a network, and construct such networks; for example,
trails connecting camp sites in a National Park, a social network, a transport network with oneway streets, a
food web, the results of a roundrobin sporting competition (ACMGM079)
construct an adjacency matrix from a given graph or digraph. (ACMGM080)
Planar graphs:
explain the meaning of the terms: planar graph, and face (ACMGM081)
apply Euler’s formula, v + f − e = 2 , to solve problems relating to planar graphs. (ACMGM082)
Paths and cycles:
explain the meaning of the terms: walk, trail, path, closed walk, closed trail, cycle, connected graph, and
bridge (ACMGM083)
investigate and solve practical problems to determine the shortest path between two vertices in a weighted
graph (by trialanderror methods only) (ACMGM084)
explain the meaning of the terms: Eulerian graph, Eulerian trail, semiEulerian graph, semiEulerian trail and
the conditions for their existence, and use these concepts to investigate and solve practical problems; for
example, the Königsberg Bridge problem, planning a garbage bin collection route (ACMGM085)
explain the meaning of the terms: Hamiltonian graph and semiHamiltonian graph, and use these concepts to
investigate and solve practical problems; for example, planning a sightseeing tourist route around a city, the
travellingsalesman problem (by trialanderror methods only). (ACMGM086)
Unit 4
Unit 4 Description
This unit has three topics: ‘Time series analysis’; ‘ Loans, investments and annuities’ and ‘Networks and
decision mathematics’.
‘Time series analysis’ continues students’ study of statistics by introducing them to the concepts and
techniques of time series analysis. The content is to be taught within the framework of the statistical
investigation process.
‘Loans and investments and annuities’ aims to provide students with sufficient knowledge of financial
mathematics to solve practical problems associated with taking out or refinancing a mortgage and making
investments.
‘Networks and decision mathematics’ uses networks to model and aid decision making in practical situations.
Classroom access to the technology necessary to support the graphical, computational and statistical aspects
of this unit is assumed.
understand the concepts and techniques in time series analysis; loans, investments and annuities;
and networks and decision mathematics
apply reasoning skills and solve practical problems in time series analysis; loans, investments and
annuities; and networks and decision mathematics
implement the statistical investigation process in contexts requiring the analysis of time series data
Topic 1: Time series analysis
Describing and interpreting patterns in time series data:
construct time series plots (ACMGM087)
describe time series plots by identifying features such as trend (long term direction), seasonality (systematic,
calendarrelated movements), and irregular fluctuations (unsystematic, short term fluctuations), and
recognise when there are outliers; for example, oneoff unanticipated events. (ACMGM088)
Analysing time series data:
smooth time series data by using a simple moving average, including the use of spreadsheets to implement
this process (ACMGM089)
calculate seasonal indices by using the average percentage method (ACMGM090)
deseasonalise a time series by using a seasonal index, including the use of spreadsheets to implement this
process (ACMGM091)
fit a leastsquares line to model longterm trends in time series data. (ACMGM092)
The data investigation process:
implement the statistical investigation process to answer questions that involve the analysis of time series
data. (ACMGM093)
Topic 2: Loans, investments and annuities
Compound interest loans and investments:
use a recurrence relation to model a compound interest loan or investment, and investigate (numerically or
graphically) the effect of the interest rate and the number of compounding periods on the future value of the
loan or investment (ACMGM094)
calculate the effective annual rate of interest and use the results to compare investment returns and cost of
loans when interest is paid or charged daily, monthly, quarterly or sixmonthly (ACMGM095)
with the aid of a calculator or computerbased financial software, solve problems involving compound interest
loans or investments; for example, determining the future value of a loan, the number of compounding
periods for an investment to exceed a given value, the interest rate needed for an investment to exceed a
given value. (ACMGM096)
Reducing balance loans (compound interest loans with periodic repayments):
use a recurrence relation to model a reducing balance loan and investigate (numerically or graphically) the
effect of the interest rate and repayment amount on the time taken to repay the loan (ACMGM097)
with the aid of a financial calculator or computerbased financial software, solve problems involving reducing
balance loans; for example, determining the monthly repayments required to pay off a housing loan.
(ACMGM098)
Annuities and perpetuities (compound interest investments with periodic payments made from the
investment):
use a recurrence relation to model an annuity, and investigate (numerically or graphically) the effect of the
amount invested, the interest rate, and the payment amount on the duration of the annuity (ACMGM099)
with the aid of a financial calculator or computerbased financial software, solve problems involving annuities
(including perpetuities as a special case); for example, determining the amount to be invested in an annuity to
provide a regular monthly income of a certain amount. (ACMGM100)
Topic 3: Networks and decision mathematics
Trees and minimum connector problems:
explain the meaning of the terms tree and spanning tree identify practical examples (ACMGM101)
identify a minimum spanning tree in a weighted connected graph either by inspection or by using Prim’s
algorithm (ACMGM102)
use minimal spanning trees to solve minimal connector problems; for example, minimising the length of cable
needed to provide power from a single power station to substations in several towns. (ACMGM103)
Project planning and scheduling using critical path analysis (CPA):
construct a network to represent the durations and interdependencies of activities that must be completed
during the project; for example, preparing a meal (ACMGM104)
use forward and backward scanning to determine the earliest starting time (EST) and latest starting times
(LST) for each activity in the project (ACMGM105)
use ESTs and LSTs to locate the critical path(s) for the project (ACMGM106)
use the critical path to determine the minimum time for a project to be completed (ACMGM107)
calculate float times for noncritical activities. (ACMGM108)
Flow networks:
solve smallscale network flow problems including the use of the ‘maximumflow minimum cut’ theorem; for
example, determining the maximum volume of oil that can flow through a network of pipes from an oil storage
tank (the source) to a terminal (the sink). (ACMGM109)
Assignment problems:
use a bipartite graph and/or its tabular or matrix form to represent an assignment/ allocation problem; for
example, assigning four swimmers to the four places in a medley relay team to maximise the team’s chances
of winning (ACMGM110)
determine the optimum assignment(s), by inspection for smallscale problems, or by use of the Hungarian
algorithm for larger problems. (ACMGM111)
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Science (Version 8.4)
Page 91 of 152
The Australian Curriculum Science
Science How the Learning Area works
Overview of senior secondary Australian Curriculum
courses.
Senior secondary Science subjects
The Australian Curriculum senior secondary Science subjects build on student learning in the Foundation to
Year 10 Science curriculum and include:
Biology
Chemistry
Earth and Environmental Science
Physics.
Literacy is important in students’ development of Science Inquiry Skills and their understanding of content
presented through the Science Understanding and Science as a Human Endeavour strands. Students gather,
interpret, synthesise and critically analyse information presented in a wide range of genres, modes and
representations (including text, flow diagrams, symbols, graphs and tables). They evaluate information
sources and compare and contrast ideas, information and opinions presented within and between texts. They
communicate processes and ideas logically and fluently and structure evidencebased arguments, selecting
genres and employing appropriate structures and features to communicate for specific purposes and
audiences.
Numeracy is key to students’ ability to apply a wide range of Science Inquiry Skills, including making and
recording observations; ordering, representing and analysing data; and interpreting trends and relationships.
They employ numeracy skills to interpret complex spatial and graphic representations, and to appreciate the
ways in which Earth systems are structured, interact and change across spatial and temporal scales. They
engage in analysis of data, including issues relating to reliability and probability, and they interpret and
manipulate mathematical relationships to calculate and predict values.
Information and Communication Technology (ICT) capability is a key part of Science Inquiry Skills.
Students use a range of strategies to locate, access and evaluate information from multiple digital sources; to
collect, analyse and represent data; to model and interpret concepts and relationships; and to communicate
and share science ideas, processes and information. Through exploration of Science as a Human Endeavour
concepts, students assess the impact of ICT on the development of science and the application of science in
society, particularly with regard to collating, storing, managing and analysing large data sets.
Critical and creative thinking is particularly important in the science inquiry process. Science inquiry
requires the ability to construct, review and revise questions and hypotheses about increasingly complex and
abstract scenarios and to design related investigation methods. Students interpret and evaluate data;
interrogate, select and crossreference evidence; and analyse processes, interpretations, conclusions and
claims for validity and reliability, including reflecting on their own processes and conclusions. Science is a
creative endeavour and students devise innovative solutions to problems, predict possibilities, envisage
consequences and speculate on possible outcomes as they develop Science Understanding and Science
Inquiry Skills. They also appreciate the role of critical and creative individuals and the central importance of
critique and review in the development and innovative application of science.
Personal and social capability is integral to a wide range of activities in Earth and Environmental Science,
as students develop and practise skills of communication, teamwork, decisionmaking, initiativetaking and
selfdiscipline with increasing confidence and sophistication. In particular, students develop skills in both
independent and collaborative investigation; they employ selfmanagement skills to plan effectively, follow
procedures efficiently and work safely; and they use collaboration skills to conduct investigations, share
research and discuss ideas. In considering aspects of Science as a Human Endeavour, students also
recognise the role of their own beliefs and attitudes in their response to science issues and applications,
consider the perspectives of others, and gauge how science can affect people’s lives.
Ethical understanding is a vital part of science inquiry. Students evaluate the ethics of experimental science,
codes of practice, and the use of scientific information and science applications. They explore what integrity
means in science, and they understand, critically analyse and apply ethical guidelines in their investigations.
They consider the implications of their investigations on others, the environment and living organisms. They
use scientific information to evaluate the claims and actions of others and to inform ethical decisions about a
range of social, environmental and personal issues and applications of science.
Intercultural understanding is fundamental to understanding aspects of Science as a Human Endeavour,
as students appreciate the contributions of diverse cultures to developing science understanding and the
challenges of working in culturally diverse collaborations. They develop awareness that raising some debates
within culturally diverse groups requires cultural sensitivity, and they demonstrate openmindedness to the
positions of others. Students also develop an understanding that cultural factors affect the ways in which
science influences and is influenced by society.
Safety
Science learning experiences may involve the use of potentially hazardous substances and/or hazardous
equipment. It is the responsibility of the school to ensure that duty of care is exercised in relation to the health
and safety of all students and that school practices meet the requirements of the Work Health and Safety Act
2011, in addition to relevant state or territory health and safety guidelines.
When state and territory curriculum authorities integrate the Australian Curriculum into local courses, they will
include more specific advice on safety.
For further information about relevant guidelines, contact your state or territory curriculum authority.
Animal ethics
Through a consideration of research ethics as part of Science Inquiry Skills, students will examine their own
ethical position, draw on ethical perspectives when designing investigation methods, and ensure that any
activities that impact on living organisms comply with the Australian code of practice for the care and use of
animals for scientific purposes 7th edition (2004) (http://www.nhmrc.gov.au/guidelines/publications/ea16).
Any teaching activities that involve the care and use of, or interaction with, animals must comply with the
Australian code of practice for the care and use of animals for scientific purposes 7th edition, in addition to
relevant state or territory guidelines.
When state and territory curriculum authorities integrate the Australian Curriculum into local courses, they will
include more specific advice on the care and use of, or interaction with, animals.
For further information about relevant guidelines or to access your local Animal Ethics Committee, contact
your state or territory curriculum authority.
Glossary
Accuracy
The extent to which a measurement result represents the quantity it purports to measure; an accurate
measurement result includes an estimate of the true value and an estimate of the uncertainty.
Animal ethics
Animal ethics involves consideration of respectful, fair and just treatment of animals. The use of animals in
science involves consideration of replacement (substitution of insentient materials for conscious living
animals), reduction (using only the minimum number of animals to satisfy research statistical requirements)
and refinement (decrease in the incidence or severity of ‘inhumane’ procedures applied to those animals
that still have to be used).
Biogeochemical cycles
Pathways by which chemical substances move through the biosphere, lithosphere, atmosphere, and
hydrosphere.
Biosecurity
Policy and regulatory frameworks designed to safeguard against biological threats to environments,
organisms and human health; biosecurity measures aim to restrict entry of disease causing agents,
genetically modified species, or invasive alien species or genotypes.
Biotechnology
The application of science and technology to living organisms, as well as parts, products and models
thereof, to alter living or nonliving materials for human purposes.
Comparative genomics
The study and comparison of the genome sequences of different species; comparative genomics enables
identification of genes that are conserved or common among species, as well as genes that give each
organism its unique characteristics.
Data
The plural of datum; the measurement of an attribute, for example, the volume of gas or the type of rubber.
This does not necessarily mean a single measurement: it may be the result of averaging several repeated
measurements. Data may be quantitative or qualitative and be from primary or secondary sources.
Ecological survey techniques
Techniques used to survey, measure, quantify, assess and monitor biodiversity and ecosystems in the field;
techniques used depend on the subject and purpose of the study. Techniques may include random
quadrats, transects, capture recapture, nest survey, netting, trapping, flight interception, beating trays, dry
extraction from leaf litter samples, 3minute habitatproportional sampling of aquatic habitats, aerial surveys
and soil, air and water sampling.
Evidence
In science, evidence is data that is considered reliable and valid and which can be used to support a
particular idea, conclusion or decision. Evidence gives weight or value to data by considering its credibility,
acceptance, bias, status, appropriateness and reasonableness.
Field work
Observational research undertaken in the normal environment of the subject of the study.
Genre
The categories into which texts are grouped; genre distinguishes texts on the basis of their subject matter,
form and structure (for example, scientific reports, field guides, explanations, procedures, biographies,
media articles, persuasive texts, narratives).
Hypothesis
A tentative explanation for an observed phenomenon, expressed as a precise and unambiguous statement
that can be supported or refuted by experiment.
Investigation
A scientific process of answering a question, exploring an idea or solving a problem that requires activities
such as planning a course of action, collecting data, interpreting data, reaching a conclusion and
communicating these activities. Investigations can include observation, research, field work, laboratory
experimentation and manipulation of simulations.
Law
A statement describing invariable relationships between phenomena in specified conditions, frequently
expressed mathematically.
Measurement error
The difference between the measurement result and a currently accepted or standard value of a quantity.
Media texts
Spoken, print, graphic or electronic communications with a public audience. Media texts can be found in
newspapers, magazines and on television, film, radio, computer software and the internet.
Mode
The various processes of communication – listening, speaking, reading/viewing and writing/creating.
Model
A representation that describes, simplifies, clarifies or provides an explanation of the workings, structure or
relationships within an object, system or idea.
Population
A group of organisms of one species that interbreed and live in the same place at the same time.
Primary data
Data collected directly by a person or group.
Primary source
Report of data created by the person or persons directly involved in observations of one or more events,
experiments, investigations or projects.
Reliability
The degree to which an assessment instrument or protocol consistently and repeatedly measures an
attribute achieving similar results for the same population.
Reliable data
Data that has been judged to have a high level of reliability; reliability is the degree to which an assessment
instrument or protocol consistently and repeatedly measures an attribute achieving similar results for the
same population.
Representation
A verbal, visual, physical or mathematical demonstration of understanding of a science concept or
concepts. A concept can be represented in a range of ways and using multiple modes.
Research
To locate, gather, record, attribute and analyse information in order to develop understanding.
Research ethics
Norms of conduct that determine ethical research behaviour; research ethics are governed by principles
such as honesty, objectivity, integrity, openness and respect for intellectual property and include
consideration of animal ethics.
Risk assessment
Evaluations performed to identify, assess and control hazards in a systematic way that is consistent,
relevant and applicable to all school activities. Requirements for risk assessments related to particular
activities will be determined by jurisdictions, schools or teachers as appropriate.
Secondary data
Data collected by a person or group other than the person or group using the data.
Secondary source
Information that has been compiled from records of primary sources by a person or persons not directly
involved in the primary event.
Simulation
A representation of a process, event or system which imitates a real or idealised situation.
System
A group of interacting objects, materials or processes that form an integrated whole. Systems can be open
or closed.
Theory
A set of concepts, claims and/or laws that can be used to explain and predict a wide range of related
observed or observable phenomena. Theories are typically founded on clearly identified assumptions, are
testable, produce reproducible results and have explanatory power.
Uncertainty
Range of values for a measurement result, taking account of the likely values that could be attributed to the
measurement result given the measurement equipment, procedure and environment.
Validity
The extent to which tests measure what was intended; the extent to which data, inferences and actions
produced from tests and other processes are accurate.
Algebraic representation
A set of symbols linked by mathematical operations; the set of symbols summarise relationships between
variables.
Anomalous data
Data that does not fit a pattern; outlier.
Green chemistry
Chemistry that aims to design products and processes that minimise the use and generation of hazardous
substances and wastes. Principles of green chemistry include prevention of waste; atom economy; design
of less toxic chemicals and synthesis methods; use of safer solvents and auxiliaries; design for energy
efficiency; use of renewable feedstocks; reduction of unnecessary derivatives; use of catalytic reagents
rather than stoichiometric reagents; design for degradation; design of inprocess analysis for pollution
prevention; and safer chemistry for accident prevention.
Random error
Uncontrollable effects of the measurement equipment, procedure and environment on a measurement
result; the magnitude of random error for a measurement result can be estimated by finding the spread of
values around the average of independent, repeated measurements of the quantity.
Significant figures
The use of place value to represent a measurement result accurately and precisely.
Systematic error
The contribution to the uncertainty in a measurement result that is identifiable and quantifiable, for example,
imperfect calibration of measurement instruments.
Biomass
The mass of living matter (microbial, plant and animal) in a given environmental area.
Biomass pyramid
A representation of the total biomass at each trophic level within a system.
Biophysical interactions
Interaction between the biotic and abiotic elements of the atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere and
biosphere.
Carrying capacity
The largest number of individuals (within populations) that can be supported by the ecosystem.
Environmental sampling techniques
Techniques used to survey, measure, quantify, assess and monitor biotic and abiotic components of the
environment and their interactions; techniques used depend on the subject and purpose of the study and
may include: random quadrats, transects, grid arrays, netting, trapping, aerial surveys and rock, soil, air
and water sampling.
Field metering equipment
Tools used in the field to measure and record environmental parameters including light meters, weather
stations, electromagnetic induction (EMI) meters, magnetometers and radioactivity sensors.
Mapping and field location techniques
Techniques used in the field to describe the field location and to measure and record data and field
observations, including use of maps, global positioning system (GPS), magnetic compasses and electronic
devices with geopositioning capacity (for example, cameras).
Spatial analysis
The range of techniques used to examine imagery and datasets covering large spatial areas and commonly
compiled in geographical information systems (GIS) including maps, satellite imagery, aerial photographs,
geophysical data sets, water or rock samples and other directly sensed data.
Stratigraphy
Study of rock layers and layering of materials such as sediments including ash, meteoritic impact ejecta
layers, and soils.
Tectonic plate supercycle
The cycling of Earth over a period of 400 to 600 million years from a single continent and ocean with an
inferred icehouse climate to many continents and oceans with a moderate to warm climate.
Absolute uncertainty
Estimate of the dispersion of the measurement result; the range of values around the measurement result
that is most likely to include the true value.
Fundamental forces
Four fundamental forces have been identified. They are, in order from strongest to weakest, the strong,
electromagnetic, weak and gravity forces.
Measurement discrepancy
The difference between the measurement result and a currently accepted or standard value of a quantity.
Simple reaction diagrams
A visual representation of reactions between subatomic particles. In the diagram, time runs from left to
right. The lines represent particles and the circle represents the reaction process. Antiparticles have the
time arrow reversed.
Abstract
Account
Taking into account: considering other information or aspects
Analyse
and differences.
Apply
Assess
Coherent
Communicates
Compare
Complex
Considered
Critically analyse
Critically evaluate
Deduce
Demonstrate
Describe
Design
Develop
Discuss
Distinguish
Evaluate
something.
Explain
Familiar
Identify
Integrate
Combine elements.
Investigate
Justify
Locate
Manipulate
Adapt or change.
Nonroutine
activities.
Reasonableness
makes sense.
Reasoned
Recognise
Relate
Represent
Reproduce
Responding
Routine problems
Select
Sequence
Arrange in order.
Solve
Structured
Substantiate
Succinct
Sustained
Synthesise
Combine elements (information/ideas/components) into a coherent whole.
Understand
Unfamiliar
The Australian Curriculum: Science Chemistry
Chemistry How the Subject works
Rationale/Aims
Rationale
Chemistry is the study of materials and substances, and the transformations they undergo through
interactions and the transfer of energy. Chemists can use an understanding of chemical structures and
processes to adapt, control and manipulate systems to meet particular economic, environmental and social
needs. This includes addressing the global challenges of climate change and security of water, food and
energy supplies, and designing processes to maximise the efficient use of Earth’s finite resources. Chemistry
develops students' understanding of the key chemical concepts and models of structure, bonding, and
chemical change, including the role of chemical, electrical and thermal energy. Students learn how models of
structure and bonding enable chemists to predict properties and reactions and to adapt these for particular
purposes.
Students explore key concepts and models through active inquiry into phenomena and through contexts that
exemplify the role of chemistry and chemists in society. Students design and conduct qualitative and
quantitative investigations both individually and collaboratively. They investigate questions and hypotheses,
manipulate variables, analyse data, evaluate claims, solve problems and develop and communicate evidence
based arguments and models. Thinking in chemistry involves using differing scales including macro, micro
and nanoscales; using specialised representations such as chemical symbols and equations; and being
creative, as when designing new materials or models of chemical systems. The study of chemistry provides a
foundation for undertaking investigations in a wide range of scientific fields and often provides the unifying link
across interdisciplinary studies.
Some of the major challenges and opportunities facing Australia and the AsiaPacific region at the beginning
of the twentyfirst century are inextricably associated with chemistry. Issues of sustainability on local, national
and global levels are, and will continue to be, tackled by the application of chemical knowledge, using a range
of technologies. These include issues such as the supply of clean drinking water, efficient production and use
of energy, management of mineral resources, increasing acidification of the oceans, and climate change.
Studying senior secondary Science provides students with a suite of skills and understandings that are
valuable to a wide range of further study pathways and careers. An understanding of chemistry is relevant to
a range of careers, including those in forensic science, environmental science, engineering, medicine,
pharmacy and sports science. Additionally, chemistry knowledge is valuable in occupations that rely on an
understanding of materials and their interactions, such as art, winemaking, agriculture and food technology.
Some students will use this course as a foundation to pursue further studies in chemistry, and all students will
become more informed citizens, able to use chemical knowledge to inform evidencebased decision making
and engage critically with contemporary scientific issues.
Aims
Chemistry aims to develop students’:
interest in and appreciation of chemistry and its usefulness in helping to explain phenomena and
solve problems encountered in their everchanging world
understanding of the theories and models used to describe, explain and make predictions about
chemical systems, structures and properties
understanding of the factors that affect chemical systems, and how chemical systems can be
controlled to produce desired products
appreciation of chemistry as an experimental science that has developed through independent and
collaborative research, and that has significant impacts on society and implications for decision
making
expertise in conducting a range of scientific investigations, including the collection and analysis of
qualitative and quantitative data and the interpretation of evidence
ability to critically evaluate and debate scientific arguments and claims in order to solve problems
and generate informed, responsible and ethical conclusions
ability to communicate chemical understanding and findings to a range of audiences, including
through the use of appropriate representations, language and nomenclature.
Structure of Chemistry
Units
In Chemistry, students develop their understanding of chemical systems, and how models of matter and
energy transfers and transformations can be used to describe, explain and predict chemical structures,
properties and reactions. There are four units:
Unit 1: Chemical fundamentals: structure, properties and reactions
Unit 2: Molecular interactions and reactions
Unit 3: Equilibrium, acids and redox reactions
Unit 4: Structure, synthesis and design.
In Unit 1, students use models of atomic structure and bonding to explain the macroscopic properties of
materials and to predict the products and explain the energy changes associated with chemical reactions. In
Unit 2, they continue to develop their understanding of bonding models and the relationship between
structure, properties and reactions, including consideration of the factors that affect the rate of chemical
reactions.
In Units 3 and 4, students further develop their knowledge of chemical processes introduced in Units 1 and 2,
including considering energy transfers and transformations, calculations of chemical quantities, rates of
reaction and chemical systems. In Unit 3, students investigate models of equilibrium in chemical systems;
apply these models in the context of acids and bases and redox reactions, including electrochemical cells;
and explain and predict how a range of factors affect these systems. In Unit 4, students use models of
molecular structure, chemical reactions and energy changes to explain and apply synthesis processes,
particularly with consideration of organic synthesis; and they consider current and future applications of
chemical design principles.
Each unit includes:
Unit descriptions – short descriptions of the purpose of and rationale for each unit
Learning outcomes – six to eight statements describing the learning expected as a result of
studying the unit
Content descriptions – descriptions of the core content to be taught and learned,organised into
three strands:
Science Inquiry Skills
Science as a Human Endeavour
Science Understanding (organised in subunits).
Organisation of content
The Australian Curriculum: Science has three interrelated strands: Science Inquiry Skills, Science as a Human
Endeavour and Science Understanding. These strands are used to organise the Science learning area from
Foundation to Year 12. In the Senior Secondary Science subjects, the three strands build on students’
learning in the F10 Australian Curriculum: Science.
In the practice of science, the three strands are closely integrated: the work of scientists reflects the nature
and development of science, is built around scientific inquiry, and seeks to respond to and influence society.
Students’ experiences of school science should mirror this multifaceted view of science. To achieve this, the
three strands of the Australian Curriculum: Science should be taught in an integrated way. The content
descriptions for Science Inquiry Skills, Science as a Human Endeavour and Science Understanding have
been written so that this integration is possible in each unit.
Science Inquiry Skills
Science inquiry involves identifying and posing questions; planning, conducting and reflecting on
investigations; processing, analysing and interpreting data; and communicating findings. This strand is
concerned with evaluating claims, investigating ideas, solving problems, reasoning, drawing valid conclusions,
and developing evidencebased arguments.
Science investigations are activities in which ideas, predictions or hypotheses are tested and conclusions are
drawn in response to a question or problem. Investigations can involve a range of activities, including
experimental testing, field work, locating and using information sources, conducting surveys, and using
modelling and simulations. The investigation design will depend on the context and subject of the
investigation.
In science investigations, the collection and analysis of data to provide evidence plays a major role. This can
involve collecting or extracting information and reorganising data in the form of tables, graphs, flow charts,
diagrams, prose, keys, spreadsheets and databases. The analysis of data to identify and select evidence, and
the communication of findings, involve the selection, construction and use of specific representations,
including mathematical relationships, symbols and diagrams.
Through the senior secondary Science subjects, students will continue to develop generic science inquiry
skills, building on the skills acquired in the F10 Australian Curriculum: Science. These generic skills are
described below and will be explicitly taught and assessed in each unit. In addition, each unit provides more
specific skills to be taught within the generic science inquiry skills; these specific skills align with the Science
Understanding and Science as a Human Endeavour content of the unit.
The generic science inquiry skills are:
Identifying, researching and constructing questions for investigation; proposing hypotheses; and
predicting possible outcomes
Designing investigations, including the procedure/s to be followed, the materials required and the
type and amount of primary and/or secondary data to be collected; conducting risk assessments;
and considering ethical research
Conducting investigations, including using equipment and techniques safely, competently and
methodically for the collection of valid and reliable data
Representing data in meaningful and useful ways; organising and analysing data to identify trends,
patterns and relationships; recognising error, uncertainty and limitations in data; and selecting,
synthesising and using evidence to construct and justify conclusions
Interpreting scientific and media texts and evaluating processes, claims and conclusions by
considering the quality of available evidence; and using reasoning to construct scientific arguments
Selecting, constructing and using appropriate representations to communicate understanding, solve
problems and make predictions
Communicating to specific audiences and for specific purposes using appropriate language,
nomenclature, genres and modes.
The senior secondary Science subjects have been designed to accommodate, if appropriate, an extended
scientific investigation within each pair of units. States and territories will determine whether there are any
requirements related to an extended scientific investigation as part of their course materials.
Science as a Human Endeavour
Through science, we seek to improve our understanding and explanations of the natural world. The Science
as a Human Endeavour strand highlights the development of science as a unique way of knowing and doing,
and explores the use and influence of science in society.
As science involves the construction of explanations based on evidence, the development of science
concepts, models and theories is dynamic and involves critique and uncertainty. Science concepts, models
and theories are reviewed as their predictions and explanations are continually reassessed through new
evidence, often through the application of new technologies. This review process involves a diverse range of
scientists working within an increasingly global community of practice and can involve the use of international
conventions and activities such as peer review.
The use and influence of science are shaped by interactions between science and a wide range of social,
economic, ethical and cultural factors. The application of science may provide great benefits to individuals, the
community and the environment, but may also pose risks and have unintended consequences. As a result,
decision making about socioscientific issues often involves consideration of multiple lines of evidence and a
range of stakeholder needs and values. As an everevolving body of knowledge, science frequently informs
public debate, but is not always able to provide definitive answers.
Across the senior secondary Science subjects, the same set of Science as a Human Endeavour content
descriptions is used for Units 1 and 2 of the subjects; and another set for Units 3 and 4. This consistent
approach enables students to develop a rich appreciation of the complex ways in which science interacts with
society, through the exploration of Science as a Human Endeavour concepts across the subjects and in
multiple contexts.
‘Examples in context’ will be developed to illustrate possible contexts related to Science Understanding
content, in which students could explore Science as a Human Endeavour concepts. These will be made
available to complement the final online curriculum. Each Example in context will be aligned to the relevant
subunit in Science Understanding and will include links to the relevant Science as a Human Endeavour
content descriptions.
Science Understanding
Science understanding is evident when a person selects and integrates appropriate science concepts, models
and theories to explain and predict phenomena, and applies those concepts, models and theories to new
situations. Models in science can include diagrams, physical replicas, mathematical representations, word
based analogies (including laws and principles) and computer simulations. Development of models involves
selection of the aspects of the system/s to be included in the model, and thus models have inherent
approximations, assumptions and limitations.
The Science Understanding content in each unit develops students’ understanding of the key concepts,
models and theories that underpin the subject, and of the strengths and limitations of different models and
theories for explaining and predicting complex phenomena.
Science Understanding can be developed through the selection of contexts that have relevance to and are
engaging for students. The Australian Curriculum: Science has been designed to provide jurisdictions, schools
and teachers with the flexibility to select contexts that meet the social, geographic and learning needs of their
students.
The Chemistry achievement standards are organised by two dimensions: ‘Chemistry Concepts, Models and
Applications’, and ‘Chemistry Inquiry Skills’. They describe five levels of student achievement.
‘Chemistry Concepts, Models and Applications’ describes the knowledge and understanding students
demonstrate with reference to the content of the Science Understanding and Science as a Human Endeavour
strands of the curriculum. ‘Chemistry Inquiry Skills’ describes the skills students demonstrate when
investigating the content developed through the strands of Science Understanding and Science as a Human
Endeavour.
Progression from the F10 Australian Curriculum: Science
The Chemistry curriculum continues to develop student understanding and skills from across the three
strands of the F10 Australian Curriculum: Science. In the Science Understanding strand, the Chemistry
curriculum draws on knowledge and understanding from across the four substrands of Biological, Physical,
Chemical and Earth and Space Sciences.
In particular, the Chemistry curriculum continues to develop the key concepts introduced in the Chemical
Sciences substrand, that is, that the chemical and physical properties of substances are determined by their
structure at an atomic scale; and that substances change and new substances are produced by the
rearrangement of atoms through atomic interactions and energy transfer.
Mathematical skills expected of students studying Chemistry
The Chemistry curriculum requires students to use the mathematical skills they have developed through the
F10 Australian Curriculum: Mathematics, in addition to the numeracy skills they have developed through the
Science Inquiry Skills strand of the Australian Curriculum: Science.
Within the Science Inquiry Skills strand, students are required to gather, represent and analyse numerical
data to identify the evidence that forms the basis of their scientific arguments, claims or conclusions. In
gathering and recording numerical data, students are required to make measurements with an appropriate
degree of accuracy and to represent measurements using appropriate units.
Students may need to be taught when it is appropriate to join points on a graph and when it is appropriate to
use a line of best fit. They may also need to be taught how to construct a straight line that will serve as the
line of best fit for a set of data presented graphically.
Students may need to be taught to interpret logarithmic scales and to use a calculator to substitute a value to
evaluate a logarithmic expression as they are required in pH calculations (Unit 3), but are not part of the Year
10 Australian Curriculum: Mathematics.
It is assumed that students will be able to competently:
perform calculations involving addition, subtraction, multiplication and division of quantities
perform approximate evaluations of numerical expressions
express fractions as percentages, and percentages as fractions
calculate percentages
recognise and use ratios
transform decimal notation to power of ten notation
change the subject of a simple equation
substitute physical quantities into an equation using consistent units so as to calculate one quantity
and check the dimensional consistency of such calculations
solve simple algebraic equations
comprehend and use the symbols/notations <, >, ∆, ≈
translate information between graphical, numerical and algebraic forms
distinguish between discrete and continuous data and then select appropriate forms, variables and
scales for constructing graphs
construct and interpret frequency tables and diagrams, pie charts and histograms
describe and compare data sets using mean, median and interquartile range
interpret the slope of a linear graph.
While the significance of the crosscurriculum priorities for
Chemistry varies, there are opportunities for teachers to select
contexts that incorporate the key concepts from each priority.
Through an investigation of contexts that draw on Aboriginal and
Torres Strait Islander histories and cultures students can
appreciate the role of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples’
knowledge in developing richer understandings of the chemical
diversity in the Australian environment, for example the chemical
properties of plants used for bush medicines, or mineral ores used
for decoration or artwork.
Contexts that draw on Asian scientific research and development
and collaborative endeavours in the Asia Pacific region provide an
opportunity for students to investigate Asia and Australia’s
engagement with Asia. Students could examine the important role
played by people of the Asia region in such areas as medicine,
materials science, nanotechnology, energy security and food
security. They could consider collaborative projects between
Australian and Asian scientists and the contribution these make to
scientific knowledge.
In Chemistry, the Sustainability crosscurriculum priority provides
authentic contexts for exploring, investigating and understanding
the function and interactions of chemical systems. Chemistry
explores a wide range of chemical systems that operate at different
time and spatial scales. By investigating the relationships between
chemical systems and system components, and how systems
respond to change, students develop an appreciation for the ways
in which interactions between matter and energy connect Earth’s
biosphere, geosphere, hydrosphere and atmosphere. Students
appreciate that chemical science and its applications provide the
basis for decision making in many areas of society and that these
decisions can impact on the Earth system. They understand the
importance of using science to predict possible effects of human
and other activity, such as ocean acidification, mineral extraction or
use of fossil fuels, and to develop management plans, alternative
technologies or approaches such as green chemistry that minimise
these effects and provide for a more sustainable future.
Chemistry Curriculum Senior Secondary
Unit 1: Chemical fundamentals: structure, properties and reactions
Unit 1: Chemical fundamentals: structure, properties and reactions Description
Chemists design and produce a vast range of materials for many purposes, including for fuels, cosmetics,
building materials and pharmaceuticals. As the science of chemistry has developed over time, there has been
an increasing realisation that the properties of a material depend on, and can be explained by, the material’s
structure. A range of models at the atomic and molecular scale enable explanation and prediction of the
structure of materials and how this structure influences properties and reactions. In this unit, students relate
matter and energy in chemical reactions, as they consider the breaking and reforming of bonds as new
substances are produced. Students can use materials that they encounter in their lives as a context for
investigating the relationships between structure and properties.
Through the investigation of appropriate contexts, students explore how evidence from multiple disciplines
and individuals and the development of ICT and other technologies have contributed to developing
understanding of atomic structure and chemical bonding. They explore how scientific knowledge is used to
offer reliable explanations and predictions, and the ways in which it interacts with social, economic, cultural
and ethical factors.
Students use science inquiry skills to develop their understanding of patterns in the properties and
composition of materials. They investigate the structure of materials by describing physical and chemical
properties at the macroscopic scale, and use models of structure and primary bonding at the atomic and sub
atomic scale to explain these properties. They are introduced to the mole concept as a means of quantifying
matter in chemical reactions.
Unit 1: Chemical fundamentals: structure, properties and reactions Learning Outcomes
understand how the atomic model and models of bonding explain the structure and properties of
elements and compounds
understand the concept of enthalpy, and apply this to qualitatively and quantitatively describe and
explain energy changes in chemical reactions
understand how models and theories have developed based on evidence from a range of sources,
and the uses and limitations of chemical knowledge in a range of contexts
use science inquiry skills to design, conduct, evaluate and communicate investigations into the
properties of elements, compounds and mixtures and the energy changes involved in chemical
reactions
evaluate, with reference to empirical evidence, claims about chemical properties, structures and
reactions
communicate, predict and explain chemical phenomena using qualitative and quantitative
representations in appropriate modes and genres.
Unit 1: Chemical fundamentals: structure, properties and reactions Content Descriptions
Science Inquiry Skills (Chemistry Unit 1)
Identify, research and refine questions for investigation; propose hypotheses; and predict possible outcomes
(ACSCH001)
Design investigations, including the procedure/s to be followed, the materials required, and the type and
amount of primary and/or secondary data to be collected; conduct risk assessments; and consider
research ethics (ACSCH002)
Conduct investigations, including the use of devices to accurately measure temperature change and mass,
safely, competently and methodically for the collection of valid and reliable data (ACSCH003)
Represent data in meaningful and useful ways, including using appropriate graphic representations and
correct units and symbols; organise and process data to identify trends, patterns and relationships; identify
sources of random and systematic error and estimate their effect on measurement results; and select,
synthesise and use evidence to make and justify conclusions (ACSCH004)
Interpret a range of scientific and media texts, and evaluate processes, claims and conclusions by considering
the quality of available evidence; and use reasoning to construct scientific arguments (ACSCH005)
Select, construct and use appropriate representations including chemical symbols and formulae, molecular
structural formulae, physical and graphical models of structures, chemical equations and thermochemical
equations, to communicate conceptual understanding, solve problems and make predictions (ACSCH006)
Select and use appropriate mathematical representations to solve problems and make predictions, including
calculating percentage composition from relative atomic masses and using the mole concept to calculate the
mass of reactants and products (ACSCH007)
Communicate to specific audiences and for specific purposes using appropriate language, nomenclature,
genres and modes, including scientific report (ACSCH008)
Science as a Human Endeavour (Units 1 and 2)
Science is a global enterprise that relies on clear communication, international conventions, peer review and
reproducibility (ACSCH009)
Development of complex models and/or theories often requires a wide range of evidence from multiple
individuals and across disciplines (ACSCH010)
Advances in science understanding in one field can influence other areas of science, technology and
engineering (ACSCH011)
The use of scientific knowledge is influenced by social, economic, cultural and ethical considerations
(ACSCH012)
The use of scientific knowledge may have beneficial and/or harmful and/or unintended consequences
(ACSCH013)
Scientific knowledge can enable scientists to offer valid explanations and make reliable predictions
(ACSCH014)
Scientific knowledge can be used to develop and evaluate projected economic, social and environmental
impacts and to design action for sustainability (ACSCH015)
Properties and structure of atoms
Examples in context
Support materials only that illustrate some possible contexts for exploring Science as a Human Endeavour
concepts in relation to Science Understanding content.
Models of the atom
In the early nineteenth century, Dalton proposed some fundamental properties of atoms that would explain
existing laws of chemistry. One century later, a range of experiments provided evidence that enabled
scientists to develop models of the structure of the atom. These included using radiation in the form of Xrays
and alpha particles, and the passing of particles through a magnetic field to determine their mass
(ACSCH010). Evidence from French physicist Becquerel’s discovery of radioactivity suggested the presence
of subatomic particles, and this was also a conclusion from gas discharge experiments. British physicist J.J.
Thomson was able to detect electrons, and his results, combined with the later work of Millikan, an American
experimental physicist, resulted in both the charge and mass of electrons being calculated (ACSCH009). The
British chemist Rutherford proposed a model of the atom comprising a heavy nucleus surrounded by space in
which electrons were found, and Danish physicist Bohr’s model further described how these electrons existed
in distinct energy levels. The last of the main subatomic particles, the neutron, was discovered by the English
physicist Chadwick in 1932, by bombarding samples of boron with alpha particles from radioactive polonium
(ACSCH010).
Radioisotopes
Radioisotopes have a wide variety of uses, including Carbon14 for carbon dating in geology and
palaeobiology; radioactive tracers such as Iodine131 in nuclear medicine; radioimmunoassays for testing
constituents of blood, serum, urine, hormones and antigens; and radiotherapy that destroys damaged cells
(ACSCH011). Use of radioisotopes requires careful evaluation and monitoring because of the potential
harmful effects to humans and/or the environment if their production, use and disposal are not managed
effectively (ACSCH013). Risks include unwanted damage to cells in the body, especially during pregnancy,
and ongoing radiation produced from radioactive sources with long halflives.
Distribution of elements in the universe
Analysis of the distribution of elements in living things, Earth and the universe has informed a wide range of
scientific understandings, including the role of calcium exclusion from bacteria in the evolution of shells and
bones; the proliferation of carbon (rather than silicon, which has similar properties and is more abundant in
Earth’s crust) in living things; the elemental composition of historical artefacts; and the origin of elements
through nuclear fusion in stars (ACSCH011). Analysis of element distribution is informed by data from spectral
analysis and other technologies. Evidence from these techniques enables scientists to draw conclusions
about a range of phenomena, such as the chemical changes involved in natural processes in both biological
and cosmological systems, and the geographic source of historical artefacts (ACSCH014).
Trends in the observable properties of elements are evident in periods and groups in the periodic table
(ACSCH016)
The structure of the periodic table is based on the electron configuration of atoms, and shows trends,
including in atomic radii and valencies (ACSCH017)
Atoms can be modelled as a nucleus surrounded by electrons in distinct energy levels, held together by
electrostatic forces of attraction between the nucleus and electrons; atoms can be represented using electron
shell diagrams (all electron shells or valence shell only) or electron charge clouds (ACSCH018)
Flame tests and atomic absorption spectroscopy are analytical techniques that can be used to identify
elements; these methods rely on electron transfer between atomic energy levels (ACSCH019)
The properties of atoms, including their ability to form chemical bonds, are explained by the arrangement of
electrons in the atom and in particular by the stability of the valence electron shell (ACSCH020)
Isotopes are atoms of an element with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons;
different isotopes of elements are represented using atomic symbols (for example, 12
6
C ,
13
6
C (ACSCH021)
Isotopes of an element have the same electron configuration and possess similar chemical properties but
have different physical properties, including variations in nuclear stability (ACSCH022)
Mass spectrometry involves the ionisation of substances and generates spectra which can be analysed to
determine the isotopic composition of elements (ACSCH023)
The relative atomic mass of an element is the ratio of the weighted average mass per atom of the naturally
1
occurring form of the element to 12 the mass of an atom of carbon12; relative atomic masses reflect the
isotopic composition of the element (ACSCH024)
Properties and structure of materials
Examples in context
Nanomaterials
Development of organic and inorganic nanomaterials is increasingly important to meet a range of
contemporary needs, including consumer products, health care, transportation, energy and agriculture
(ACSCH013). Nanomaterials have special physical and chemical properties that make them useful for
environmentally friendly products, such as more durable materials, dirt and waterrepellent coatings
designed to help reduce cleaning efforts, and insulating materials that improve the energy efficiency of
buildings (ACSCH015). Although there are many projected environmental benefits, there are also potential
risks associated with the use of nanomaterials due to the size of the particles involved (for example, some are
able to cross the human bloodbrain or placental barrier) and the unknown effects of these particles on
human health and the environment (ACSCH013).
The importance of purity
There is a large range of situations in chemistry where knowing and communicating the level of purity of
substances is extremely important. Impurities can affect the physical and chemical properties of substances,
resulting in inefficient or unwanted chemical reactions. Scientists use methods such as mass spectrometry to
identify impurities and the level of contamination (ACSCH014). Separation methods which improve the purity
of substances are used for food, fuels, cosmetics, medical products and metals used in microelectronic
devices. Scientific conventions and international standards are used to represent the purity of materials to
ensure consistent applications of standards (ACSCH009).
Carbon based life and astrobiology
Carbon is far more prevalent in living organisms than silicon, even though silicon is more abundant than
carbon in Earth’s crust. This has caused some scientists to question why life on Earth has evolved to be
carbonbased. Although carbon and silicon are found in the same group of the periodic table and share
similar characteristics, carbon has a range of properties that mean there is more variety in its interactions and
the molecules it can form, which is pivotal to biochemical molecules such as carbohydrates, proteins and
DNA. These properties of carbon, in addition to analysis of elements found in meteorites, comets and
interstellar clouds, cause many astrobiologists to theorise that if life exists elsewhere in the universe, it will be
carbonbased as it is on Earth (ACSCH010). Astrobiology, which is concerned with the distribution of life in our
own and other solar systems, is a highly interdisciplinary field that draws on the findings of a range of
scientists from areas such as geology, molecular biology, astronomy and chemistry (ACSCH011).
Materials are either pure substances with distinct measurable properties (for example, melting and boiling
point, reactivity, strength, density) or mixtures with properties dependent on the identity and relative amounts
of the substances that make up the mixture (ACSCH025)
Differences in the properties of substances in a mixture, such as particle size, solubility, magnetism, density,
electrostatic attraction, melting point and boiling point, can be used to separate them (ACSCH026)
The type of bonding within substances explains their physical properties, including melting and boiling point,
conductivity of both electricity and heat, strength and hardness (ACSCH027)
Nanomaterials are substances that contain particles in the size range 1–100 nm and have specific properties
relating to the size of these particles (ACSCH028)
Chemical bonds are caused by electrostatic attractions that arise because of the sharing or transfer of
electrons between participating atoms; the valency is a measure of the number of bonds that an atom can
form (ACSCH029)
Ions are atoms or groups of atoms that are electrically charged due to an imbalance in the number of
electrons and protons; ions are represented by formulae which include the number of constituent atoms and
the charge of the ion (for example, O2–, SO42–) (ACSCH030)
The properties of ionic compounds (for example, high melting point, brittleness, ability to conduct electricity
when liquid or in solution) are explained by modelling ionic bonding as ions arranged in a crystalline lattice
structure with forces of attraction between oppositely charged ions (ACSCH031)
The characteristic properties of metals (for example, malleability, thermal conductivity, electrical conductivity)
are explained by modelling metallic bonding as a regular arrangement of positive ions (cations) made stable
by electrostatic forces of attraction between these ions and the electrons that are free to move within the
structure (ACSCH032)
Covalent substances are modelled as molecules or covalent networks that comprise atoms which share
electrons, resulting in electrostatic forces of attraction between electrons and the nucleus of more than one
atom (ACSCH033)
Elemental carbon exists as a range of allotropes, including graphite, diamond and fullerenes, with significantly
different structures and physical properties (ACSCH034)
Carbon forms hydrocarbon compounds, including alkanes and alkenes, with different chemical properties that
are influenced by the nature of the bonding within the molecules (ACSCH035)
Chemical reactions: reactants, products and energy change
Examples in context
Minimising use of energy in industry
Industries are encouraged to reduce their energy requirements in order to save money and reduce
greenhouse gas emissions. One of the roles of chemical engineers is to consider the environmental, safety
and economic aspects of energy use in the production of chemicals and to design and monitor chemical
processes (ACSCH015). Green chemistry principles can be applied to industrial processes to reduce energy
requirements; examples of these include recycling heat energy in chemical processes to improve efficiency
and reduce cost and environmental impact, and redesigning chemical manufacturing processes to use less
energy (ACSCH013).
Energy in the body
Our bodies rely on the exothermic reaction of respiration to provide us with sufficient energy. Metabolism
involves using the energy provided by carbohydrates, proteins and fats in our diet. Typically, food energy is
determined based on heats of combustion in a bomb calorimeter, enabling foods to be compared based on
the amount of energy they contain (ACSCH011). This information is provided as part of the requirements for
processed food labelling in many countries to help consumers control their energy intake. In some instances
this information is expressed as a proportion of daily average energy requirements, typically using a value
ranging from 7500 to 8700 kJ (ACSCH012). However each individual’s body energy requirements varies
depending on their gender, age, mode of activity and the environmental conditions they live in, so an average
value may provide limited guidance.
Use of fuels in society
A significant majority of the energy used for production of electricity, transport and household heating is
sourced through the combustion of fuels. Fuels, including fossil fuels and biofuels, can be compared in terms
of efficiency and environmental impact, for example by calculating the amount of carbon emissions produced
per tonne of fuel used (ACSCH015). Decisions about which fuels to use can reflect social, economic, cultural
and political values associated with the source of the fuel. For example, cultural values might inform the use
of wood for heating houses; economic and social values might inform the use of crops for biofuel production
instead of food production; and economic, social and political values might inform the use of brown coal rather
than black coal, despite its being considered a low grade fuel (ACSCH012).
All chemical reactions involve the creation of new substances and associated energy transformations,
commonly observable as changes in the temperature of the surroundings and/or the emission of light
(ACSCH036)
Endothermic and exothermic reactions can be explained in terms of the Law of Conservation of Energy and
the breaking and reforming of bonds; heat energy released or absorbed can be represented in
thermochemical equations (ACSCH037)
Fuels, including fossil fuels and biofuels, can be compared in terms of their energy output, suitability for
purpose, and the nature of products of combustion (ACSCH038)
A mole is a precisely defined quantity of matter equal to Avogadro’s number of particles; the mole concept
and the Law of Conservation of Mass can be used to calculate the mass of reactants and products in a
chemical reaction (ACSCH039)
Unit 2: Molecular interactions and reactions
Unit 2: Molecular interactions and reactions Description
In this unit, students develop their understanding of the physical and chemical properties of materials
including gases, water and aqueous solutions, acids and bases. Students explore the characteristic properties
of water that make it essential for physical, chemical and biological processes on Earth, including the
properties of aqueous solutions. They investigate and explain the solubility of substances in water, and
compare and analyse a range of solutions. They learn how rates of reaction can be measured and altered to
meet particular needs, and use models of energy transfer and the structure of matter to explain and predict
changes to rates of reaction. Students gain an understanding of how to control the rates of chemical
reactions, including through the use of a range of catalysts.
Through the investigation of appropriate contexts, students explore how evidence from multiple disciplines
and individuals and the development of ICT and other technologies have contributed to developing
understanding of intermolecular forces and chemical reactions. They explore how scientific knowledge is used
to offer reliable explanations and predictions, and the ways in which it interacts with social, economic, cultural
and ethical factors.
Students use a range of practical and research inquiry skills to investigate chemical reactions, including the
prediction and identification of products and the measurement of the rate of reaction. They investigate the
behaviour of gases, and use the kinetic theory to predict the effects of changing temperature, volume and
pressure in gaseous systems.
Unit 2: Molecular interactions and reactions Learning Outcomes
understand how models of the shape and structure of molecules and intermolecular forces can be
used to explain the properties of substances, including the solubility of substances in water
understand how kinetic theory can be used to explain the behaviour of gaseous systems, and how
collision theory can be used to explain and predict the effect of varying conditions on the rate of
reaction
understand how models and theories have developed based on evidence from multiple disciplines,
and the uses and limitations of chemical knowledge in a range of contexts
properties and behaviour of gases, water, aqueous solutions and acids and the factors that affect
the rate of chemical reactions
evaluate, with reference to empirical evidence, claims about chemical properties, structures and
reactions
Unit 2: Molecular interactions and reactions Content Descriptions
Identify, research, construct and refine questions for investigation; propose hypotheses; and predict possible
outcomes (ACSCH040)
Conduct investigations, including measuring pH and the rate of formation of products, identifying the products
of reactions, and testing solubilities, safely, competently and methodically for the collection of valid and
reliable data (ACSCH042)
sources of random and systematic error; identify anomalous data; estimate the effect of error on measured
results; and select, synthesise and use evidence to make and justify conclusions (ACSCH043)
Select, construct and use appropriate representations, including physical and graphical models of molecules,
energy profile diagrams, electron dot diagrams, ionic formulae, chemical formulae, chemical equations and
phase descriptors for chemical species to communicate conceptual understanding, solve problems and make
predictions (ACSCH045)
using the mole concept to calculate the mass of chemicals and/or volume of a gas (at standard temperature
and pressure) involved in a chemical reaction, and using the relationship between the number of moles of
solute, concentration and volume of a solution to calculate unknown values (ACSCH046)
genres and modes, including scientific reports (ACSCH047)
Science as a Human Endeavour (Units 1 and 2)
Science is a global enterprise that relies on clear communication, international conventions, peer review, and
reproducibility (ACSCH048)
Development of complex models and/or theories often requires a wide range of evidence from multiple
individuals and across disciplines (ACSCH049)
Advances in science understanding in one field can influence other areas of science, technology and
engineering (ACSCH050)
The use of scientific knowledge is influenced by social, economic, cultural and ethical considerations
(ACSCH051)
The use of scientific knowledge may have beneficial and/or harmful and/or unintended consequences
(ACSCH052)
Scientific knowledge can enable scientists to offer valid explanations and make reliable predictions
(ACSCH053)
Intermolecular forces and gases
Examples in context
Analysing the structure of materials – forensic chemistry
Forensic science often relies on chemical processes to analyse materials in order to determine the identity,
nature or source of the material (ACSCH052). This requires detailed knowledge of both chemical and physical
properties of a range of substances as well as the structure of the materials. Analysis techniques include
different forms of chromatography to determine the components of a mixture, for example analysis of urine
samples to identify drugs or drug byproducts, identification of traces of explosives, or the presence of an
unusual substance at a crime scene. Evidence from forensic analysis can be used to explain the nature and
source of samples and predict events based on the combination of evidence from a range of sources
(ACSCH053). Calculations of quantities, including the concentrations of solutions, are an essential part of
forensic chemistry, as is consideration of the reliability of evidence and the accuracy of forensic tests.
Scuba diving and the behaviour of gases
Safe scuba diving requires knowledge of the behaviour of gases with reference to volume, pressure and
temperature. In particular, divers should understand how the volume of a gas varies with the surrounding
pressure, in order to prevent damage to their respiratory, circulatory and nervous system. Diving equipment is
designed to reduce the risk of dealing with gases at high pressure, including both the choice of materials used
and the design of systems to improve efficiency and safety (ACSCH052). Guidelines and regulations based
on understanding of gas compression and expansion due to changes in water pressure enable divers to avoid
conditions such as pulmonary barotrauma and decompression sickness (ACSCH053).
Development of VSEPR theory
Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) theory is based on an understanding of subatomic and
molecular structure and is an extremely powerful tool in the prediction of the shapes of molecules. In 1940
Sidgwick and Powell proposed that the shapes of molecules are dependent on the number of valence
electrons in atoms within molecules. This idea was developed further by Australian scientist Sydney Nyholm
and Canadian Ronald Gillespie in 1957 to describe how electrostatic repulsion between bonding and/or non
bonding pairs of electrons can be used to reliably predict the shapes of molecules (ACSCH049). They were
able to demonstrate a relationship between the internal electronic structure of molecules, as predicted by
knowledge of chemical bonding, and the overall shape of the molecules, as revealed by methods such as and
Xray crystallography (ACSCH048). Two and threedimensional graphical models have been developed and
adopted by chemists to represent and communicate the shapes of molecules (ACSCH048).
Observable properties, including vapour pressure, melting point, boiling point and solubility, can be explained
by considering the nature and strength of intermolecular forces within a substance (ACSCH055)
The shapes of molecules can be explained and predicted using threedimensional representations of
electrons as charge clouds and using valence shell electron pair repulsion (VSEPR) theory (ACSCH056)
The polarity of molecules can be explained and predicted using knowledge of molecular shape,
understanding of symmetry, and comparison of the electronegativity of elements (ACSCH057)
The shape and polarity of molecules can be used to explain and predict the nature and strength of
intermolecular forces, including dispersion forces, dipoledipole forces and hydrogen bonding (ACSCH058)
Data from chromatography techniques (for example, thin layer, gas and highperformance liquid
chromatography) can be used to determine the composition and purity of substances; the separation of the
components is caused by the variation of strength of the interactions between atoms, molecules or ions in the
mobile and stationary phases (ACSCH059)
The behaviour of gases, including the qualitative relationships between pressure, temperature and volume,
can be explained using kinetic theory (ACSCH060)
Aqueous solutions and acidity
Examples in context
Acid rain
Rain water is naturally acidic as a result of carbon dioxide dissolved in water and from volcanic emission of
sulphur. However scientists have observed an ongoing increase in the acidity of rain and the reduction of the
pH of the oceans, which has been explained by an increased release of acidic gases including carbon dioxide,
nitrogen oxides and sulphur dioxide into the atmosphere (ACSCH053). Most sulphur dioxide released to the
atmosphere comes from burning coal or oil in electric power stations. Scientists have used trends in data to
predict that continued increases in acidic emissions will have adverse effects on aquatic systems, forests,
soils, buildings, cultural objects and human health (ACSCH053). Concern over acid rain has led to the design
of technical solutions such as fluegas desulphurisation (FGD) to remove sulphurcontaining gases from coal
fired power station stacks, and emissions controls such as exhaust gas recirculation to reduce nitrogen oxide
emissions from vehicles (ACSCH054). A number of international treaties and emissions trading schemes also
seek to lower acidic emissions.
Blood chemistry
Blood plasma is an aqueous solution containing a range of ionic and molecular substances. Maintenance of
normal blood solute concentrations and pH levels is vital for our health. Changes in blood chemistry can be
indicative of a range of conditions such as diabetes, which is indicated by changed sugar levels. Pathologists
compare sample blood plasma concentrations to reference ranges that reflect the normal values found in the
population and analyse variations to infer presence of disease (ACSCH050). Knowledge of blood solute
concentration is used to design intravenous fluids at appropriate concentrations, and to design plasma
expanders such as solutions of salts for treatment of severe blood loss (ACSCH052).
Water quality
The issue of security of drinking water supplies is extremely important in Australia and many parts of the Asia
region. Scientists have developed regulations for safe levels of solutes in drinking water and chemists use a
range of methods to monitor water supplies to ensure that these levels are adhered to. Water from different
sources has differing ionic concentrations, for example, bore water has a high iron content. Knowledge of the
composition of water from different sources informs decisions about how that water is treated and used
(ACSCH052). Desalination plants have been built around Australia to meet the supply needs of drinking
water. These have high energy requirements and can have unwanted environmental impacts where the water
is extracted from the oceans. Scientific knowledge and experimental evidence informs international action
aimed at addressing current and future issues around the supply of potable water (ACSCH054).
Water is a key substance in a range of chemical systems because of its unique properties, including its boiling
point, density in solid and liquid phases, surface tension, and ability to act as a solvent (ACSCH061)
The unique properties of water can be explained by its molecular shape and hydrogen bonding between
molecules (ACSCH062)
The concentration of a solution is defined as the amount of solute divided by the amount of solution; this can
be represented in a variety of ways including by the number of moles of the solute per litre of solution (mol L
1) and the mass of the solute per litre of solution (g L1) (ACSCH063)
The presence of specific ions in solutions can be identified using analytical techniques based on chemical
reactions, including precipitation and acidbase reactions (ACSCH064)
The solubility of substances in water, including ionic and molecular substances, can be explained by the
intermolecular forces between species in the substances and water molecules, and is affected by changes in
temperature (ACSCH065)
The pH scale is used to compare the levels of acidity or alkalinity of aqueous solutions; the pH is dependent
on the concentration of hydrogen ions in the solution (ACSCH066)
Patterns of the reactions of acids and bases (for example, reactions of acids with bases, metals and
carbonates) allow products to be predicted from known reactants (ACSCH067)
Rates of chemical reactions
Examples in context
The importance of enzymes
Enzymes are specific to particular reactions and act as important catalysts in many biological reactions,
including those involved in digestion and respiration. Evidence for the existence and action of enzymes initially
arose from Louis Pasteur’s study of fermentation of sugar to form alcohol in the nineteenth century. Further
work, involving a wide range of scientists, proposed that enzyme action was associated with protein molecules
(ACSCH049). Catalysts work in a variety of ways, and knowledge of the structure of enzyme molecules helps
scientists to explain and predict how they are able to lower the activation energy for reactions (ACSCH053).
This work often relies on evidence from laboratory experiments as well as analytical methods used to
determine the structure of molecules (ACSCH049). For example, Australian John Cornforth was awarded the
Nobel Prize for chemistry for his study of the molecular geometry of enzymes and how they are able to
catalyse essential biochemical reactions.
Cost of corrosion
Corrosion of metals can have significant negative economic, environmental and safety consequences. For
example, corrosion of steel pipes led to the 2008 gas plant explosion on Varunus Island, Western Australia,
cutting the state’s gas supply by 30%. Many heritage structures, particularly bridges, have significant
corrosion issues that compromise user safety, such as corrosion of main cables on suspension bridges.
Addressing these issues can be complex and costly, and decisions about maintenance or replacement often
involve consideration of factors such as cost, aesthetic or cultural value, and safety (ACSCH052). Most
contemporary methods of corrosion prevention rely on knowledge of chemical and electrochemical redox
processes, including the use of graphene within varnish coatings of iron or steel. The extension of a metal’s
useful life will achieve cost savings and improve environmental impacts for many Australian industries, where
a significant amount of industry is located on the coast and/or relies on shipping for imports and exports
(ACSCH054).
Development of collision theory
Collision theory enables chemists to explain and predict the rates of a vast range of chemical reactions in
many different contexts (ACSCH053). German chemist Max Trautz published research about aspects of
collision theory, in particular the significance of activation energy, in 1916. William Lewis, working
independently in England at the same time, proposed complimentary work on collision theory in 1918
(ACSCH048). The First World War prevented not only the two chemists working together, but even being
aware of each other’s work. Further work on collision theory enabled a quantitative approach to be taken
which allowed for the prediction and control of chemical reaction rates; these understandings are now used by
chemical engineers to design efficient, safe and economically viable industrial processes (ACSCH052).
Varying the conditions present during chemical reactions can affect the rate of the reaction and in some cases
the identity of the products (ACSCH068)
The rate of chemical reactions can be quantified by measuring the rate of formation of products or the
depletion of reactants (ACSCH069)
Collision theory can be used to explain and predict the effect of concentration, temperature, pressure and
surface area on the rate of chemical reactions by considering the structure of the reactants and the energy of
particles (ACSCH070)
The activation energy is the minimum energy required for a chemical reaction to occur and is related to the
strength of the existing chemical bonds; the magnitude of the activation energy influences the rate of a
chemical reaction (ACSCH071)
Energy profile diagrams can be used to represent the enthalpy changes and activation energy associated with
a chemical reaction (ACSCH072)
Catalysts, including enzymes and metal nanoparticles, affect the rate of certain reactions by providing an
alternative reaction pathway with a reduced activation energy, hence increasing the proportion of collisions
that lead to a chemical change (ACSCH073)
Unit 3: Equilibrium, acids and redox reactions
Unit 3: Equilibrium, acids and redox reactions Description
The idea of reversibility of reaction is vital in a variety of chemical systems at different scales, ranging from the
processes that release carbon dioxide into our atmosphere to the reactions of ions within individual cells in
our bodies. Processes that are reversible will respond to a range of factors and can achieve a state of
dynamic equilibrium. In this unit, students investigate acidbase equilibrium systems and their applications.
They use contemporary models to explain the nature of acids and bases, and their properties and uses. This
understanding enables further exploration of the varying strengths of acids and bases. Students investigate
the principles of oxidation and reduction reactions and the production of electricity from electrochemical cells.
Through the investigation of appropriate contexts, students explore the ways in which models and theories
related to acidbase and redox reactions, and their applications, have developed over time and through
interactions with social, economic, cultural and ethical considerations. They explore the ways in which
chemistry contributes to contemporary debate in industrial and environmental contexts, including the use of
energy, evaluation of risk and action for sustainability, and they recognise the limitations of science in
providing definitive answers in different contexts.
Students use science inquiry skills to investigate the principles of dynamic chemical equilibrium and how these
can be applied to chemical processes and systems. They investigate a range of electrochemical cells,
including the choice of materials used and the voltage produced by these cells. Students use the pH scale to
assist in making judgements and predictions about the extent of dissociation of acids and bases and about
the concentrations of ions in an aqueous solution.
Unit 3: Equilibrium, acids and redox reactions Learning Outcomes
understand the characteristics of equilibrium systems, and explain and predict how they are
affected by changes to temperature, concentration and pressure
understand the difference between the strength and concentration of acids, and relate this to the
principles of chemical equilibrium
understand how redox reactions, galvanic and electrolytic cells are modelled in terms of electron
transfer
understand how models and theories have developed over time and the ways in which chemical
knowledge interacts with social, economic, cultural and political considerations in a range of
contexts
properties of acids and bases, redox reactions and electrochemical cells, including volumetric
analysis
evaluate, with reference to empirical evidence, claims about equilibrium systems and justify
evaluations
Unit 3: Equilibrium, acids and redox reactions Content Descriptions
outcomes (ACSCH074)
Conduct investigations, including using volumetric analysis techniques and constructing electrochemical cells,
and distinguish between random and systematic errors, and estimate their effect on measured results;
discuss how the nature of the procedure and the sample size may influence uncertainty and limitations in data
; and select, synthesise and use evidence to make and justify conclusions (ACSCH077)
Interpret a range of scientific texts, and evaluate processes, claims and conclusions by considering the quality
of available evidence, including confidence intervals in secondary data; and use reasoning to construct
scientific arguments (ACSCH078)
Select, construct and use appropriate representations, including halfequations, balanced chemical equations,
equilibrium constants and expressions, pH, oxidation numbers, standard electrode potentials and cell
diagrams, to communicate conceptual understanding, solve problems and make predictions (ACSCH079)
calculating cell potentials under standard conditions, using the mole concept to calculate moles, mass, volume
and concentrations from volumetric analysis data, determining the yield of incomplete reactions, and
calculating the pH of solutions of strong acids and bases (ACSCH080)
Science as a Human Endeavour (Units 3 & 4)
ICT and other technologies have dramatically increased the size, accuracy and geographic and temporal
scope of data sets with which scientists work (ACSCH082)
Models and theories are contested and refined or replaced when new evidence challenges them, or when a
new model or theory has greater explanatory power (ACSCH083)
The acceptance of scientific knowledge can be influenced by the social, economic, and cultural context in
which it is considered (ACSCH084)
People can use scientific knowledge to inform the monitoring, assessment and evaluation of risk (ACSCH085)
Science can be limited in its ability to provide definitive answers to public debate; there may be insufficient
reliable data available, or interpretation of the data may be open to question (ACSCH086)
International collaboration is often required when investing in largescale science projects or addressing
issues for the AsiaPacific region (ACSCH087)
impacts and to action for sustainability (ACSCH088)
Chemical equilibrium systems
Examples in context
Chemical balance in wine
The production of wine, along with that of many other food products, relies on the successful control of a
range of reversible reactions in order to maintain the required chemical balance within the product. For wine,
this balance includes the acidity, alcohol concentration, sugar levels and the colour of the wine. Techniques
such as auto titration, gas chromatography and infrared spectroscopy are used to measure the chemical
composition of wine. Data from these methods, including the analysis of multivariate data, has enabled
scientists to identify how the concentrations of the various chemicals in the wine are related, both to each
other and the observable properties of wine such as taste and aroma (ACSCH082). Sulphur dioxide is used to
maintain chemical balance in wine, as it binds with acetaldehyde. ‘Sulphite calculators’ are available so that
wine makers can predict the amount of sulphur dioxide required. However decisions as to how the sulphur
dioxide is added to the wine, including how much to use, will depend on preferences of the winemaker,
especially for those producers who market wine as ‘organic’ or ‘preservative free’ (ACSCH084).
Carbon dioxide in the atmosphere and hydrosphere
The levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere have a significant influence on global systems, including
surface temperatures. The oceans contribute to the maintenance of steady concentrations of atmospheric
carbon dioxide because the gas can dissolve in seawater through a range of reversible processes. The
uptake of anthropogenic carbon dioxide by the oceans is driven by the difference in gas pressure in the
atmosphere and in the oceans, and by the air/sea transfer velocity. Because carbon dioxide is increasing in
the atmosphere, more of it moves into the ocean to balance the oceanic and atmospheric gas pressures,
causing a change in the equilibrium point. Dissolved carbon dioxide increases ocean acidity, which is
predicted to have a range of negative consequences for ecosystems, including direct impacts on oceanic
calcifying organisms such as corals, crustaceans and molluscs because structures made of calcium
carbonate are vulnerable to dissolution under at lower pH levels (ACSCH088). The United Nations Kyoto
Protocol and the establishment of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change aim to secure global
commitment to a significant reduction in greenhouse gas emissions over the next decades (ACSCH087).
Development of acid/base models
Lavoisier, often referred to as the father of modern chemistry, believed that all acids contained oxygen. In
1810, Davy proposed that it was hydrogen, rather than oxygen, that was common to all acids (ACSCH083).
Arrhenius linked the behaviour of acids to their ability to produce hydrogen ions in aqueous solution, however
this theory only related to aqueous solutions and relied on all bases producing hydroxide ions. In 1923
Brønsted (and at about the same time, Lowry) refined the earlier theories by describing acids as proton
donators (ACSCH083). This theory allowed for the description of conjugate acidbases, and for the
explanation of the varying strength of acids based on the stability of the ions produced when acids ionise to
form the hydrogen ions. This concept has been applied to contemporary research into ‘superacids’, such as
carborane acids, which have been found to be a million times stronger than sulphuric acid when the position
of equilibrium in aqueous solution is considered.
Chemical systems may be open or closed and include physical changes and chemical reactions which can
result in observable changes to the system (ACSCH089)
All physical changes are reversible, whereas only some chemical reactions are reversible (ACSCH090)
Over time, physical changes and reversible chemical reactions reach a state of dynamic equilibrium in a
closed system, with the relative concentrations of products and reactants defining the position of equilibrium
(ACSCH091)
The reversibility of chemical reactions can be explained by considering the activation energies of the forward
and reverse reactions (ACSCH092)
The effect of changes of temperature on chemical systems at equilibrium can be explained by considering the
enthalpy changes for the forward and reverse reactions (ACSCH093)
The effect of changes of concentration and pressure on chemical systems at equilibrium can be explained
and predicted by applying collision theory to the forward and reverse reactions (ACSCH094)
The effects of changes of temperature, concentration of chemicals and pressure on equilibrium systems can
be predicted using Le Chatelier’s Principle (ACSCH095)
Equilibrium position can be predicted qualitatively using equilibrium constants (ACSCH096)
Acids are substances that can act as proton (hydrogen ion) donors and can be classified as monoprotic or
polyprotic depending on the number of protons donated by each molecule of the acid (ACSCH097)
The strength of acids is explained by the degree of ionisation at equilibrium in aqueous solution, which can be
represented with chemical equations and equilibrium constants (Ka) (ACSCH098)
The relationship between acids and bases in equilibrium systems can be explained using the BrønstedLowry
model and represented using chemical equations that illustrate the transfer of hydrogen ions (ACSCH099)
The pH scale is a logarithmic scale and the pH of a solution can be calculated from the concentration of
hydrogen ions; Kw can be used to calculate the concentration of hydrogen ions from the concentration of
hydroxide ions in a solution (ACSCH100)
Acidbase indicators are weak acids or bases where the acidic form is of a different colour to the basic form
(ACSCH101)
Volumetric analysis methods involving acidbase reactions rely on the identification of an equivalence point by
measuring the associated change in pH, using chemical indicators or pH meters, to reveal an observable end
point (ACSCH102)
Oxidation and reduction
Examples in context
Breathalysers and measurement of blood alcohol levels
The level of alcohol in the body can be measured by testing breath or blood alcohol concentrations
(ACSCH085). These analysis techniques rely on redox reactions. Police first used breath testing for alcohol in
the 1940s. Currently, a range of other detection methods are available to police, and commercially to drivers
who are now able to test themselves before driving. Some meters use infrared spectroscopy to determine the
amount of alcohol present, which can be converted to blood alcohol concentration (BAC). Electrochemical
cells form the basis of ‘alcosensors’ which can also be used to measure BAC. These cells work by recording
the electrical potential produced by the oxidation of the ethanol at platinum electrodes. Although science can
provide information about the effect of alcohol on our bodies in relation to the ability to drive, decisions about
‘safe’ levels of BAC for driving (including those used to write legislation) take into account other factors, such
as the experience of the driver, and can vary from country to country (ACSCH086).
Fuel cells and their uses
Redox reactions that occur spontaneously can be used as a source of electrical energy. These include wet
cells (such as car batteries), dry cells, and alkaline batteries. Fuel cells are electrochemical cells that use up a
‘fuel’, such as hydrogen. Fuel cells were first demonstrated in the 1840s, but were not commercially available
until the late twentieth century. Currently, small fuel cells are designed for laptop computers and other
portable electronic devices; larger fuel cells are used to provide backup power for hospitals; and wastewater
treatment plants and landfills make use of fuel cells to capture and convert the methane gas they produce into
methane (ACSCH088). Fuel cells are a potential loweremission alternative to the internal combustion engine
and are already being used to power buses, boats, trains and cars (ACSCH088). International organisations
such as the International Partnership for Hydrogen and Fuel Cells in the Economy (IPHE) have been created
to foster international cooperation on research and development, common codes and standards, and
information sharing on infrastructure development (ACSCH087).
Electrochemistry for clean water
Electrochemistry has a wide range of uses, ranging from industrial scale metal extraction to personal cosmetic
treatments. A new application has been in the treatment of mineral rich bore water. New Zealand scientists
have trialled a system that uses electrochemistry to remove the iron and manganese ions present in bore
water, which currently make the water undrinkable. An electric current converts chloride ions to chlorine,
which then oxidises and precipitates out the metal contaminants, as well as disinfecting the water. The electric
current passing through the water also dramatically increased the effectiveness of the chlorine in killing
organisms in the water. The process requires minimal current and can be provided by a 12volt car battery,
which makes it a cheap and relatively ‘low tech’ solution suitable for use in rural areas of developing countries
(ACSCH087).
A range of reactions, including displacement reactions of metals, combustion, corrosion, and electrochemical
processes, can be modelled as redox reactions involving oxidation of one substance and reduction of another
substance (ACSCH103)
Oxidation can be modelled as the loss of electrons from a chemical species, and reduction can be modelled
as the gain of electrons by a chemical species; these processes can be represented using halfequations
(ACSCH104)
The ability of an atom to gain or lose electrons can be explained with reference to valence electrons,
consideration of energy, and the overall stability of the atom, and can be predicted from the atom’s position in
the periodic table (ACSCH105)
The relative strength of oxidising and reducing agents can be determined by comparing standard electrode
potentials (ACSCH106)
Electrochemical cells, including galvanic and electrolytic cells, consist of oxidation and reduction halfreactions
connected via an external circuit that allows electrons to move from the anode (oxidation reaction) to the
cathode (reduction reaction) (ACSCH107)
Galvanic cells, including fuel cells, generate an electrical potential difference from a spontaneous redox
reaction; they can be represented as cell diagrams including anode and cathode halfequations (ACSCH108)
Fuel cells can use metal nanoparticles as catalysts to improve the efficiency of energy production
(ACSCH109)
Cell potentials at standard conditions can be calculated from standard electrode potentials; these values can
be used to compare cells constructed from different materials (ACSCH110)
Electrolytic cells use an external electrical potential difference to provide the energy to allow a non
spontaneous redox reaction to occur, and can be used in smallscale and industrial situations (ACSCH111)
Unit 4: Structure, synthesis and design
Unit 4: Structure, synthesis and design Description
Current and future applications of chemistry include the development of specialised techniques to create, or
synthesise, new substances to meet the specific needs of society, including pharmaceuticals, fuels, polymers
and nanomaterials. In this unit, students focus on the principles and application of chemical synthesis,
particularly in organic chemistry. This involves considering where and how functional groups can be
incorporated into already existing carbon compounds in order to generate new substances with properties
that enable them to be used in a range of contexts.
Through the investigation of appropriate contexts, students explore the ways in which models and theories
related to chemical synthesis, structure and design, and associated applications, have developed over time
and through interactions with social, economic, cultural and ethical considerations. They explore the ways in
which chemistry contributes to contemporary debate regarding current and future uses of local, regional and
international resources, evaluation of risk and action for sustainability, and they recognise the limitations of
science in providing definitive answers in different contexts.
Students use science inquiry skills to investigate the principles and application of chemical structure, synthesis
and design. They select and use data from instrumental analysis to determine the identity and structure of a
range of organic materials. They make predictions based on knowledge of types of chemical reactions, and
investigate chemical reactions qualitatively and quantitatively.
Unit 4: Structure, synthesis and design Learning Outcomes
understand how the presence of functional groups and the molecular structure of organic
compounds are related to their properties
understand addition, condensation and oxidation reactions, and predict the products of these
reactions
understand how knowledge of chemical systems is used to design synthesis processes, and how
data from analytical techniques provides information about chemical structure
understand how models and theories have developed over time and the ways in which chemical
knowledge interacts with social, economic, cultural and ethical considerations in a range of contexts
use science inquiry skills to design, conduct, evaluate and communicate investigations into
reactions and the identification of organic compounds, including analysis of secondary data derived
from chemical analysis
evaluate, with reference to empirical evidence, claims about organic synthesis and chemical design,
and justify evaluations
Unit 4: Structure, synthesis and design Content Descriptions
outcomes (ACSCH112)
Conduct investigations, including using organic synthesis methods and collating data from chemical analyses,
correct units and symbols; organise and analyse data to identify patterns and relationships; identify and
distinguish between random and systematic errors, and estimate their effect on measured results; discuss
how the nature of the procedure and the sample size may influence uncertainty and limitations in data; and
select, synthesise and use evidence from a range of sources to make and justify conclusions (ACSCH115)
Select, construct and use appropriate representations, including physical, virtual and graphical models of
primary, secondary and tertiary structures, structural formulas, chemical equations, systematic nomenclature
(using IUPAC conventions) and spectra, to communicate conceptual understanding, solve problems and
make predictions (ACSCH117)
using the mole concept to calculate quantities in chemical reactions, including multistep reactions, and the
percentage yield of synthesis reactions (ACSCH118)
Science as a Human Endeavour (Units 3 & 4)
ICT and other technologies have dramatically increased the size, accuracy and geographic and temporal
scope of data sets with which scientists work (ACSCH120)
Models and theories are contested and refined or replaced when new evidence challenges them, or when a
new model or theory has greater explanatory power (ACSCH121)
The acceptance of scientific knowledge can be influenced by the social, economic and cultural context in
which it is considered (ACSCH122)
People can use scientific knowledge to inform the monitoring, assessment and evaluation of risk (ACSCH123)
Science can be limited in its ability to provide definitive answers to public debate; there may be insufficient
reliable data available, or interpretation of the data may be open to question (ACSCH124)
International collaboration is often required when investing in largescale science projects or addressing
issues for the AsiaPacific region (ACSCH125)
Properties and structure of organic materials
Examples in context
Functional groups and organic chemistry
Over 80 per cent of all known compounds are organic compounds. Initial work in the area of organic
chemistry was based on observational chemistry, with nineteenth century attempts to organise the diversity of
organic compounds based on grouping them according to their reactions. This theory was primarily based on
empirical observations of reactivity, and did not consider the structure of the compounds. The theory of
chemical structure was initially evident in work describing the concept of the interatomic bond, as formulated
independently and simultaneously by Kekulé and Couper in 1858 (ACSCH121). Further advances in
understanding of the chemical structure of carbonbased molecules led to a classification based on functional
groups. The chemical behaviour of the molecule can now be predicted based on known chemistry of the
functional groups it contains. Developments in computer modelling have enabled more accurate visualisation
and prediction of three dimensional organic structures, such as proteins, which is critical in drug design and
biotechnology (ASCSH120).
Green polymer chemistry
Polymers are common in daily life due to their extraordinary range of properties, and include natural
polymeric materials such as wool, silk and natural rubber, and synthetic polymers such as synthetic rubber,
neoprene, nylon, polystyrene and polypropylene. Contemporary applications of polymers include their use in
organic light emitting diodes (OLEDs) to develop television, computer and mobile phone screens that are
lighter, more flexible and more energy efficient than previous materials. Synthetic polymers often have large
“ecological footprints” as they are synthesised from fossil fuels and do not biodegrade. There is significant
research and development directed towards sustainable polymers, produced from renewable sources such as
plants, waste products and waste gases (ACSCH126). While there have been significant advances in this
field, issues remain regarding the economic viability of this means of production, and use of food crops for the
production of polymer materials rather than food (ACSCH122).
Use of organochlorine compounds as insecticides
Organochlorine compounds, such as DDT, chlordane and lindane, were identified as powerful insecticides in
the 1950s and their use was credited with reducing malaria and increasing agricultural productivity. Their
structure makes them chemically unreactive, so they are stable in soils and in the fatty tissues of animals. As
such, they are persistent organic pollutants (POPs), accumulating in food chains and posing a risk of causing
adverse effects to human health and the environment. The detrimental environmental effects of DDT were
first hypothesised by scientists in the 1940s; when they were popularised through a bestselling book, Silent
Spring, in 1962, public reaction was sufficiently large to prompt a government investigation (ACSCH123).
Consequently DDT was banned by the United States in 1972, and in 1995 POPs were identified as an issue
requiring global action by the United Nations, resulting in a range of organochlorine compounds being banned
for agricultural use worldwide under the Stockholm Convention in 2001 (ACSCH125). However some
organochlorine compounds are still licensed for use under strict guidelines. For example, they are used to
control fire ants, which are a serious social, economic and environmental threat in Australia, the Philippines,
Taiwan and parts of New Zealand (ACSCH125).
Organic molecules have a hydrocarbon skeleton and can contain functional groups, including alcohols,
carboxylic acids, esters, amines and amides (ACSCH127)
Each class of organic compounds displays characteristic chemical properties and undergoes specific
reactions based on the functional groups present; these reactions, including acidbase and oxidation
reactions, can be used to identify the class of the organic compound (ACSCH128)
Organic materials including proteins, carbohydrates and synthetic polymers display properties including
strength, density and biodegradability that can be explained by considering the primary, secondary or tertiary
structures of the material (ACSCH129)
Data from analytical techniques, including mass spectrometry, xray crystallography and infrared
spectroscopy, can be used to determine the structure of organic molecules, often using evidence from more
than one technique (ACSCH130)
Chemical synthesis and design
Examples in context
Green synthesis methods and atom economy
Future challenges in Australia and the Asia region in resource, environmental and economic sustainability
demand more efficient chemical processes. The concept of atom economy was proposed by American Barry
Trost in the 1990s. It is a way of describing the efficiency of a reaction, by dividing the molecular mass of the
desired product by the combined molecular masses of all reactants. Many established largescale industrial
chemical processes in the petrochemical industry have a low atom economy, resulting in unwanted
byproducts and waste management issues. Green chemistry aims to increase the atom economy of chemical
processes by designing novel reactions that can maximise the desired products and minimise byproducts
(ACSCH126). Designing new synthetic schemes that can simplify operations in chemical productions, and
seeking greener solvents that are inherently environmentally and ecologically benign, are also important in
developing sustainable chemical industries (ACSCH126).
Biofuel synthesis
Dwindling supplies of economically viable sources of fossil fuels and concerns related to carbon emissions
have prompted research into the synthesis of biofuels (ACSCH126) from plant feedstocks such as algae, oil
seeds and wood waste, or from waste materials such as food industry waste oils (ACSCH126). In the 1990s,
a number of plants producing biodiesel were established in Europe and biodiesel is now available at many
service stations across Europe. Biofuels are more complex than petroleumbased fuels, many comprising of a
range of alcohols or methyl esters. Analysis techniques such as spectroscopy and mass spectrometry can be
used to investigate the combustion processes of these ‘oxygenated’ fuels, and predict any potential harmful
emissions from their combustion (ACSCH123). While biofuels may address issues of renewable fuel supply,
there are concerns that a focus on biomass plantations as feedstocks may result in reduced available land for
food production, and an increase in food prices and availability (ACSCH126).
Development of molecular manufacturing processes
Molecular manufacturing (or molecular assembly) is an area of developing science that involves building
objects to atomic precision using robotic mechanisms to position and react molecules (ACSCH120). A recent
publication in the peerreviewed international journal Science reported that researchers had developed a new
way of developing sequencespecific peptides using a rotaxane as a ‘molecular machine’. Proponents of
molecular manufacturing argue that it has the potential to quickly develop products such as stronger materials
and smaller, faster and more energyefficient computers. They claim it will address a range of global issues
through provision of vital materials and products at a greatly reduced cost and environmental impact.
However other groups caution that cheap, rapid manufacturing capacity could also lead to a range of social,
economic and environmental issues, and requires international regulations and policies to be in place before
the technology becomes widely available. Some scientists predict that a ‘molecular manufacturing revolution’
will occur within the next 20 to 50 years, while others are sceptical that the methods used will ever become
economically viable (ACSCH124).
Chemical synthesis involves the selection of particular reagents to form a product with specific properties (for
example, pharmaceuticals, fuels, cosmetics, cleaning products) (ACSCH131)
Designing chemical synthesis processes involves constructing reaction pathways that may include more than
one chemical reaction (ACSCH132)
Designing chemical synthesis processes includes identifying reagents and reaction conditions in order to
maximise yield and purity of product (ACSCH133)
The yield of a chemical synthesis reaction can be calculated by comparing stoichiometric quantities with
actual quantities (ACSCH134)
Green chemistry principles include the design of chemical synthesis processes that use renewable raw
materials, limit the use of potentially harmful solvents and minimise the amount of unwanted products
(ACSCH135)
Organic molecules, including polymers, can be synthesised using addition and condensation reactions
(ACSCH136)
Fuels (for example, biodiesel, ethanol, hydrogen) can be synthesised from organic or inorganic sources using
a range of chemical reactions including addition, oxidation and esterification (ACSCH137)
Molecular manufacturing processes, including protein synthesis, involve the positioning of molecules to
facilitate a specific chemical reaction; such methods have the potential to synthesise specialised products (for
example, carbon nanotubes, nanorobots, chemical sensors used in medicine) (ACSCH138)
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