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Outlines of geometry ; or, The

motion of a point

Walter Marsham Adams , Euclides

1
OUTLINES OF GEOMETRY ;
OR ,

THE MOTION OF A POINT .

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THE DISCOVERY OF PYTHAGORAS .

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LUNG JIANS 'ÚR IN

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OUTLINES OF GEOMETRY ;;
OR

THE MOTION OF A POINT.

AN INTRODUCTORY TREATISE

ON THE DIFFICULTIES OF ELEMENTARY GEOMETRY, AND THE GENERAL

PRINCIPLES OF THE HIGHER PLANE CURVES ; WITH ESPECIAL
REFERENCE TO EUCLID'S ELEMENTS.

BY

W. MARSHAM ADAMS, B.A. fo

01: 29
LATE FELLOW OF NEW COLLEGE , OXFORD . 00

" Les progrès de la science ne sont vraiment fructueux que quand ils amènent
aussi le progrès des Traités élémentaires.” — PRICE, from DUPIN .

LONDON :

LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.

1869.

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

783 28
 CONTENTS . .

PART I.
THE POINT IN MOTION.

N.B. - The Chapters marked may be omitted on the first reading.

SECTION I.

GENERAL IDEAS OF MOTION AS APPLIED TO GEOMETRY.

CHAPTER PAGE .

I. The interest of scientific inquiry 1

II. Distance ... ... 3

III. Definition 5

IV . The names of objects in Geometry ... 5

V. Inclination ... 6

VI. Figures and Surfaces 8

..

VII. Solids and Magnitudes 9

10
...

VIII . Limits and Loci

...

IX. Examples of Loci 13

.

SECTION II.

MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE AND CIRCLE .

X. The Straight Line 16

XI. The Straight Line continued 19

XII. Even and Uneven Surfaces 20

...

XIII. The Circle 21

1

1
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OUTLINES OF GEOMETRY ;
OR ,

THE MOTION OF A POINT .

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THE DISCOVERY OF PYTHAGORAS .

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Page 60 .
 44"}, ILRINGS
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OUTLINES OF GEOMETRY ;;
OR

THE MOTION OF A POINT.

AN INTRODUCTORY TREATISE

ON THE DIFFICULTIES OF ELEMENTARY GEOMETRY, AND THE GENERAL

PRINCIPLES OF THE HIGHER PLANE CURVES ; WITH ESPECIAL
REFERENCE TO EUCLID'S ELEMENTS .

BY

W. MARSHAM ADAMS, B.A.

ANAS
* .5
D*A
LATE FELLOW OF NEW COLLEGE , OXFORD . 2
t
Ho

“ Les progrès de la science ne sont vraiment fructueux que quand ils amènent
aussi le progrès des Traités élémentaires .” - PRICE, from DUPIN.

LONDON :

LONGMANS, GREEN, AND CO.

1869.

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED.

183 28
1
 CONTENTS .

PART I.
THE POINT IN MOTION.

N.B. - The Chapters marked * may be omitted on the first reading.

SECTION I.

GENERAL IDEAS OF MOTION AS APPLIED TO GEOMETRY.

CHAPTER PAGE .

I. The interest of scientific inquiry 1

II. Distance

III. Definition 5

IV. The names of objects in Geometry ... 5

V. Inclination ... 6

VI. Figures and Surfaces 8

VII. Solids and Magnitudes 9

VIII . Limits and Loci 10

IX. Examples of Loci 13

SECTION II.

MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE AND CIRCLE .

X. The Straight Line 16

XI. The Straight Line continued 19

XII. Even and Uneven Surfaces 20
XIII. The Circle 21
 vi
CHAPTER. PAGE .

XIV . The Circle continued ... 23

* XV. Contact of Circle and Straight Line 25

XVI. Angles 27

SECTION III.

CONTINUOUS OR GRADUAL MOTION.

XVII. Continuity.-- First condition obtained 30
XVIII. The Polygon 32

XIX . The Law of Gradual Growth 35

* XX . Limiting form of Circle ... 39

*XXI. Parallelism . - Second condition of Continuity obtained 41

*XXII. Examples of Continuity .. 43

PART II .
THE POINT ARRESTED.

SECTION IV.

ON ASCERTAINING THE POSITION OF A MOVING POINT WHEN ARRESTED.

XXIII. Number of conditions requisite for arrest of a Point 47

XXIV. Comparison of Triangles 49

XXV . On Existence and Relation ... 50

XXVI. Problems of Existence 51

XXVII. Construction ... 52

XXVIII. Problems of Relation - Proof ... 53

XXIX . Equality 54

XXX . Enumeration of cases in which Triangles are equal 55

XXXI. Consideration of cases in which a moving Point is arrested 57

XXXII. The Problem of Pythagoras : .. 60

 vii

SECTION V.

APPLICATION OF THE PRINCIPLES OF POSITION TO CURVES IN GENERAL.

CHAPTER . PAGE.

XXXIII. General survey of the results of the preceding Proposition ... 63

* XXXIV . Calculation of Areas ( Trigonometry ) 64

* XXXV. Lines capable of passing through any four Points ( Conic

Sections) ... 66

* XXXVI. Descartes' System of Rectangular Co -ordinates ( Algebraic

Geometry) ... 69

* XXXVII. Varieties of Curvilinear Motion ... 72

*XXXVIII. Contact 82

*XXXIX. Means of determining successive positions a Point when

the law of Motion is given ( Differential Calculus) ... ... 83

*XL . Means of ascertaining general law of Motion when that for

any two successive positions of a Point is given ( Integral
Calculus) 85

XLI. Conclusion 88
 “ Let him demonstrate a proposition in Euclid, in his five last books,
extract a square root, or study algebra ; than which , as Clavius holds, ' in
all human disciplines nothing can be more excellent and pleasant, so abstruse
and recondite, so bewitching, so miraculous, so ravishing, so easy withal and
full of delight , it seems to captivate beyond all human pleasure. By this
means you may define ex ungue leonem , as the diverb is, by his thumb
alone the bigness of Hercules, or the true dimensions of the great Colossus,
Solomon's temple, and Domitian's amphitheatre, out of a little part . "

Burton's Anatomy of Melancholy.

 OUTLINES OF GEOMETRY .

S E C TI O N I.

CHA P T E R I.

THE INTEREST OF SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY .

Who that has ever felt it, cannot recall the sensation which his
first view of the sea or of distant mountains gave him ? The first
glow of delight once past, what was the feeling that succeeded
but a longing to reach them, and enjoy the glorious prospect which
they must afford ?
Just such, we may imagine, were the feelings of those who first
thought of scientific inquiry. The universe lay stretching before
them in all its beauty,-sun, moon, and stars moving in a wonderful
order,-seed -time and harvest, summer and winter following each
other in unbroken succession. Nor in smaller matters was order
less prevalent: in the cell of the bee, for example, that affords the
greatest possible room in the honeycomb; and in the spider's web,
that so cunningly entangles its prey.
But such a desire as this could not be satisfied by gazing; and
by degrees the impulse became irresistible to penetrate to their
utmost the secrets of nature, and arrive at the knowledge which
must at first have appeared far beyond their reach. We need not
follow them in their labours, but any one who has made his way
B
across country to some distant h :Il mar hare a faint idea of what
their toil must have been . He will remember how he looked about
for the best starting point, how every kind of impediment rose up
in his way; -how he fell on the stones -how he got into a wood
and lost himself. Then, as druges thickened , how the distant
objects lost all their interest; until at last, looking round thoroughly
wenry and dispirited, he may have found himself scarcely a step in
advance of his first position. But yet he is advanced a step ; and
this thought imparts new rigour, and of itself seems to overcome
the obstacles, until another and another height is gained , and he
stands at last upon the very sunimit of the range he saw at first.
Every difficulty and repulse is forgotten in that moment, as he
beholds the former seene no longer in confused and tangled beauty,
but each object in the place exactly fitted for it, and performing
the part for which it is specially designed.
Such a reward was that of Copernicus, when breaking through
the old conception of the earth as the central point of the system
in which we are placed, he took his stand in thought upon the sun ,
and beheld planet after planet sweeping in its appointed orbit round
him , onch having its size and its path proportioned to its distance
from the central sun .
llere then lies the interest which the pursuits of science, and
more especially of Mathematics, afforded to former generations.
llow is it that to us they have become so hard, lifeless, and insipid ?
The answer is obvious, that the subject has grown stale. How
cager are the inquiries about a land never before traversed - how
dull the history of some well-trodden every -day route. With what
pleasure do we read “ Captain Speke," — with what reluctance
approach a “ Bradshaw . "" Let us plunge headlong in medias res, is
the feeling of every modern traveller, for the beginning is insup
portable.
And so it has come to pass, that the student is set down at once
amidst Theorems and Axioms, Definitions, Points, Problems, Postu
 3
lates, and Propositions, until his brain is wearied out with all the
ideas which seem so new and strange, though they are indeed so
familiar to him . In reading, therefore, the few pages of this little
treatise, he may consider himself to be listening to the tale of one
who has visited some of the smaller hills, and who wishes to recount
each step of the path by which he arrived at them . On the part
of the student, therefore , no mathematical knowledge whatever will
be requisite, but only those powers of body and mind which the
Creator has given to all who are not in some especial manner
deficient.

CH A P T E R II .

DISTANCE .

ONE of our earliest actions, performed probably quite without our

being aware of it, was to “ use our eyes.” We saw and noticed
trees, houses, dogs, horses, men. Let us suppose, then, that some
two of these objects, say two trees, were to attract our notice
particularly, we might very naturally wish to draw them — that is,
to represent them on paper. And the attempt at this would require
no knowledge of mathematics, as may be proved by the various
figures with which young gentlemen delight to cover their books
long before they have comprehended even the definitions of Euclid.
We have then our two trees thus ( 1. )
1.

One remark we may make at once- namely, that in our drawing

we should place them not close together, but at some little distance
apart ; and this because the real trees were so situated . Suppose
 2

across country to some distant hill may have a faint idea of what
their toil must have been. He will remember how he looked about
for the best starting point, how every kind of impediment rose up
in his way , -how he fell on the stones, -how he got into a wood
and lost himself. Then, as difficulties thickened, how the distant
objects lost all their interest; until at last, looking round thoroughly
weary and dispirited, he may have found himself scarcely a step in
advance of his first position. But yet he is advanced a step ; and
this thought imparts new vigour, and of itself seems to overcome
the obstacles, until another and another height is gained, and he
stands at last upon the very summit of the range he saw at first.
Every difficulty and repulse is forgotten in that moment, as he
beholds the former scene no longer in confused and tangled beauty,
but each object in the place exactly fitted for it, and performing
the part for which it is specially designed .
Such a reward was that of Copernicus, when breaking through
the old conception of the earth as the central point of the system
in which we are placed, he took his stand in thought upon the sun ,
and beheld planet after planet sweeping in its appointed orbit round
him , each having its size and its path proportioned to its distance
from the central sun .
Here then lies the interest which the pursuits of science, and
more especially of Mathematics, afforded to former generations.
How is it that to us they have become so hard, lifeless, and insipid ?
The answer is obvious, that the subject has grown stale. How
eager are the inquiries about a land never before traversed - how
dull the history of some well-trodden every -day route. With what
pleasure do we read “ Captain Speke,” — with what reluctance
approach a “ Bradshaw ." Let us plunge headlong in medias res, is
the feeling of every modern traveller, for the beginning is insup
portable.
And so it has come to pass, that the student is set down at once
amidst Theorems and Axioms, Definitions, Points, Problems, Postu
 3

lates, and Propositions, until his brain is wearied out with all the
ideas which seem so new and strange, though they are indeed so
familiar to him. In reading, therefore, the few pages of this little
treatise, he may consider himself to be listening to the tale of one
who has visited some of the smaller hills, and who wishes to recount
each step of the path by which he arrived at them. On the part
of the student, therefore, no mathematical knowledge whatever will
be requisite, but only those powers of body and mind which the
Creator has given to all who are not in some especial manner
deficient.

CHAPTER II .

DISTANCE .

ONE of our earliest actions, performed probably quite without our

being aware of it, was to “ use our eyes.” We saw and noticed
trees, houses, dogs, horses, men. Let us suppose, then, that some
two of these objects, say two trees, were to attract our notice
particularly, we might very naturally wish to draw themthat is,
to represent them on paper. And the attempt at this would require
no knowledge of mathematics, as may be proved by the various
figures with which young gentlemen delight to cover their books
long before they have comprehended even the definitions of Euclid.
We have then our two trees thus ( 1.)
1.

One remark we may make at once - namely, that in our drawing

we should place them not close together, but at some little distance
apart ; and this because the real trees were so situated . Suppose
 4

now, that in addition to the two objects we have already described,

we draw something from one to the other , then evidently we have
three things on the paper, of two of which we know the meaning,
while the third is as yet unexplained (2.)
2.

What is this then that is drawn from one object to the other ?
“ A line,” is the natural answer, which is in truth no answer at all;
>

for what we wanted to know was not the name but the nature of
what we have drawn, and about this we know no more than we
did before . We will however call it a line. Now we must go on
to examine what “ a line" must be .
Placing ourselves in our former position, suppose we wish to
measure how far it is from one tree to the other. Then , by
fastening a measuring-tape by one end to one of them , and carry
mg it along to the other, we could easily find out the distance;
and if we were to draw the trees and the measuring -string on
the paper we should have this result ( 3):
3.

That is one which corresponds exactly with what we had above in

figure 2. Here therefore is an explanation of “ a line," namely, that
it represents the distance between two objects. For the present let
this be sufficient about it, and let us examine the method by which
we arrived at the statement we have just made.
 5

C H A P T E R III .

DEFINITION .

First, there were upon paper two objects and something between
them , of which we had to find out the meaning. This was a
“ Problem ,” which is the finding out of something new from facts
which we understood before. Then we went on to give this
unknown idea a name, i.e. , “ a line;"" and lastly, having examined
what it would represent, we attached that meaning to the name we
had given it. In other words, we “ defined " it. This then is the
course we must pursue with the various new ideas we shall meet
with as we proceed . First, to give them a name ; secondly, examine
what they represent ; thirdly, attach that meaning to the name
given .It is for this reason that Euclid begins with “ Definitions,"
because all the ideas about which he speaks are new to the student.
We have arrived, therefore, at the following mathematical ideas :
1. “ A Problem , " that is something to be done.
>
2. ““ Definition," or the statement of the meaning of a word
declaring what it represents.
3. “ A Line," which is the representation of distance.

CH A P T E R IV .

THE NAMES OF OBJECTS IN GEOMETRY .

It will be well now before tracing out any further ideas to obtain
if possible some method by which the frequent repetition of the
word “ objects ” may be avoided. In doing this, it must be borne
in mind that the two objects that we first chose, i.e. two trees,
were merely two of innumerable instances that might have been
chosen - two men, two carts, a signpost and a milestone, a house
and a wall — all would have answered equally well ; in fact, all that
was wanted was something and something else. A simple plan
 6

therefore is calling the objects we choose by the letters of the

alphabet — the first A, the second B, and so on, just as in conver
sation we talk of “ Mr. A.” or “ Mr. B.” when we are not speaking
of any particular person but merely wish to put a case. By this
means not only is the repetition of the same word avoided , but the
objects themselves are distinguished from each other : a fact of no
slight importance as the number becomes greater. We may
observe further that there is no need to preserve the strict alpha
betical order ; and very often we shall deviate from it; for example,
the first object is sometimes called P, and the second G, or it may
be H, or any other letter.

CHAPTER V.

INCLINATION .

We have now our two objects, A and B, and the line between
them ( 1 ,) which called AB . But
1.
there can be no reason why there A. B
should be but two objects on the
paper, why not a third, C, and a line
.
2

AC (2.) Then we have the two lines

AB and AC, and something which we
have not had before. For if we were
at C and wished to measure the A. B

distance to A, the line CA would

represent it ; but the distance from C to
.
3

B would be along the line CB (3 ,) and

not from C to A and then from A to B.
There is therefore some connection
between the two lines CA and CB, A
which must now be examined . First
then let us give the new idea a name, which shall be “an Angle.'
Secondly, we must inquire what an angle represents.
 7

.
4
A

Suppose, now, that there be a post EF erectedin the

ground, near a brick wall GH ; the post and the wall
will apparently have nothing to do with each other (4. )

5.
H

P
If however the post should lean a little towards the
wall, its head will be nearer than its foot ( 5.)

6.

And if the foot of the post were not fixed in the

ground at all, then the post not being able to stand up
of itself would lean for support against the wall (6.)

And in this case the post would be in exactly the same position
with regard to the wall that CA was with regard to AB, that is EF
would make an angle with GH. Hence an angle is the “ inclina
tion ” or leaning of two lines to each other, and therefore does not
depend upon the size of the lines themselves. We shall return again to
the subjectof angles; for the present this definition must be sufficient.
We may however observe that there is a curious use of the same
word in morals of a similar nature. For the exact measure of a
man's inclination towards any object is just how much he will go
out of his way to attain it.
 8

CH A P T E R V I.

FIGURES AND SURFACES .

HITHERTO we have had but three

objects on paper ; now let us suppose
a fourth D, and lines drawn from one
to the other AB, AC, CD , DB.
Here, then, again we meet with an idea unknown hitherto, for
the lines connecting A, B, C, and D all meet each other. Let us call
it a “ Surface .” For example, suppose that at each of the four
corners of a table there were placed some object, say a mustard
pot, an ink nd, a candlestick , and a book, and lines drawn from one
to the other ; by these lines the outline of a 66 Figure ” would be
formed, and the “ Surface ” of the table would be enclosed. To
examine what this surface is more closely, it must be remembered
thattheline AB represents the distance between the objects A and B
AC > A and C
CD C and D
DB D and B
2

>

1.
с D

А B
2.
Suppose now that the lines AB, CD,
increase to AB , and CD ,, (2 ) then the
surface ABCD will have increased to
B By
AB , CD , 3.

Again suppose the same lines decrease PED

to AB ,, CD , (3.) then the surface ABCD

2

decreases to AB ,CD .A
 9

4
.
с D
Next let AB and CD remain in their
first position (1 and 4. ) B
5.

And let AC and BD vary, then the surface D

grows larger, (5) or smaller (6) as C and DC
recede (5. ) or approach (6. )
A B

Hence the size of the surface depends upon 6.

two things; one the distance of B from A, the
other of C from A. Now the distance of B cer Dz

from A is already called the length ; to dis А. B

tinguish the other direction therefore, let us

call it by another name, viz. Breadth, then we may say that a
Surface represents Length and Breadth ,” just as we know it does
in the case of the table of which we spoke above.

CHAPTER VII.

SOLIDS AND MAGNITUDES .

Two kinds of “ Magnitudes,"

, that is of things which can be
measured , have now been mentioned, those namely the size of
which depends only upon their length , and those of which the
size depends upon two things - length and breadth. Is there any
kind which depends upon more than two ? There is one kind
more , namely that, the size of which depends upon three “ dimen
sions” as they are called, that is upon three things any one of
 10

which may change its size without altering that of either of the
two others. This third kind of magnitude is called a 66 Solid,” or
better a 66
Volume," and the third dimension “ Thickness .” More
dimensions than these cannot be conceived, though why they cannot
is beyond our present work to inquire, even if it be possible
to discover. Thus far therefore we have obtained the following
definitions .:
A Line is that which has length .
A Surface length and breadth .
A Solid length, breadth and thickness.

CH A P T E R VIII .

LIMITS AND LOCI .

OUR next step will be to find out, if possible, some relation between
these three kinds of magnitude, the solid, the surface, and the
line.
Suppose now that we have a pack of cards ; this will be a
solid, inasmuch as it has both length breadth and thickness; but
the top card of it will be a surface, as is shown by the fact of
very
its being called the top card . If then the top card be taken away,
the one immediately beneath it will become the top card in its turn ,
and if this be done fifty -one times, each card will become the
surface until the whole pack is reduced to one card, and the solid
will itself have become a surface. But further, this last card may
be pared and pared away without any limit to the fineness to
which it may be reduced , and neither its length nor breadth need
be altered at all. But, meanwhile, however small it may become,
some thickness must be left unless we take away both length and
breadth also . Hence we conclude that the existence of length and
 11

breadth implies (that is necessitates) the existence of thickness

also, but at the same time the thickness may be smaller than we can
perceive or appreciate.
In this case, that is, when the dimension is too small to be per
ceptible, it is said to be in its “ Limit.” Hence our definition of a
surface becomes, “ That which has length and breadth appreciable
and thickness in its limit," i.e. smaller than we can appreciate.
Treating the surface in aa similar manner, that is, considering its
9

length to remain fixed while its breadth 1.

C D
decreases, we find it approach more
and more nearly to aa line (2, 3 ,) until at
last when the breadth becomes smaller A B

than we can perceive, the distance 2.

alone remains appreciable, and the
surface in its limiting form becomes a
line (4. ) But just as the thickness
would not entirely disappear unless B
both length and breadth were taken
3
.

away also, so here both thickness and

breadth exist, but both in their limit. C WIE
D

As an example of this consider a single A B

hair. What is there to prevent both
its breadth and its thickness from being 4.
А. B
different in different men ? Yet who
can measure either ?
5.
Lastly, imagine that the same line, A B
B
we will call it A B , has one end fixed
towards which the other object (B) 6.
approaches (5 , 6. ) Then the distance A B2 -B
itself diminishes also, and at last when
7.
B comes up to A, length itself is in its A
limit as well as breadth and thick
(B )
ness (7.)
 12

Here, then , we have another idea ,entirely new - a kind of magni

tude namely, which has neither length, breadth nor thickness
appreciable, yet every one of them existing in an inappreciable
degree. Let us call it a “Point," then its definition is already
given.
A Point is that which has all three dimensions in an inappre
ciable degree.
Or, A Point is the limiting form of geometical magnitude.
Hence we have the following definitions of the four kinds of
magnitude.
All space and therefore all magnitude can vary in three
directions only.
A Solid has 3 dimensions appreciable, and 0 inappreciable.
A Surface 2 1 9

A Line 1 > 2
A Point 0 3

The solid , therefore, when shrunk up as much as possible in any

one dimension is reduced to a surface . The surface in the same
way becomes a line; the line dwindles into a point. Nor let it
be said that these are opposed to Euclid's definitions, for they only
differ from him in the particular in which the definitions of Euclid
himself are somewhat hard to reconcile. “ The extremities of
>
a solid ,” says he, are surfaces.” If so, by continual division the
solid may be cut up into surfaces, and inversely the surfaces will
make up the solid . If then not one of these surfaces have any
thickness, how shall they altogether produce a solid ? Let the
thickness be inappreciable, and the difficulty is explained.
To proceed. Since the line when reduced becomes a point, the
point by its motion will produce or generate a line. Hence a line
may be regarded as the path in which a point moves, or more
strictly as the “ Locus” of a point, locus meaning the path which is
formed by the motion of anything. So again , a line by its motion
will “ generate” a surface - a moving surface generates a solid ;
 13

and thus a surface is the locus of a line, and a solid the locus of a
surface. Hence in addition to the above definitions, we have the
following relations between the four varieties of magnitudes:
Limits.
A Point is the limiting form of a Line.
A Line a Surface.
A Surface , a Solid .
Loci.
A Solid is the locus of a Surface.
A Surface a Line .
A Line 95 99 a Point.
And under the latter form ( especially the line as the locus of a
point) it is often very convenient to consider them . There are
some fountains at the Crystal Palace which afford a pretty illustra
tion of the last observations. A single drop of water becomes a
jet, the jet expands into a surface , the surface rises into a column,
the column sinks back into the basin , and disappears by the little
opening from which the first drop came forth .

CHAPTER IX .

EXAMPLES OF LOCI .

LET us now pause for a moment, and observe how closely the
definitions we have obtained correspond with natural processes.
The point of a pen or pencil tracing out a line as it moves over the
paper, the fiery circle formed by rapidly whirling round a stick,
one end of which is alight, the furrows of a plough, the orbits of
the stars are all lines formed by moving points ; the wake of
a ship and the track of aa roller are surfaces produced by the motion
of lines ; the mass of water in a basin is a solid generated by
 14

the rising surface of the water. So perfectly general indeed is .

this method of generation that it is as impossible to generate a line
without moving a point, as to reach a place without moving our
body .
Havi thus obtained our ral ideas as to “ Motion ,” “ Loci,"
and “ Limits,” let us now confine ourselves to those particular cases
of which Euclid treats. First of all then we may dismiss at once
two out of the four great varieties of magnitude which we have
before us ,—viz. a solid and a surface ; as of these Euclid says very
little or nothing in the parts with which we are at present concerned .
He does certainly mention a “ plane surface ” once or twice, but
this merely so far as it regards a line, in the consideration of which
therefore we may briefly notice it hereafter.
With the two remaining magnitudes we have at present to deal,
viz . a Line and a Point. And they are defined as follows:
A Point has all three dimensions in their Limit.
A Line has one dimension appreciable, and two in their Limit.
And they stand in this relation to each other.
A Point is the Generator of aa Line — i.e. is that by the motion of
which a
a line is formed .
A Line is the Locus of a Point, i.e. is the path in which a point
moves . Hence aa line may be considered as a series of consecutive
points.
From this it is evident that before any geometrical magnitude
can be produced, a point must be given. “ The world stood upon
the elephant, and the elephant stood upon the tortoise, but what
did the tortoise stand upon ? ” says the old fable. - Give me a
stand -point and I will move the world ,” said Archimedes . “ Let A
be a given point, and I will prove my proposition ,” says Euclid
with equal necessity.
Every line then that can be described is described by
the motion of a point, and varies in its form according to
Thus a billiard ball moves
the mode in which the point moves.
 15

in a straight line, a stone in a sling in aa circle before it is let go,

in a parabola afterwards; the planets have elliptic orbits, the comets
hyperbolic; the motion of the point of a corkscrew again is spiral;
and each of these lines comes under our present definition. Of
the greater number however even of the six we have mentioned,
Euclid takes no account - indeed , his first six books are confined to
two of them, the straight line and the circle, even these being by
no means exhausted. But these two lines are, as may be conjec
tured, the foundation of all geometrical measurement; and the
forty - seventh proposition of the first book of Euclid would almost
seem to be that very stand-point of which we were just now speak
ing, the destruction of which would involve in its ruin every calcu
lation hitherto made in geometry, trigonometry, and astronomy.
Our first object now will be to discover the law of motion by which
these two lines are formed, the names of which we have anticipated ;
the next will be to trace the various results which follow from
their method of generation .
 16

SECTION II .

CHAPTER X.

THE STRAIGHT LINE .

If we now refer to the beginning of our studies we shall find

that the inquiry before us is very similar to the first which we had
to make. The question then was, — “ What is a line ? ” Now it
is, — “ What is a straight line?” And the best way to obtain an
answer will evidently be to place ourselves in the position which
we then occupied. This position was as follows :—We had our two
objects A and B, and the line between them AB , which was the
measure of the distance from one object 1.
to the other. Afterwards we had aa third
object C, and the line AC, and the two
lines together forming the angle BAC (1. ) A B

But from what has been said above, each 2

-C
of these two lines AB, AC, may be con
sidered, and indeed are, made up of a series
of points as close together as possible (2. ) A -B
In what order, then , do these points follow each other ? This
is the problem we have to solve.
Now, conceive that AB remains fixed in a horizontal position,
while AC revolves without alter 3 4
ing its form or length (3, 4.) C "
For example, conceive one leg
of a pair of compasses to remain B A B

fixed in a horizontal position

while the other revolves. By
* cm
 17

this means we make AC assume a number of different directions,

and in so doing find that the order of each three consecutive points
(whatever that order may be) remains unchanged in all cases
except that of the point A, and the point on either side of it (4. )
Let us call point next to A in the line AB, P ‫ן‬,,‫ י‬and the
corresponding point in the line AC, P 2, ; then the order of all the
points remains unchanged, except that of P , AP,
Now we may remark that these points enclose the angle at A :
consequently we see that an angle depends upon the order of three
consecutive points.
To proceed. As AC revolved, the path of P , gradually increased ,
2

and the angle P , AP , increased along with it (5, 6, 7,) until

5. 6.
C ...

Il
A- 3 B
suddenly in the end AC arrived at AB and the angle P ,, AP ,
apparently disappeared altogether ( 8. )
7.
------- B 8.
A :
4
BC"")
C 11
But next let us imagine AC as it were, to retrace its steps :
( i.e. to revolve in the opposite direction. ) A similar result will
take place to that in the previous case, except that as AC passes
9. 10.

A -B -B

--- s
o
C
 18

through its former positions, the 11 .

angle P , AP , will now become Ć
greater where it was less before,
and vice versa , being measured in
an opposite direction (9, 10, 11.) B
A
( Compare the arrows in 9 and 7,
10 and 6, 11 and 5. )
Now then, if we consider AC in any one fixed direction , there will
be evidently two angles where there is apparently but one ( 12, 13. )
12 . 13 .

-B
☺
For as AC might have arrived in its present position by revolving
from AB either upwards at first or downwards, the angle may
be conceived to be the result of either motion, and therefore
to be measured in either direction. And this is true not merely
in any one direction of AC but of every direction in which AC
can lie. In the
position of AC then, there are two angles
to be taken into account, both measured from A B, one up
wards and the other downwards. Let us call the former the
Superior or Positive, the latter the Inferior or Negative Angle.
These two angles are in this relation to each other. Each
starts from zero, and attains ultimately the same size, but the
negative angle is zero when the positive is at its “ maximum " or
greatest size, and vice versa . Hence there must be some position
in which the positive angle is 14 .

equal to the negative ( 14. ) And C -В

in this case A C is in a straight
line with A B. And this is the required .position. We obtain
therefore the following definition of a straight line.
 19

A Straight Line is the locus of a point which moves in such

a manner that the positive angle between each three consecutive
points is equal to the negative.
And this is what is meant by the definition : “ A straight
line is that which lies evenly between its extreme points.”

CHAPTER XI .

THE STRAIGHT LINE CONTINUED .

SINCE the law of motion in a straight line fixes the third and all
successive points, while it leaves the first two arbitrary, four
results of the utmost importance immediately follow :
1. Through any one point an infinite number of straight lines
can be drawn, since the second point may be fixed any
where. Thus if in shooting, the right elevation being
obtained , one “sight " only be brought to bear upon the
object, the barrel may yet point to the right or left, and
thus the shot may miss.
2. Through any two points one straight line, and one straight
line only, can be drawn, since all the points are deter
mined in relation to the first two by the law of motion .
Hence if both sights are brought to bear, the barrel is
in a direct line, and down comes the quarry .
3. Through more than two points no straight line can be
drawn, unless the points are in such a position as to
fulfil the above condition .
4. No straight line can have more than one point in common with
another straight line, for if it have two it will have all in
common , The same example will serve here as before;
 20

the meaning being that if two points of the barrel are in

a straight line with the object, every point of the barrel
is so also .
Each of these facts is so simple and common as to require no
further illustration here.
When then two points are given the path of a point moving in
a straight line is determined in direction. But this of course does
not by any means fix any particular position in which the moving
point is to be arrested : to determine which further condition will
be required . How is it then that if a straight line be drawn from
one given point to another it can only be of a certain length ? It
is because the second point being fixed not only in direction but
also in position is equivalent to two fixed points ; or, to put it more
simply, in that case the point which fixes the direction and that
which fixes the length coincide.
* Hence a law of motion which depends upon the length of
a given straight line, is equivalent to one depending upon three
given points. And as above, a line, the law of which depended
upon two points, could be made to pass through any two points, so
a line the law of which depends upon three points, can be made to
pass through any three points. That is to say, through any three
points whatsoever a line can be made to pass, such that its law of
motion shall depend upon a certain straight line of fixed length.
But this will be clearer when we have considered the circle .

CHAPTER XII .

EVEN AND UNEVEN SURFACES .

If in a surface any two points whatsoever (A and B) be taken ,

and a straight line be drawn from A to B, then A B will be either
completely or partially in the surface according as the latter is
 21

level or uneven . Thus if a lake be perfectly calm , a stick floating

upon it would be entirely upon the water ; but if there be ever so
small a ripple, the stick will be partly in the water and partly out.
In the former case the surface is said in Geometry to be plane; and
we have its definition as follows :
A Plane, or a Plane Surface, is that in which any two points
being taken, the straight line between them lies wholly in that
surface. We shall obtain a simpler definition in a future chapter.
In the present treatise plane surfaces only will be considered ;
and all lines will be conceived to be “ in the same plane.” We
shall not therefore repeat the qualification , as it will be the
same in all cases. These remarks apply of course to the deduc
tions obtained in the last chapter.

CH A P T E R XIII .

THE CIRCLE ,

MEANWHILE it must not be forgotten that in order to measure the

angle in a straight line, we have been making a straight line revolve
round one of its own extremities, and consequently by the force of
what we said above (chap. viii.) have been describing a surface
of some kind or other. In examining the locus 1.
thus formed as every point in the revolving
straight line moves in a similar path ( 1 ) it will
be sufficient to confine ourselves at first to the
motion of a single point.
Let us take a straight line AB and examine
 22

the motion of the point B only. Now as AB is of a fixed length

the motion of B round A cannot alter its distance from A. The
point B therefore must move in such a manner as to be always at
the same distance from A. Hence the law of motion of B is
known, and if we give to the new path thus formed the name of
66
Circle, " we may define as follows :
A Circle is the locus of a point (B) which is always at the same
distance from a given fixed point (A,) all the points being in the
same plane.
A word or two of explanation is here needed. The locus of
which we are now speaking is considered by Euclid not as a circle
but as the circumference of a circle . The circle itself is the name
he gives to the whole figure described by the revolving line, that
is to the whole surface contained by the circumference; but we have
ventured to adopt at once the language of higher mathematics,
and to consider the circle as the locus of a point, and the surface
as a circular plate, defining as follows :
A Circular Plate is the figure formed by the revolution of a
straight line round one of its own ends which remains at rest.
But it may be asked, Why not employ Euclid's own terms to
express his own ideas ? We reply that not only do the ordinary
diagrams cause us unconsciously to conceive a circle as a line ( an
idea which obtains in all the higher Geometry,) but that Euclid
himself (or at least his translator) uses the word in a somewhat
similar way . “ Let it be granted ," he says,, 6“ that a circle may
be described from any centre , at any distance from that centre ."
How can the whole surface be at a distance from the centre when
the centre itself is in the surface ? At the same time the author
cannot but feel that he is perhaps rendering himself liable to the
charge of hypercriticism and even audacity in changing terms so
clear and so venerable. His apology is that clear as many mathe
matical ideas are in themselves, he has found that a slight
occasional confusion in their use prevented him both from a nice
 23

perception of their meaning, and also from observing the exquisite

exactness with which they grow out of and fall into each other - a
matter full of instruction and beauty. There is great pleasure in
watching the prismatic colours of a diamond, but a grain of dust in
the eye will spoil it all.

CHAPTER XIV .

THE CIRCLE CONTINUED .

We shall now attempt first, to show how our definitions of the

Circle and Circular Plate correspond with those which Euclid gives
of the Circumference and Circle; and secondly, to examine some of
the various parts of these figures.
“ A Circle ,” says Euclid, “ is a plane figure 1.

contained by one line, which is called the

circumference , and is such that all straight
B
lines drawn from a certain point within the A

figure to the circumference are equal to one

another. And this point is called the centre of
the circle ” ( 1. ) (AB =AP. )
The definitions correspond exactly. For the figure is, as we have
seen, bounded by the path described by the extreme point of the
revolving line, i.e. it is contained by one line 2.
which is called the circumference. Again, since
the circumference is the locus of a point (2 ) which
is always at the same distance from a fixed point,
all straight lines drawn from the fixed point to any
point in the locus will be equal to one another
in other words, the fixed point is the centre, and all straight lines
drawn from it to the locus of the revolving point, i.e., to the circum
ference, are equal to one another.
( AP = AB.)
 24

Next, to define a few of the parts both of the circle and the
circular plate, using our own definitions.
The fixed extremity of the revolving line is called the Centre of
the circle .
The revolving line itself is called the Radius.
In its first position, usually taken as horizontal, it is called the
Prime Radius or Axis. And just as a point by its motion generates
a line, that is, as we conceive it to leave itself behind as it were,
while it moves on ; so in the case of the circle the prime radius is
conceived to be always at rest, while the revolving radius or
rather its extreme point, traces out the line.
3.
The path described by the moving point P

between any two given positions is called an

Arc of the circle (3 ,) the latter name being
As B
given from its bow - like shape (BP. )
And the portion of the circular plate which is contained by any two
radii and the arc between them is called a Sector of the circle (3. )
We may further notice that motion in a circle affords an easy
method of fixing a point at any particular 4.
distance from another point. Thus, if there
be two points, A and B, at a certain distance
from each other, and it be required to fix
another point, C as far from A as B is, but A -B
5.
in another direction (4,) take A as centre,
and AB as radius, and make AB revolve till
it lies in the required direction ; then B is the
A
required position (P. ) (5. )
Or again, suppose it be required to fix a point in such a
position as to be at the same distance from two given points
as these two points are from each other. For example, to
plant a flag at such a distance from two flags already fixed, that
the distance from any one of the three flags to another of them will
be the same.
 25

Then , first taking A as the fixed point, and making B perform

a whole revolution ;
And, secondly, taking B as the fixed point, and making A per
form a whole revolution ;
6.
we have two circles, in both of which C must B

lie (since it is to be equally distant from A

and B,) and there are but two such points ,
namely, those which these circles have in
common , one above and the other below AB.
Either of these points therefore is in the
required position (6. )

CHAPTER X V.

CONTACT OF CIRCLE AND STRAIGHT LINE .

BEFORE concluding the subject let us as in the case of the

straight line inquire through how many points a circle can be
made to pass . It is formed, as we have seen, by the motion of a
point which is always at a fixed distance from a given point. The
size of the orbit therefore depends upon the distance of these two
points from each other . Now we have seen that when aa fixed distance
is given, it is equivalent not to two but to three given points.
And just as the straight line depended upon two points, and there
fore given any two points a straight line could be drawn from one
to the other ; so given any three points, it is always possible to
find some circle which will pass through them. How to determine
the centre when the three points are given through which the
circle is to pass, is the subject of the fifth proposition of Euclid's
fourth Book.

If however there be four points through which it is required to

make aa circle pass, the relative positions of these points must fulfil
 26

a certain condition amongst themselves. And this condition is

determined in the twenty -second Proposition of the third Book .
Again, since a straight line can be made to 1.
pass through any two given points and no more,
and aa circle through any three, it is plain that a
straight line and circle may have two points in
common, but cannot have more . Such a straight
line is called a “ Secant,” ( 1 ) and the part of it (PQ) R
within the circle is called a Chord of the circle ; and the portion of
the circular plate contained by the arc P Q and the chord
P Q is called a Segment of the circular plate. Or in the lan
a
guage of Euclid , “ A Segment of a circle is the figure contained by
a straight line or chord, and the arc or part of the circumference
which it cuts off .”
If however it happen that the 2. 3.
two points which the straight
line and circle have in common ,
be consecutive , the straight line
it is called a " Tangent" to the
circle, (2 , 3,) so that the defini
tion of a Tangent is, “ A straight
line which has two consecutive point in common with the circle . ”
And since no straight line can have more than one point in
common with another, there can be only one tangent to a circle at
any given point in it. This theorem is found in the corollary to
Euclid III. prop. xvii. and proves that our definitions are not
opposed to his in reality
though they may be in appearance. The
above definition therefore which obtains in all the higher Mathe
matics may perhaps be allowed to explain Euclid also .
Thus, as we shall see more clearly in the next chapter, a circle
may be conceived to be made up of straight lines, each of two
points only, which lines when produced are tangents to the circle.
Now when a circular substance comes in contact with one that
 27

is straight, the only part of the circle which will be in actual con
tact is that which forms the tangent of the point. For example,
a wheel on a level road is only in contact with the road at the
bottom of the wheel, and the road is a tangent to the wheel.
Similarly when a ray of light, or a column of sound strikes aa circle,
it comes in direct contact only with the tangent to the curve : and
the angle at which it strikes the curve, is the angle contained
between its line of motion, and the tangent to the curve at the
point of contact. This also will be clearer presently.

CHAPTER x V I.

ANGLES .

In our inquiry into the straight line we saw that much depended
upon the angle. To this subject we now return ;—a -a subject perhaps
of somewhat singular interest to us, to whose forefathers “that little
corner ” of Denmark gave its name of Angli ; a name still living in
66
England,” “ Angleterre,” and “ Engelland.” Nor let the disciple
of Izaak Walton forget that his sport depends upon the varying
angle between the rod and line, and thence receives its well loved
name of Angling
We have seen that an angle exists between every three consecu
tive points in a line, and depends upon their order of succession .
We found also that as the point which described the circle revolved ,
the superior angle between the radius and the axis gradually
increased while the inferior decreased equally.
Hence since the angle is increased by the motion of the same
 28

1.
line the end of which generates the circle,
and inasmuch as the circle increases
exactly as the angle between the radius
and the axis increases — therefore the size
of the angle may be measured by the size B

of the arc of the circle which the angle subtends, i.e. the arc to
which the angle is opposite (1.)
Thus, the circumference of a compass is divided into 32
“ points ;" and sailors are accustomed to measure by them the
various angles they may require. Thus a ship is said to be “ eight
>

points from the wind” when she is at right angles to it, or to

have gone off a certain number of points, when she has changed
her course of sailing.
And since in a straight line the superior is equal to the inferior
angle, therefore the portions of the circle above and below the axis
are equal, and consequently the angle in a straight line subtends a
semicircle . Now for convenience' sake a circle is said to be
divided into 360 equal parts, which are called degrees. The angle
in a straight line, therefore, will subtend, that is be opposite to 180
of them , and is called “an angle of 180 degrees,” which is
commonly written 180°."> 2.

Suppose now that there is a straight D '. D

line AB and a point in it C, and

at this point a line CD revolving from A B

right to left (2. ) Then there will be an 3.

angle DCB increasing and an angle DCA D
decreasing as CD revolves from right to
left, and CD will pass through a position,
similar to the last case in which the
A B
angle DCB is equal to the angle DCA (3. ) C
When the straight line DC is in this
position with regard to another straight line AB, each of these
angles is called a right angle, and we have this definition :
 29

“When one straight line standing upon another straight line

makes the adjacent angles equal to each other, each of
these angles is called a right angle, and the straight lines
are said to be perpendicular to each other.” And as the
angle in a straight line was shown to subtend a semicircle,
so a right angle may be shown to subtend a “ quadrant” or
quarter of a circle, and therefore to be an “ angle of 90 deg. "
And this has been thought by some to be the true definition of a
right angle, that given 5. 4. 6.
P
above being more pro P

perly the definition of

two right angles, or BA B À
perhaps of perpendicularity.
An angle which subtends the Quadrant of a Circle is called a
Right Angle (4. )
An angle which subtends less than the Quadrant of a Circle
is called an Acute Angle (5.)
An angle which subtends more than the Quadrant of a Circle
is called an Obtuse Angle (6.)
It is to be observed also ( 7,) from the manner in which we obtained
the angle BAP,, that it is composed of the angles BAP and
P , AP ,, inasmuch as the angle P'AB 7.

was first formed by the revolution of

PS
AP ,, and after that the angle P ,AP,
was added by the same means . Hence ,
P ,AB = P ,AP ,, + P ; AB .
Consequently if at any point in a straight line there be drawn
another straight line, the two angles which the second line makes
with the first are together equal to the angle in a straight line,
that is, to 180 °.
When in practice it is required actually to measure the number
of degrees in any angle, an instrument is used called a Theodolite
the action of which it is not necessary to explain here.
 30

SECTION III .

CHAPTER XVII .

CONTINUITY.-FIRST CONDITION OBTAINED .

If we now compare the two lines we lave obtained we shall find

at once this striking difference . In circular motion after a certain
time we arrive again at the place from which we started : in
moving in a straight line, this, to all appearance , at least, will
never be the case . This Enclosure of space is an idea which we
have not yet discussed, and it is both important and difficult.
The question may be put in this form : According to what law
must a point move in order that all its positions may be connected,
or in other words, in order that it may return to the point from
which it set out ? Now first since the space must consist of both
length and breadth , and since any two points can be in a straight
line which of course consists of length alone ; therefore in order
that space may be enclosed, there must be at least three points
which are not in the same straight line, or which is equivalent, the
point by the motion of which the space is to be enclosed must
make at some point an angle of less than 180° with the straight line
which it describes at first. 1.
Suppose then a point P moving
in a straight line from A, and that
we wish to alter its course so that
space may be enclosed. Then, at
A L
 31

some point (say B) there must be an angle of less than 180° with
the line AB - viz. ABP, and another angle PBC with the line in
which it would have moved had it gone on (1.) But if P continue to
travel along BP which has one point (B) in common with BA and
therefore cannot have another, by what means is it to return to its
first position A, which it must do if space is to be enclosed ? The
answer is at hand :—If P is to return to its former path AB, it must
make such inclinations with the lines BP and BA as will make up
the deflection PBC from the line BC (2.)

That is, the angle BPA + the 2.

angle PAB must equal the angle PBC,

And since ABP + PBC
=angle in a straight line
B
= 180°.
.. ABP + BPA + BAP = 180°.

In other words : “ The three angles of a triangle are together

equal to 180 °." And this is one condition which must be
fulfilled if space is enclosed. Thus the angles of a triangle appear
to be only the angle of a straight line broken up. As a simple
example of the above theorem, let the student cut off the three
corners of a triangular piece of paper , and place them together.
He will find that they form a straight line.
It must be remarked that the above condition is sufficient only to
bring back the point P to its original path AB , and not to any
3.
particular point in it such as A.
D
Thus if there were any point D
in AB to which Preturned, the
same condition would be fulfilled , As B

and space would be enclosed (3. ) The further condition necessary

to bring it back to the particular point A will be considered in
Part II .
 32

CH A P T E R X VIII .

THE POLYGON .

Thus we have determined one condition that space may be

enclosed by the smallest possible number of straight lines : namely,
that there be three points not in the same straight line, the angles
at which are together equal to the angle in a straight line.
Hence it follows immediately that “ two straight lines cannot
enclose space,” inasmuch as unless they coincide they can have
but one point in common , and the angle at that point must be
less than 180°.
In will be easy from this to deduce the condition for any number
of boundary points — a boundary point being one at which the
angle is less than 180°. For suppose that there be a fourth point
1.
D to which P has to travel before its return D
to its original position. Then instead of
travelling along PA, it will travel along PD.
If then we consider AP as the path along A
which it would naturally move, the same con
dition will be involved as before. For PD makes an angle APD,
with AP : therefore for P to return, it must make the angles
APD + PDA + DAP = 180° ( 1. ) And therefore the angles at A, B, P
and D altogether are equal to or 66 contain " 360°. Thus in fact
every new boundary point after the second adds 180° to the sum of
the angles of the figure, and therefore one condition that space
may be enclosed by straight lines, is that the angles of the
enclosing figure equal twice as many right angles as the figure has
 33

more than two sides (which is the same proposition as Euclid I. 32 ,

Cor. 1.) "
We have seen , then, the least number of straight lines which can
contain space - namely, three. Is there any limit on the other side
also ? Now since the figure is formed of straight lines, the number
can only be limited by the size of the straight lines themselves ;
and in any given space as the number of 2.
boundary points increases, the length of the
straight lines joining them decreases; so that
the greatest limit to the number of boundary
points will be reached when the length of
the straight lines is as small as possible that is, when each line
consists of two points only. In other words, the limit to the num
ber is attained when the boundary points lie immediately together,
each two consecutive points forming a fresh straight line of inappre
ciable length. And in this case the Polygon ( that is, the figure

a This theorem may be simply expressed in an algebraic form , thus:

If n be the number of sides of any polygon, then the sum of its angles
= 2 (1--2) 2 (n — 2) 180°. And therefore, if the polygon be regular, the
п n- 2
number of degrees in any one of its angles n (n − 2 ) - n
180º.
1800
Thus, each angle in an equilateral Triangler 600.
3
2 x 1800
a Square 90°.

3 x 1800
108°.
in a regular Pentagon = 5
4 x 180°
99 " Hexagon 120°.
6
And so on . And it may be observed that though the number of degrees in the
angle increases every time, yet as the denominator of the fraction must be
always larger than the numerator, the number of degrees can never (unless
indeed n become infinite) attain 180°—that is, the number in a straight line. 4

We shall see how this corresponds with a subsequent chapter.

D
 34

enclosed by any number of straight lines) becomes a Circle, and its

sides, when produced, are Tangents. Hence, aa circle is the limiting
form of a polygon when the number of sides becomes immeasurably
great and the length of the sides immeasurably small. This theory,
which at first may seem merely an amusing paradox, is nevertheless
unconsciously applied to many operations of daily life. Thus, if a
shipwright wishes to fashion the branch of a tree into a mast, he
does not leave it in its natural form , however round that, may
appear to the inexperienced eye. But he first cuts it four square,
then turns the square into a regular octagon, and finally, by multi
plying the sides, which become smaller and smaller each time, he
produces the circular form required. Thus we have obtained a
curious relation between the polygon and the circle, and we proceed
to that of the circle and straight line, by the examination of which
we shall be able to determine the other condition necessary for the
limitation of space — viz., that none of the enclosing points shall be
at an immeasurably great distance . But it will be well first to
enumerate the various forms of the polygon , to which Euclid
alludes. They are as follows:
That which has 3 boundary points is called a Triangle.
4
"

> Trapezium.
5
07

27 Pentagon.
22 6 Hexagon.
> 8 97 Octagon .
92
15 Quindecagon .

Of Trapezia and Triangles again , Euclid defines the following

kinds. Of Trapezia
That which has its opposite sides equal and its angles not
right -angles is called a Rhomboid.
That which has all its sides equal and its angles not right
angles is called aa Rhombus.
 35

That which has its opposite sides equal and its angles right
angles is called an Oblong.
That which has all its sides equal and its angles right-angles is
called a Square.
Of Triangles
That which has three unequal sides is called Scalene.
two equal sides Isosceles.
three Equilateral.
In this list we must observe that “Trapezium " has been used as
a general name for all four-sided figures; but Euclid only uses it
to denote those to which he does not give any more distinctive
name such as “ Square,'
,” “ Rhombus," &c. And it must be further
remarked, that although these figures may in general have all thei
sides of different lengths, yet (except in the case of Triangles and of
Parallelograms, of which we shall speak presently) Euclid confines
his attention to those which have all their sides equal, and, by con
sequence, though he does not prove it, their angles equal also. Such
Polygons are called “ Regular.”

CHAPTER XIX .

THE LAW OF GRADUAL GROWTH .

IF I am the possessor of 51. it is evident that until I have spent that

sum I cannot be in need of borrowing of aa friend. If I have a glass
of water by my side, I need not suffer thirst until after that water
be drunk up. If I walk ten miles towards a place, I cannot until I
have walked more than ten miles in the opposite direction be further
from the place than I was before I started. Or, to put this into
mathematical language - If a quantity gradually decrease from being
positive until it become negative, it must pass through zero. Hence
 36

in Geometry, when we find an angle gradually decreasing and then

increasing in the opposite direction , we know that there must have
been some position in which it vanished altogether. Such a point
is called a “ critical" point, i.e. , one at which a quantity having
been positive becomes by gradual decrease negative, or vice versa
these words positive and negative being used to denote directions
exactly the opposite of each other ( i.e., having an angle of 180°
between them ). We have found, therefore, a critical point (zero)
for a gradually decreasing quantity. Is there any such point when
the quantity increases ? Now that there is such a point is evident
from two chains of reasoning.
First, it is highly probable that what happens in the inferior limit
will also take place in the superior limit. In other words, that as
the inferior limit of increase can be passed by making the quantity
gradually increase in the opposite direction ; so the superior limit,
that is the limit when a quantity is immeasurably greator " infinite,"
can be passed by a similar change of direction and making the
quantity decrease instead of increase.
Secondly, we have testimony to the practical truth of this suppo
sition in the observation of various phenomena of nature which are
given below. The scale of increase then has two limits one zero,
and the other its opposite (i.e., infinity ) ; and whenever a quantity,
which has been gradually decreasing, be found to be increasing in
the opposite direction, it must have passed through zero, and when
vice versâ, through infinity.a
Upon this subject, which is very difficult both from its being
rather of an algebraic than a geometrical character, and also from
the failure of all symbols to express gradual growth, we will only
add a few remarks from Professor Price. They are in his lucid

a Infinity, of course, is not the only maximum nor zero the only
minimum of a curve. This merely applies to the scale of ordinary
numbers.
 37

“ Treatise on Infinitesimal Calculus, ” which was, in fact, the source

of many ideas contained in this little work , and to which are due all
2

the definitions founded on the method of limits, as they are either

taken from it or grounded immediately upon it.
" It is conceived ," he says, " that all geometrical quantity, whether
linear, superficial, or spatial, is from its very nature capable of in
crease or decrease to an infinite extent. A line may be very great,
nay of an infinite length, or very short ; space may be very small,
such as, so to speak, it would require a microscope of almost infinite
power to render visible, or it may be very large. Whenever such
quantities vary , they do so in accordance with the law of continuity ;
they cannot pass from one magnitude to another without passing
through all intermediate magnitudes ; they grow larger and larger,
or less and less. This capability of increase or decrease is involved
in our idea of geometrical quantity ; it is necessary to its completion ,
and, if it be omitted, our notions fall short of the properties of the
subject -matter of the science .”
“It is worth remarking, " he continues, " how exactly our ideas of
a plane coincide with the definition I have given. We speak of the
surface of water as a plane, and consider it to be level ; whereas it
is a portion of the surface of a sphere whose radius is very large
compared with the area we take ; say, 4,000 miles compared with a
7

few inches.
“ So again as to our conception of a straight line. A straight
line being a particular instance of a circle ” (as we shall see in
chapter xx.) " is aa continuous line; it does not terminate at positive
infinity nor at negative infinity, but the two branches of the line are
connected with one another running, if we may so speak, round the
circle of which the radius is infinity and joined together." (Price's
Treatise on Infinitesimal Calculus, Vol. I., pp. 261 , 262. Oxford,
1852.)
We return to the motion of a single point. Suppose there is a
straight line AB, and in it a fixed point C, with aa line CP, running
 38

through it, the extremity of which gradually recedes from AB. Then
as P gets further off, the angle APC becomes smaller and smaller,
while AP becomes larger and larger, until we can trace it no
longer ( 1 ).
We find however on the opposite side of AB that P returns with
an angle gradually increasing, and the distance AP gradually de
creasing (2). Now as the angle APC from gradually decreasing has
been found to increase in the opposite direction , it must have passed

1.

2.
с
B

-3
-7

7- Tom

→ --

7?
 39

through zero and similarly AP must have passed through infinity.

And as AP and the angle APC vary together inversely, one that
is gradually increasing as the other decreases, and vice versâ, their
critical points must have been the same. That is, AP was equal to
infinity when APC was zero — a most important result.

* CHAPTER XX .

LIMITING FORM OF CIRCLE .

Let us now examine the relation between the straight line and
circle. We have seen that the angle between three consecutive
points in a straight line is 180° , and that the angle between three
consecutive points in aa circle must be less than 180°, as otherwise
all points in the circle would coincide 1.
with all points in the straight line.
Let there be then three consecutive
points, P,B,C, in a circle with centre A
A and radius AB. Then PB and BC
may be considered as two straight lines
of inappreciable length. Let one of these straight lines, BC, have a
third consecutive point, Q (1 ). Then there will be an angle PBQ,
and the point P will be on the same side of the straight line CQ as
the centre A is. Now let the centre A recede from B in a straight
line to A ; then P and C will move 2.
to P' and C' ( since the radius is
increased ), and CBQ will become
C'BB'. Hence as AB increases the
angle PBQ will decrease, and vice AS
versa. Suppose, then, that PBQ
pass through zero, and gradually ŚĆ '
 40

increase uponthe opposite side of the straight line QC, then the centre
A will change sides also , and BA must 3.
therefore have passed through a criti- a
cal point when the angle QBP passed
through zero (3.) And since AB in B A
creased as the angle QBP decreased,
this critical point must have been in
finity (4.) Hence conversely when the 4.
radius AB is of an infinite length the P
three consecutive points of the circle B
coincide with the three consecutive points
of the straight line for the angle QBP C
becomes zero. And therefore all the points in this circle coincide
with all the points in the straight line.
Thus as,

A point is a circle, the radius of which is in the Inferior Limit ; so

A straight line, Superior
It is of course hardly to be expected that such theorem as this
should be fully grasped by the student at the outset of his studies,
and it may even be alleged perhaps, that to describe the straight
line as the particular form which the circle assumes when the centre
is inconceivably distant, is only to create a confusion of ideas. An
illustration may render it more intelligible. Suppose we have a
piece of iron wire shaped like the arc of a circle towards the left
hand, and we bend it backwards until it assumes a similar shape
towards the right hand.
Then the wire will assume the forms of an arc of a circle of larger
and still larger dimensions until it becomes absolutely a straight
line, after which it will decline more and more towards the opposite
side until it reaches the position required.
 41

CHAPTER XXI .

PARALLELISM - SECOND CONDITION OF CONTINUITY OBTAINED .

A QUESTION arises from the considerations we have just made.

The radii of every circle meet of course at the centre ; the radii
of the circle with infinite radius, meet therefore at a point which is
infinitely distant. And since no straight line can have more than
one point in common with another straight line, it follows that none
of the radii of this circle can have a point in common at any measur
able distance. Thus we have aa number of straight lines with a new
relation between them , namely, that they cannot have any point in
common at a definite distance.
Giventherefore anytwo straight lines, is the point which they have
in common at a measurable or immeasurable distance ? The fact
above proved furnishes an easy 1.
test. For if there be any two A

straight lines, AP, BP, having in

common a point P, then taking in P
B
each of them respectively a point D

(C and D), and joining CD we have a triangle, CDP, the angles of

which must altogether contain 180° 2.
( XVIII). And we have seen that if P
is at an infinite distance the angle at P
is zero , and consequently the angles at
C and D will together contain 180º (2). Conversely , if the angles
at Cand D together contain 180 °, the point which the two lines have
in common is at an infinite distance. Lines which have this relation
to each other are called Parallel, and if the opposite sides of any
 42

four -sided figures be parallel, the figure is called a Parallelogram .

Of such lines instances are abundant. The furrows of a plough,
the ruts of a cart, the trees in an avenue, are but a few , and these
not the commonest examples of this most common relation .
We have now this test as to whether two straight lines are
parallel or not.
If one straight line falling upon two other straight lines makes the
two interior angles on the same side less than two right-angles, these
lines will meet if produced.
But an easier test is furnished by a little further consideration .
For if AB and CD be two parallel
straight lines, and EF meets them in H 3.
and G, then by virtue of what has been C

said

H G
AHG + HGC = 180°
= angle in a straight line B
= HGC + CGF
.. AHG = CGF.

Hence parallel straight lines may also be defined to be such as

make equal angles with the same given straight line. And a straight
line may be considered to be a circle which has its centre at an
immeasurably great distance from the circumference ; its radii
parallel straight lines : and the angle at the centre between any two
radii zero . Thus a circle is the limiting form of a polygon, and the
straight line the limiting form of the circle, and therefore of the
polygon also ; and this is what we should expect when we consider
that a straight line is of infinite length, and yet is made up of
infinitesimals.
It must be remarked further, that from the above process we obtain
a test whether the second condition necessary for the enclosure of
space be fulfilled or not. That is, since each of the boundary points
 43

of the figure must lie in two of its sides, an easy test whether the
point be at a finite or an infinite distance has been obtained. And
if no point of the figure is at an infinite distance, the space is
enclosed .

CHAPTER X XII.

EXAMPLES OF CONTINUITY.

SEVERAL curious consequences have their origin in these apparent

paradoxes. First, it follows that any one moving in the same
direction in a straight line will, after an incalculable time, return to
the point from which he set out ; and this result will appear less
extraordinary if we consider that any one starting from England,
and passing eastward through China, would inevitably meet another
man travelling on the same line of latitude westward through
America ; yet to each it would seem as though he were continually
going in a straight line further and further from home.
So, again, a comet coming in a hyperbolic 1
orbit (a) from an infinite distance till it arrives
at some certain distance from the sun passes
away (6) down another infinite branch of the
curve, and yet reappears again from a diametri
cally opposite direction (c). 6
An illustration also of the latter test, as to
whether two straight lines meet at a finite
distance or not (i.e., whether they make equal angles with another
straight line) is found in the distance of the fixed stars. The angle
between the axis of the earth's orbit and the line of distance of one
of these is measured twice at six months' interval, the earth being
at the second time a hundred and ninety millions of miles distant
from her position the first time. And in each case the angle is
 44

found to be the same. Consequently, supposing the star to be the

vertex of a triangle, of which the base line is a hundred and ninety
millions of miles, the sides of this tri 2
angle will still be parallel. In other
words, a hundred and ninety millions
of miles bear no relation whatever to
190.000.000MILES
the distance between the earth and the I
nearest fixed star. Of course this
cannot be properly represented on
paper .
There is another still more curious, though rather complicated,
instance, which practically proves that a distance, even when
measurable, may be so great as to have, when compared with
another, all the properties of infinity in regard to it. There is a
certain curve , already mentioned, which is called a Parabola, and
which may be described in the following manner : 3
Suppose there is a fixed point, S
( called the focus); a straight line, OX Y

( the axis), passing through it ; and

another straight line, OY (the direc S
trix ), at right angles to OX ; OX and
OY being both of unlimited length (3). 4
Then, if P be any point in the parabola, IY
and PL be drawn parallel to OX, PL = I
PS, i. e., the point moves in such a direc- z
tion that a straight line drawn from it to
--
the directrix (parallel to the axis) is al s

ways equal to a straight line drawn from it to the focus (4). This
curve has the following property :
Suppose QPT be a tangent at P ( that is the straight line which has
two consecutive points in common with the curve) and RP be drawn
parallel to the axis, then it can be shown that the angle QPR equals
the angle SPT. Consequently, if there be a highly polished mirror
 45

in the shape of a parabola, and a ray of light travel along RP, then
it will strike the curve at an angle, QPR, and, by a well- known law
5

of optics, will be reflected from the mirror at an angle with the curve
equal to the angle QPR, i.e., at an angle TPS. That is to say, aa ray
of light coming in the direction of RP, and striking the glass at P,
7

will, after reflection , travel along the line PS (5 ).

And as this is true of every point in the curve, it follows that a
number of rays of light, travelling along different lines, all parallel
to the axis of the glass, and striking the glass at different points, will
all be reflected to the one point S. But for this to happen the rays
must be parallel to the aris.
Now the source of light need not of course be in the directrix, but
may be at any distance from the glass. Suppose then there is a
candle at C, a short distance from the glass. Then the rays will
emanate from the source in all directions, and if they fall upon
the glass (which is parabolic in form ) they will strike it in various
directions, and consequently be reflected to various points in the
axis. But the further the source of light, the less will the diver
gency of the rays be felt ; until, if the distance be infinite, the rays
will move in parallel lines. Such a distance is that of the sun
when compared with a very small surface of glass ; and its rays
will therefore, if our principle be true, be all collected into one
point, namely the focus of the parabola. Upon this principle
the “ burning -glass " is constructed, the name of focus indeed, as that
of the French “ foyer," being derived from this very fact, which
 46

thus proves by its mere existence, that the distance from the sun to
the earth, when compared with the surface of the burning -glass,
may be considered infinite.

END OF PART I.
 47

SECTION IV .

CHAPTER XXIII .

CONDITIONS SUFFICIENT FOR THE ARREST OF A MOVING POINT.

HITHERTO we have examined the laws which regulate the motion

of any point in general, and of one moving in a straight line or
circle in particular. But to complete our subject there still re
main for us to consider the circumstances under which the point
ceases to move, i.e., is arrested or fixed in any particular position .
Thus we have seen already what conditions were required to bring
a point back to its original line of motion after once leaving it : viz.,
that the sum of its inclinations should be altogether equal to the
angle in a straight line. We have seen also in a simple case the
conditions necessary for the arrest of a point in a certain position
namely, when a straight line was to be drawn from one given point
to another given point. For this there were required :
1st. A starting point.
2nd. A point through which the straight line should pass.
3rd. A point at which the motion should be arrested.
But these two latter points coincided in this particular case . Such
a coincidence however is of course by no means necessary, and
instances where each of these “ determining ” points is distinct have
already occurred in the examples given of circular motion . Hence
for the fixing of the position of any point P, three points are
required :
The first, To fix the place of starting.
The second , direction of motion .
The third , position of arrest in the line of motion.
 · 48

Here then it may be at once observed are three requirements, to

one of which at least — that, namely, of direction -- an equivalent may
be found by means of a method already discussed, that is, by angles
instead of points. Thus in considering the conditions of arrest, we
have in effect three points, the distances and directions of which
mutually affect each other and have varying relations between them
selves. To examine these, let us take 1. 2.

ai
any three points A, B, C ( 1 ), and join А
them by straight lines. Then we

have a triangle ABC (2 ). B C5

The problem now appears under the following form . Every

triangle has six parts, three sides and three angles, and may assume
an infinite variety of shapes, according as the number of degrees in
each of its angles varies, or of sizes according to the variation of the
lengths of its sides. These six parts however cannot all vary inde
pendently of each other. If certain parts are fixed, then certain
others are fixed also ; and what the parts are, which, when fixed,
determine the others also , is our present question. From what has
just preceded, it is evident that two parts alone are not sufficient.
Such aa condition would only determine the direction of each of the
points, and not the distance from the starting - point. 3.
Three, therefore, is the first number to be tried, and
accordingly Euclid tries no fewer. Nor is it suffi
cient that any three parts should be fixed : for three
angles would determine only the shape of the triangle,
and not the size (3). The reason of this is
evident. For we saw above that the angles of every
triangle must be equal to 180°. Given, therefore,
the number of degrees in any two angles of a triangle,
the number in the third is easily reckoned. This
third condition, therefore, is valueless, as it might be obtained from
the other two : and thus only two conditions are really given.
Triangles which are thus formed , i.e., which have their angles
 49

equal, respectively, to those of another, are called “ similar , " and

have certain important properties, some of which Euclid examines
in his sixth book. But every other set of three parts is suffi
cient, and Euclid accordingly examines each of them , proving them
to be so, and adding at the same time one other case, in which the
requisite conditions are fulfilled for the determination of the size of
the triangle, though not of the shape.

CHAPTER XXIV.

THE COMPARISON OF TRIANGLES .

What, then , is the method which Euclid adopts of answering the

question just raised ? It is as follows :-- A triangle will evidently
be definite in all its parts if each part is equal to the corresponding
part of another triangle which is definite. He therefore conceives
two triangles, one with all its parts, the other with only certain
of them definite or “ given;" and shows that in certain cases the
remaining parts of the latter must be equal respectively to those of
the former, and therefore themselves definite and calculable.a The

comparison of triangles, then, is the subject with which we are at

present concerned, but before enumerating the results which Euclid
obtains from the process, it will be well to say a few words — 1, as
to his general style and kind of arguments; and 2, as to the instru
ment by which he effects the comparison, namely, Equality.

a It would perhaps be more correct to say that the results obtained by

Euclid may be applied in this manner, than to say that he so applies
them .
 50

CHAPTER XXV.

ON EXISTENCE AND RELATION .

A FABLE runs that an aged ass, seeing her little grandchild running
towards her at a frantic pace, cried out, “ Whither so fast, my child ?
What do you tremble at?” “ O , mother,” replied the poor little
thing breathlessly , “ I asked a great animal what a very tempting
looking plant was, and he said such dreadful words that I ran away
as hard as I could go .” " And what were the dreadful words he
used ?” “ Eryngion multifoliense, or some such fearful thing,"
replied the little donkey, trembling. “ You are indeed an ass, my
child,” replied the fond mother ; " he did but answer your question ,
and had you stayed to taste you would have found those dreadful
words meant a most delicious thistle."
Two such thistles are now presented to the student. They are
“ Existence” and “ Relation . ” They are indeed prickly in appear
ance but pleasant in taste, and not only do they prove strengthening
when digested, but there is scarcely an intellectual dish worth
tasting of which they do not form a principal ingredient.
These two ideas are so simple and general that it is needless to
define them any further. Suffice it to say, that everything which
is conceived must be conceived as existing, or having existed ; and
that everything which exists must be conceived to have some relation
to every other existing thing. Now of “ Existences ” we have had three
principal kinds — Magnitudes, Angles, and Figures, and of these we
have had various subordinate classes. Of “ Relations ” we have
had those of Loci, Limits, Determination of Position, Equality, and
Simultaneous Variation (i.e. that which takes place when two
quantities vary together, either directly, as in the case of an angle
and the arc it subtends ; or inversely, as in the case of the distance
of aa receding point and the angle at it. )
 51

CHAPTER XXVI.

PROBLEMS OF EXISTENCE .

FROM these two ideas arise two distinct classes of propositions,

namely, Problems of Existence , in which it is required to con
struct a figure, that is, to fix the boundary points in the required
position ; and Problems of Relation , usually called Theorems,
which examine and prove the consequences following from the posi
tion in which they are placed. In the former class the question in
each proposition is, what is the point at which such and such a
relation will take place ? And this may throwlight upon the difficulty
which often puzzles beginners as to the use, and indeed the meaning
of a mathematical proposition, to do what can be done at once by a
twofoot rule or a pair of compasses ? For example, when Euclid has
a problem , “ From a given point to draw a straight line equal to a
given straight line,” the question at once suggests itself,—Why
not take a piece of string and measure it ? The answer to this
is, that it is only permissible to use the piece of string or the ruler
on account of the truth of the principle proved in this proposition.
But it happens sometimes that the determination 1.

of a particular point is no longer the direct А

but the indirect object. For example , in the pro
blem , “ to bisect a given rectilineal angle ," )

that is, to divide it into two equal angles (1 ) , the

object is to determine some point through which , -C
if a straight line be drawn from the given point ,
 52

it will make the required angle (2.) And there are 2.

many others of a similar character. Indeed, as А.
M. Comte observes, all Mathematics is simply the
science of indirect measurement. D
And if it should seem strange to any one that
so complicated a machinery should be called into 2
action, merely for the purpose of determining a point, let him con
sider that the ““ point” of all questions, moral and physical, as
well as geometrical, is to determine some " point." A physician
who should give a patient a description of the medicines he was
about to administer - a spiritual guide who should entertain a peni
tent with a disquisition upon the nature of the soul - or a passer by
who, upon being asked the way, should reply by a catalogue of the
shops one must pass, would probably only leave the person addressed
in a state of greater bewilderment than before. For in medicine
one requires only to know exactly what to take ; in morals, exactly
what to do ; and in finding the way, exactly where to turn .

CHAPTER X X VII .

CONSTRUCTION .

But it may be asked — How can any figure be mathematically drawn

at all ? To this question the answer will be clear upon considering
the latter class of Problems - namely, that the object of a Problem
is not to draw a certain line, but to indicate how a line may be
drawn so as to be in a certain relation to another; for it is in fact
simply impossible to obtain any mathematical means of drawing
straight lines or circles, and we can only assume the power. - Let
it be granted,” says Euclid, “ that a straight line may be drawn
from any one point to any other point,” and “ that aa circle may be
described ," &c .
 53

As it is impossible to learn to swim without going into the

water, so can we learn nothing of Geometry without assuming
straight lines and circles. One step further nevertheless it may be
noticed we can go than Euclid , and that is in giving the reason for
fixing on two points, and two points only, as necessary for drawing
>

a straight line, as we have already shown.

Moreover, a further assumption must be made — viz ., that since
there is nothing in the order of a straight line to limit its length ,
one of a given length may be produced to any distance in the same
order of points (i.e., in the same straight line ;) but this is perhaps
rather to be considered a consequence of the fact that a straight
line is a circle of infinite circumference. These “ Postulates,'
as they are called, being granted, we have only to apply them
in order to fix any point we please. For as motion in a
circle changes the direction of motion while leaving the distance
unaltered, and motion in a straight line changes the distance without
altering the direction, these two motions are sufficient, when used
separately or together, to make a point assume any position what
ever . Hence thefirst part of every problem will consist in drawing
straight lines and circles in such a manner as to fix the boundary
points of the required figure in their proper position. The
boundaries once fixed, straight lines may be drawn from one to the
other, and the figure will be described. This part of the process is
called the “ Construction . ”

CHAPTER XXVIII .

PROBLEM OF RELATION-PROOF .

But how are we to know that the boundary points are in the
required position ? The test lies in the fulfilment of certain con
 54

sequences which must follow from certain conditions : e.g. If a line

be a circle, then a straight line drawn from any point of the
circle to the centre, will be equal to a straight line drawn from any
other point of the circle to the centre. Thus the necessity of the
problems of Relation becomes apparent, and the dependence of the
problems of Existence upon them. In thus testing a proposition
there are two methods used by Euclid. The first is simple and
direct : From certain conditions, as we have just said, certain
results must follow ; these conditions, therefore, being fulfilled,
certain consequences may be deduced. But such direct means of
proof may not always at be hand ; and in that case less simple
means must be employed. One of the commonest is to suppose the
proprosition untrue , e.g. that two triangles which have all their
sides equal, respectively, will not have their angles equal also. If
then we find that this proposition results in some manifest absurdity,
e.g., that an angle is both greater than and equal to another angle, it
must be given up, and its opposite is as good as proved to be true.
This latter method is called Reductio ad Absurdum .

CHAPTER XXIX .

EQUALITY .

HAVING thus briefly described Euclid's method of reasoning, let us

make some inquiry as to the instrument he uses, namely, Equality,
as to which we may observe first that it is manifestly a Relation .
And its definition may be given as follows : — “ Equality is the
relation in which two Magnitudes stand with regard to each other,
when one fills up exactly the same space as the other when substituted
for it." This definition at once gives as its results all the various
 55

truths concerning equality, which Euclid calls self-evident theorems,

or Axioms, including among them the definition itself. At the
same time it affords an easy method of determining whether two
objects are equal or not, when they are of the same shape. Sub
stitute the one for the other and see whether it fills up the same
space ; or, still more simply, if they be merely surfaces, place one
on top of the other , and observe whether they coincide, as, to take
a familiar example, in the trying on of a coat.
Of such a nature are the propositions in which Euclid examines
the equality of triangles. If however the two objects be different
in shape, e.g. a parallelogram and a triangle, what method is to be
then used for the determining if they are equal ? Into this Euclid
enters but very slightly, taking merely the simple case where one
is double of the other. Neither shall we attempt to pursue it further
than he. Let this therefore be sufficient with regard to the idea
of Equality.

CHAPTER XXX .

ENUMERATION OF CASES IN WHICH TRIANGLES ARE EQUAL.

The instrument and the mode of using it being now discussed, we

proceed to enumerate the results at which Euclid arrives with
regard to the equality of triangles. It would indeed be perfectly
possible for us to deduce his results from what we have already laid
down for ourselves, and perhaps our design can hardly be complete,
strictly speaking, without doing so. But as our object is by no
means to write a commentary upon Euclid, but merely to
introduce the student to him — we have no scruple whatever in
thankfully accepting his guidance to his various treasure - rooms.
 56

And, though in some cases, we have, with scant ceremony it may

be, found our way along his passages , and picked his locks, yet this
was in no slight degree for the sake of showing with what ingenuity
both are constructed .
The cases in which a triangle is proved to be definite in shape
and size (from its being proved equal to another triangle definite in
all respects) are as follows :
1.
I. When two sides and the angle
between the two given sides are given,
i.e. :
If AB, AC, and the angle CAB are A
given ;
Then CB and the angles ACB and CBA may be determined ( 1.)a
II. When the three sides are given, 2.
i.e. :
If AB, AC, and CB are given ;
Then the angles CAB, ABC, and BCA
may be determined (2. )

III. When two angles and aa side are 3.

given, i.e. :
If AB, and the angles C AB and B
CBA are given ;
Then CA, CB, and the angle ACB may be determined (3. )
In each of these cases the conditions are sufficient for the deter
mination of the other parts. And how to determine the shape and
size of the triangle, when any one set is fulfilled , is the subject of
Trigonometry. This is of course beyond the scope of the present
work, which is merely concerned with each case as far as it
affects the position or arrest of a moving point.

a In these and the following figures, the given lines are in full, the
dependent in dots.
 57

CHAPTER X X XI .

CONSIDERATION OF THE CASES IN WHICH A MOVING POINT IS

ARRESTED .

I. The first case in which triangles are proved of definite shape and
size is where the two sides and the angle 1.
C
between the two sides are given. That is,
a point can lie but in one position when it
is at a certain distance from a fixed point
A, and in a certain direction in regard to
it, ( CAB. ) ( 1. )
Again, when two points B and C are at definite distances from a
t hird point A, and in definite directions with regard to it, then B
and C are at a definite distance from each other. For example :
York is about 200 miles north from London, and Bristol about
130 west of it ; the distance therefore from Bristol to York
must be ascertainable . But the most useful form of this
proposition is, when the angle between the two given lines
is 90°. In this case, not merely has Geometry proved the
distance to be ascertainable, but it has actually ascertained
it. This is the problem of Pythagoras, which we shall
presently examine. And not only does it effect its own pur
pose, but being easily extended (Euclid II. 12 and 13,) to cases
where the angles are of any given number of degrees, it serves at
once as a basis for all measurement, as we shall attempt to show
briefly before concluding:
II. The second case in which triangles 2.
are definite, is that wherein the lines form
ing it are given (2. ; ) that is, a point is
fixed in position, if its distances from two
fixed points be definite . Hence , if the
 58

distances of any three points from each other be known, it is possible

to determine their directions with regard to each other. This is
a case of small practical importance and we pass on to the third .
III. This case is by far the most 3.
C
common in practice, and is only not
the most important from the numer
ous results flowing from the pro
A
blem mentioned as depending on the
first case. From it we learn , that a point is fixed in position when its
directions with regard to two fixed points are definite (3. ) Hence if
it be possible to discover the direction in which any inaccessible
point lies with regard to any two others of known distance from each
other, it is possible to ascertain the distance of the first point also
from either of the two latter. Now the directions of any point can
always be ascertained by means of a theodolite, and some definite
distance is always to be obtained , which is all that is requisite ; so
that the distance of any object can be measured by the means
above described.
Thus, if we measure the angle which a line drawn to the centre
of a planet (M) makes with the axis of the earth's orbit twice at
six months' interval (4,) we have a 4.
M
triangle EME',> of which the two
angles MEE and EE’M (which
is 180 ° – ME’X) are known from xix 199,000,000 , MILES X
measurement, and
the side EE' = 190,000,000 miles,
that being the distance apart of the two positions of the earth
at six months' interval. Hence by virtue of this proposition,
E'M ( that is the distance of the planet from the earth ) is
calculable also. When MEE' =ME’X, the distance is infinite, as
we saw in chapter xxii. : and the star is called , not a planet
(T.Xavýtys, moving),, but aа “ fixed ” star, as its distance is too great
for the motion to be perceptible .
 59

But the principle adapts itself with peculiar ease to 5.

measuring perpendicular heights, for here of course B

one angle (being 90°) is already known, and it is
only necessary to measure a certain distance in
any direction, and the angle at that point. Thus
to know the height of a tower AB (5. )
6.
B .. ល
Walk 100 yards from A to C, and
measure with a theodolite the angle
ACB (6,) then AB can be immediately
100 YARIS
ascertained.

7.

But it may happen that an impassable B umann

river AC, of unknown breadth , flows at

the foot of the tower ( 7. ) Then measure
first the angle BCA. Walk say 100 ol
yards CR, measure the angle CRB (8. )
8.
B minun
From these it will be possible to
fix the length BC, and BC and the
angles BCA and CAB being known,
it will be possible to ascertain both Rlod os
AC and AB, i.e. , both the breadth
of the river and the height of the tower.
One other curious example of this problem may be mentioned .
All the above instances have required the use of a theodolite
But suppose that a traveller, having 9.
no mathematical instruments with
him, should arrive at the bank of a
river, how is he to measure the distance A
across it ? The place where he is
standing on the bank we will call A (9.) Then let him fix his eyes on
 60
10 .
some object opposite to him , close to
the water, a tree, a stone, or what not,
and this we will call B. AB is the
distance required. Next let hin walk A 50 YDS 80 VOS
D

( say 50 yards) in a direction at right

angles to AB, and there (C) put a small stick in the ground. Then
having walked an equal distance further in the same straight line
he must turn off at right angles (of course away from the river)
and walk on until the object at B is hidden by that at C, that is
until he comes to a point ( say E) which is in a straight line with
B and C ( 10. ) Then he will have two triangles, ABC and CED, in
which
AC=50 yards = CD,
the angle BAC= 90° = CDE,
and the angle BCA = opposite vertical angle DCE ( for B, C, and E
are in the same straight line).
.. By virtue of this proposition
AB = DE .
i.e. — the distance across the river at the point A is the same as
the distance from D to E.

NOTE. — In fig . 6, A C, and in fig . 8, RC, ought perhaps rather to be in

full than in dots; as though they are found indeed, it is by observation
notby calculation, and they are therefore among the data, not the results
of the problem .

CH A P T E R X X XII .

THE PROBLEM OF PYTHAGORAS .

We now come to the following question. Since the distance of

any two points from each other is definite, when the points are
fixed in distance and direction with regard to a third, have we any
means of ascertaining what the distance is. The answer has been
 61

given in one particular case by Pythagoras, in the problem to which

we have already alluded as being that upon which all geometrical
measurement depends. It is as follows: 2

We have before us the triangle ABC, of

which the sides AB and BC are given, and
in which the angle ABC=90%. We have
seen that the third line AC is fixed in length.
It is now required to ascertain what the length is, in doing which ,
we shall simply accept and illustrate the answer of Pythagoras.
“The square," says he, “ - upon the hypothenuse of a right
angled triangle ( that is, upon the side which is opposite the right
angle) is equal to the sum of the squares of the other two sides."
Which may be written thus : :

AC : = AB + BC .
And this of course determines the length of AC, the lengths
of AB and BC being given .
For example : If AB = 40ft., and BC = 30ft.
Then AC² = 402 + 30º = 2500 .
AC = 50ft.
Such is the famous problem to which we have so often made
allusion . It is said that the philosopher sacrificed a hecatomb of
oxen on discovering it ; and well indeed he might ! We shall
content ourselves with the enunciation of it, which we have already
given , without attempting more, as the proof which is found in
the 47th Proposition of Euclid's first book involves most of the
propositions which precede it, and must be read in its regular
course there. It can scarcely, however, be supposed that the order
in which it is now found, or indeed that the order in which any of
Euclid's Propositions are found is that in which they were first
written by their authors. That any man , or any series of men
should think out the various problems in the perfectly faultless
logical sequence in which they are now arranged, is like imagining
that a painter engaged on the portrait of a man should begin by
 62

accurately drawing his boots, or that a child when he is born

consists entirely of feet, and gradually developes as he grows up
into legs, body, and head. Men think confusedly, grasping a truth
here and there, and then reasoning up to it. And there are
but few , comparatively speaking, who can analyse their own ideas,
even after years of thought, far less think in that analysed logical
manner which such a supposition as that made above would imply.
And thus it would in truth be of no small interest not only
to mathematicians, but even as regards the mind itself, if
we could tell the process by which this discovery was made.
Whether it was by observation, or by a happy conjecture, as
Kepler discovered the laws of planetary motion , or by actual
measurement (which would seem most probable) as Galileo found out
the area of a parabolic section, in the silence of history we know not.
But one thing would seem to us almost incredible ; and that is,
that the philosopher found the other forty -six propositions arranged
for him in their present order and then deduced this one from them .
Far more probable does it seem that this proposition was one of
the first to be apprehended and those which are previous in order,
to have been merely written in order to prove this principal truth.
But we have said enough with regard to the importance of this
problem , and now proceed to a brief consideration of its results ,
And this will form the conclusion of the treatise, as we shall then
have seen not only what conditions are sufficient to arrest a moving
point, but also by what means the position of the point when
arrested may be ascertained.
 63

S 0 Ν
Ε ΟΤΙI Ο N V.

CHAPTER XXXIII .

GENERAL SURVEY OF THE RESULTS OF THE PROBLEM OF

PYTHAGORAS .

The main difficulty of our task is now accomplished, and it only

remains to take a short survey of the prospect which this proposi
tion opens out to us. The prospect somewhat resembles, if I
may be allowed the comparison, that which greets the traveller
who ascends the Mount Brevan from the valley of Chamounix .
Immediately upon his arrival at the summit of the long “ ladder"
of steps in the face of the rock which forms the last as
cent, the whole of the country which he has just left is hidden
from his sight, and the great plain of Sixt lies spread out before
him. A few steps further, and the valley of Chamounix again
bursts on his view, now no longer confined to the part shut in by
the neighbouring mountains, but stretching away to where the
Alps in the distance tower on either side of the valley of the Rhone.
In a somewhat similar manner the student who has mastered this
proposition is introduced at once to problems of Trigonometry, while
those of Euclid are completely lost to him . He will proceed ,
however, but a short distance before he finds himself again engaged
a
 64

in geometrical inquiries, now no longer confined to the lines

hitherto considered , but embracing in their scope the ranges of
Infinitesimal Calculus. Let us give a word at parting to each of
these subjects.

* CHAPTER X X XIV .

CALCULATION OF AREAS .

( Trigonometry .)

In the last proposition this problem was solved. Given the

position of one point, and the relation of 1.
two other points to it : what is the rela
tion of these points to each other ? Given
A, AB, AC, and CAB , what is the length
of BC ? (1.) The answer has been given,
when the two lines AC and AB are in A
2.
one particular relation to each other,
that namely when the angle between
them CAB, is 90° (2.) But from this
is easily deduced, as we have already
observed, the modification of the result B
when AB and AC make an angle with each other of any number of
degrees. This consideration indeed which forms the chief subject
in Euclid's second Book, is hardly to be considered a fresh pro
position, but rather an extension of the former. Given there
fore the relation of any two points to a third, we can calculate the
 65

relation of these two between themselves. And since, as we have

seen, the area, that is, the space which is enclosed by joining any
three such points is fixed, or definite, this 3.
C : D
may be calculated also.. If then there be
a fourth point, the relations of which to
two of the others are given ( 3 ), it is but
necessary to join these between themselves,
B
and considering this fresh space as a new A

triangle, to add to it the former and thereby

obtain the area of the whole figure, of which the four points are the
boundaries ( 4).
For example : AB and AC are given 4.
in length and position, then the space ABC
can be determined ; DC and DB are given,
then the spaceDCB can be determined, and
hence the whole figure ACDB can be deter
B
mined. A
Nor of course is this method applicable only to four points.
It can be used for any number, and thus the size of any polygon
can be determined, the number and the length of the sides of which
are known . Suppose then the number of sides of a regular poly
gon gradually increases until it becomes infinite. The principle
still holds good, the only modification necessary being that which
arises from the side becoming too small to be appreciable . And as
this is supplied by Infinitesimal Calculus we have the means of
determining that well known puzzle ,-the area of a circle. Each
of these calculations is the subject of trigonometrical reasoning , and
cannot therefore be now further pursued .
One other trigonometrical application of this proposition is too
important to be entirely passed over. But as a full understanding
or even statement of it would require a knowledge of a most com
plicated idea, namely proportion, we shall do no more than allude
F
 66

to it. Let it then be sufficient to say, that to this proposition we

are indebted for a solution of the relations which not only the sides,
but also the angles of a triangle bear to each other.

[For since, in any right angled triangle

ANC we have by virtue of this propo .AL N
sition
AC? + AN2= CN2;
AC2 AN2 CN2
+ = 1;
CN2 CN2 CN2
... sin.2ANC + cos.?ANC = 1 ] .

Snowball's “Plane and Spherical Trigonometry " contains all that

is necessary upon this subject, but a knowledge of Algebra as well
as of Euclid is requisite as a preliminary.

CHAPTER X X X V.

LINES CAPABLE OF PASSING THROUGH ANY FOUR POINTS.

( Conic Sections.)

To a person who has never studied Geometry, it may possibly seem

easier to draw and discuss a line that can be made to pass through
many points than a line which is more strictly confined . But the
student will, by this time, have perceived that so far is this from the
truth, that each fresh point of limitation adds immensely to the
difficulty of the inquiry. Thus the simplest form is the straight
line, which is definite in every respect as soon as two points in it are
 67

fixed, and which admits of no variety of shape whatever. Next to

this comes the circle requiring three points to make it definite and
capable of infinite variety of curvature as the length of its radius
varies ( 1 ). These two kinds of loci we have 1.
already considered, but hitherto have only
alluded to the classes of lines which can be made
to pass through more than three points. But
these latter are too important not to receive some
attention, though, at the same time, they are too
difficult to receive more than description, even
that being very imperfect. This, indeed, will be at once apparent
when it is perceived that of this class of line there are no less than
three distinct forms, each being infinitely various. These classes
are respectively called the Ellipse, Hyperbola, and Parabola. The
mode of constructing the last of 2.
these has been already shown
(ch. xxii.), and the only difference L
between the construction of the Ź
three figures is that,
H
In an Ellipse,
LP is always greater than PS
in the same proportion (2).

3.
L

L
In an Hyperbola,
O A
LP is always less than PS in the same pro
portion ( 3).
 68

.
4
L
L
In a Parabola,
LP is always equal to PS (4) .

(The figures are drawn opposite, but we are not sufficiently

advanced to be able to trace them. )
These three curves have many curious properties, a few of which
we shall mention here :
In the first place they are all capable of being obtained from a
cone by cutting it in various directions, and hence their usual name
of “ Conic Sections."
In the second place, the Ellipse and Hyperbola are the orbits of
the planets, the earth included, and of the comets respectively, as
indeed they are of all bodies subject to the same force as that which
pervades the solar system . A Parabola, again, is the common path
of a projectile upon which two forces act at the same time - one
being the force of impulsion, the other that of gravitation. Thus :
5.
shot from a cannon, a stone from a sling,
or water from a cask ( 5), all move in para
bolas, which are modified to some extent
by the resistance of the atmosphere.

Another property of this latter curve has been described in chap.

xxii. as the principle involved in the burning glass. One very
6.
similar is found in an ellipse , R

which we shall describe.

In an Ellipse there are not one
only but two foci ( Sand H ), i.e.,
5 с I T
two points by means of which the
curve may be drawn inthe manner
 69

above described. Let RPT be a tangent to the curve at P and SP,

and PH be drawn, then it can be shown that the angle RPS = the
angle TPH . Anything, therefore, of a perfectly elastic nature, such
as sound travelling from S to any point of the curve, would be re
flected to H ( 6 ). Now, it is the property of sound as of light to dis
perse itself in all directions. In general therefore, when a man
speaks, the sound is scattered, and consequently cannot be heard at
any great distance. But if a person stands in the focus of any
ellipse, however large, all he utters will strike against some point of
the curve,, and consequently being reflected to the other focus, will
be distinctly heard there, however low he may speak. The Whis
pering Galleries at St. Paul's Cathedral and the Polytechnic are
made upon this principle.

CHAPTER X X X V I.

DESCARTES' SYSTEM OF RECTANGULAR CO -ORDINATES.

( Algebraic Geometry.)
The complications which increase thus rapidly as the number of
points which determine the curve increases have even now out
grown the simple machinery which we have hitherto employed .
And it is evident that unless some method can be found whereby the
various properties of curves may be expressed in an easier and more
general manner, it is hopeless to attempt to analyse more difficult
loci. For a solution of this difficulty we are indebted to the cele
brated Descartes, whose beautiful invention both opens out all the
higher forms of lines, and renders the expression of their properties
so simple that, in any given locus, they can all be read at a single
glance. His principle, we can only indicate here. To appreciate
 70

it fully would require a knowledge of algebra, but the geometrical

part of it we are in a position to understand.
Let there be a fixed point 0, called 1.

the Origin, and through it two straight , ‫כן‬

lines of unlimited length , OR, OS, at
right angles to each other, called the
R
axes (of x and y respectively ). Then the
position of any point P ( 1 ) will be fixed if either 2.
SI
1. The line OP and the angle POR
be both definite (2 ) ; or,
R

.
2. If a straight line, PM, be drawn 3.
to OR, parallel to OS, and OM and
PM be both of definite length (3 ) .
In 1, OP and the angle POR are
called the polar co-ordinates of the
M
R
O
point P ( O being called the pole).
In 2, OM and MP are called the rectangular co - ordinates of the
point P (O being the origin ).
The method of determining the position of any place on the
Earth's surface by the ordinary lines of Latitude and Longitude
is ( approximately ) an example of Rectangular Co-ordinates : the
Equator being virtually the axis of x, the meridian of Greenwich
being that of y,
, and the point where they meet being the Origin.
4.

Now let the point move from P in a

straight line to Q, and let ON and NQ be the
co - ordinates of Q (4).
Then, ON and NQ will be of different
lengths from OM and MP. And the co N
 71

ordinates of any point in the line PQ 5

will be of different lengths from those

of any other point in the same line. P.
But as the line is made according to P
a regular law, some relation must exist
between the co -ordinates, which is the
same for every point in the same line (5), R o M N

though the co - ordinates themselves vary.

And this can only be the case when the variation of one quantity
depends upon that of another. An instance of this is found in the
common case of two buckets in a well. These may be made to
descend together ; or, one may go down as the other comes up ; or,
some other method may be adopted. But whatever the law of
their motion may be, it is the same for every position of the buckets,
though the lengths of the rope vary. Consequently, if the law be
known, and the position of one bucket be ascertained , the position
of the other may be at once calculated. Or, which is the same
b
thing, if the law is known , the length of one rope may is e
66

expressed in terms of the length of the other.” In a similar manner,

in the above case the length of one co -ordinate may be expressed in
terms of the other, and if these two quantities he represented by the
two variables, x and y respectively, this relation assumes the easy
form of an algebraic equation.
For example, the equation y = x represents a 6

straight line such that OM =PM in every posi

tion of the point P ( 6 ). And such a mode of ex
pression applies of course not merely to a straight P

line, but to every line which is formed accord MO

ing to a known luw, the law indeed being itself MM
nothing else than this very relation between the
co - ordinates, which remains invariable though the co-ordinates
themselves vary. Such an equation, i.e., one which expresses the
relation between the co -ordinates of every point in a given curve
 72

is called the “Equation to the curve 7

which it represents. It varies of course in <<
form according to the kind of curve repre <<
sented by it. Thus an ellipse will have <
one form of equation, a circle another, a MMMM
MMMMMM
straight line yet another (7,8) ; and so on :
so that the kind of curve intended to be re
presented is at once known by the form
of the equation. By this method, commonly 8
called that of Rectangular Co-ordinates, the
processes of Algebra become applicable to
Geometry, and the properties of each par
ticular curve become easily deducible from
the equation which represents the relation ONYXRX

between the co -ordinates of every point in it.

This subject may be read first analytically in Todhunter's “ Conic
Sections," then geometrically in Goodwin's " Course of Mathematics,"
and afterwards analytically a second time in Professor Salmon's
66
Treatise," a work of great elegance but rather difficult to a
beginner.

CHAPTER XXXVII .

VARIETIES OF CURVILINEAR MOTION .

The invention of new laws of motion has been aa favourite employ

ment amongst geometers even of the highest eminence both in
ancient and modern times. Thus to Archimedes is due the Spiral,
the Cissoid to Diocles “ (who invented it for a geometrical purpose ),

a Gregory's Mathematics, p. 176 . For these curves and their equations

see Price, vol . i.
 73
the Conchoid to Nicomedes, and a most curious curve called the
Witch to Agnesi, a lady of surpassing beauty and intellect, who
filled the chair of mathematics at the University of Bologna in the
year A.D. 1750. These curves it may be sufficient merely to name,
as to trace them would be quite beyond the scope of the present
treatise, and even to enunciate their law of formation would require
further knowledge than we at present possess. But there are two
which we may notice as being of 1

common occurrence, viz., the Cate

nary and the Cycloid. The Catenary
( 1 ) is the curve in which a perfect
flexible string will hang ( in vacuo)
under the action of gravity.
The Cycloid ( 2 ) was first noticed 2
by Descartes, and an ac
count of it published by
Mersenne A.D. 1615. It is, in fact, the curve described by a nailin
the rim of aa carriage -wheel, as it revolves on a horizontal plane. It
has the curious property , that if a body fall through any arc of the
cycloid reversed, it will fall in the same time, whatever the length
of the arc. Consequently , if a pendulum vibrate in a Cycloid , all
its vibrations will be performed in equal times, however great or
small they may be. This fact is familiar to us all.
This latter curve has suggested to me another of aa similar nature,
which, so far as I can learn, has not hitherto attracted the notice of
geometers. It is the path which may be conceived to be described
by a particle of atmosphere in a Cyclone. And as the subject
illustrates various portions of our treatise, and likewise has an
interest for all whose friends or goods have ever to double the

• Nouvelle Biographie générale, tom. i. p. 398 .

c Gregory's Mathematics, p. 176 .
d Calculus of Variations, see Airy's Mathematical Tracts, p. 233 .
 74

Cape of Good Hope, or to cross the Indian Ocean, I venture to say

a few words on the general subject of Revolving Storms. The
definition I take to be as follows :
A Cyclone is an elliptic or circular mass of atmosphere revolving
around an axis which itself describes an orbit approximately para
bolic ( 3 )
This definition gives three points for 3
consideration, 1 , the rotatory motion of
the mass ; 2, the parabolic motion of the
axis; and 3, the motion of any particle
in the Cyclone which results from the
combination of the former two.
I. Since Cyclones revolve in opposite
directions in the northern and southern
hemispheres, let us take one in the
latter, and consider it of course to re
volve from left to right, that is, in the
same direction as the hands of a watch .

e This definition is no doubt, strictly speaking, incorrect, as in reality the

onward motion of the storm does not result from the progress of the same mass
of atmosphere, but from the tendency to rotation passing from one set of par
ticles to another. But although this would make a difference, speaking
meteorologically, yet from a geometrical point of view the successive masses
in rotation may be regarded as the same mass in successive positions. It will
be further understood of course, that I speak in these matters simply as a
landsman. All that I know of them is derived from a perusal of Piddington's
work, and from the kind instruction of our captain during a voyage round the
Cape, when for two or three weeks we were more or less within the storm field .
In this place II may add, though they are somewhat foreign to our subject, the
notes" which foretell a revolving storm. They are-1 . A glare, or ' greasy
halo ” round the sun ; 2. A huge black bank of clouds in the direction of the
centre, or “ vortex "; 3. The sudden fall of the mercury in the barometer ; and
4. The cyclonal wave, which takes the form of a heavy " sea ,” rising on a sudden
and after continuing for three or four minutes subsiding into comparative calm
until another cyclonal wave advances. When the storm has passed over any
part of the ocean, its late track will generally be indicated by the furious
cross-sea which it leaves in its wake.
 75

And let us conceive that the axis is stationary, and therefore the
only motion is that of rotation .
Then, in the first place, we may discover the position or bearing
of the centre, or vortex, of the storm, with regard to the vessel.
For, since the motion of the atmospheric mass is circular, the
direction of it, at any point, will appear, or rather be felt, along
the tangent to the circle at the point ( chap. xv.) . Thus, a ship at
N would feel a wind from the west ; a ship at E a wind from the
north, and so on (4 ).
Hence it necessarily follows, since a 4

straight line drawn at right angles to the N

tangent of a circle must pass through
W
the centre ( Euc. iii. 19), that the centre
must always lie in a straight line at
right angles to, or, in nautical language, W

eight points of the compass from (ch .

xvi .) the direction of the wind ( 4). Thus
we have the following general rule S
“Look to the wind's eye, set its bear. s

ing by the compass, and take the eight points to the left (since we
have conceived the storm to be in the southern hemisphere , —to
the right, if in the northern ).” In other words, if a man stand
facing the wind in aa circular storm , the centre of the storm will be
on his left hand if in the Southern Hemisphere , and on his right
hand if in the Northern .
Secondly, since the wind revolves in a circle, the axis still being
considered stationary, the ship of course would, if put before the
wind, revolve with it and thus be carried round all the points of the
compass, still keeping the centre of the storm in the same relative
position. But just as the sun seems to move round the earth, or the
telegraph posts appear to flit by a railway carriage, so to any one on
board the ship the wind would seem not, as it really is, to be blowing
in àa circular course, but rather in a straight line, and to be gradually
 76
but perpetually shifting through all the points of the compass from
West to North, from North to East, and so on. Hence the change
of direction which is in reality due to the motion of the ship through
an arc of the circle is measured by the angle through which the
wind has shifted (chap. xvi . ) , and is called the “ Shift of the Wind.”
And it may be observed from diagram (3), that if a ship were to
approach the centre, the wind would gradually shift a-head, that is,
she would “ break off ; " but if she were moving from the centre,
the wind would shift aft, that is, she would " come up." And this,
of course, is as true when the centre approaches or recedes from the
ship, as in the case of the ship's motion. Hence when it becomes
advisable to heave-to in a cyclone, it is usual, in order to avoid the
centre, to do so on the “ coming up tack."
II. Next let us conceive the axis of the storm to move along a
curve approximately parabolic, since this would appear to be the
case from the generally ascertained tracks in the Indian Ocean and
other seas where they chiefly occur.
Now, of course, all that we have said with regard to the rotatory
movement holds good still when the axis moves also. There is,
then, no difficulty whatever in ascertaining the position of the ship in
regard to the centre of the storm ; but there is, unfortunately, very
considerable difficulty in ascertaining the position of the centre, or
vortex, of the storm in regard to its own orbit (3 ). And this is the
main point for anxiety. For upon this depends the momentous ques
tion, whether the storm is approaching or moving away from the ship.
For it will be observed that, since the velocity of the wind decreases
as the distance from the centre increases, if she can be brought
near the edge of the storm, the hurricane will have dwindled to a
fresh breeze, of which she may reap the advantage, and thus literally
66
ride upon the wings of the whirlwind.” But if, on the contrary,
the centre bear down upon her, the wind becomes more and more
furious, and at the same time more fitful, until at last on reaching
the centre itself it ceases altogether for aa time, a dead calm succeeds,
 77

when the vessel rolls and plunges wildly in the sea with no wind
to steady her, and then the storm catches her again with terrible
violence from the diametrically opposite quarter, taking her dead
aback, carrying away yards and masts, if they have escaped the fury
of the wind and the rolling in the calm, and perhaps forcing her
stern foremost beneath the waves.
For a description of the means by which endeavours are made
to ascertain this momentous point, I must refer the student to
Piddington's work, and especially to his “ cards; ” having, I fear,
ventured somewhat out of my own depth already. Ne sutor ultra
crepidam . 5.

III . The last point we have to consider is the path in which any
particle of atmosphere will move, under the combination of the
rotatory motion of the mass and the parabolic motion of the axis.
This locus we will call a Cyclonoid. Then its definition is as follows :
A Cyclonoid is the locus (or path) of a point revolving at a given
distance, around an axis which itself moves along a parabolic orbit.
This curve is of course capable of algebraic expression and analysis,
on the principles laid down in the last chapter. But not only would
the process be completely out of place in this treatise, but the
equation when found is so unwieldy, as to be of little use even if
the relative velocities of rotation and translation could be ascer
tained , without which the problem is incapable of solution. There
 78

is however one particular instance to which I shall venture to

direct attention, though in doing so we shall be travelling perhaps
beyond the proper limits of this treatise.
The Cyclonoid may be conceived, as we have said , to be the path
of any particle of atmosphere in a cyclone. It is also clearly the
path in which a ship would move in one, were she put right
before the wind, and if the water had no resistance.
Suppose the cyclone to be travelling very slowly, and the ship
to be very near the vortex, as would be the case if the shifts were
very frequent. Then if we neglect the onward motion of the axis
during a period of a few hours, the course of the ship becomes simply
the arc of a circle, of which the centre is the centre of the Cyclone.
If therefore s be the distance run between two observations ;
if o be the circular measure of the angle through which the wind
has shifted in that period, and c be the distance from the ship to the
S
centre, then by trigonometry s = c ; .. c = ;;
o
and if n be number of " points ” in shift, then
n : 0 :: 16 : 7 ;
TT n 22 11
; .. 0 = .
= n
n 16 16 7 56 ;
S 56 S
..C x 5.1 .
n 11 n

That is to say,
No. of miles run 56
Distance of centre = Х
No. of points in shift 11
The Charles Heddle appears to have traced out no less than five
loops of cyclonoid, modified of course by the resistance of the water.
“ This brig ,” says the “ Treatise on Circular Storms,” published by
the Admiralty, " sailed from the Mauritius in February, 1845, and
falling in with a revolving gale, at once put her head up order,
as it is commonly said, to “ run out of it,” or let it “ exhaust itself.”
But the wind drew round and round, according to the now known
laws of these circular storms, and she, with a perseverance that
might have been more wisely employed, continued to scud
 79
right before it for four successive nights and days, until she had
actually circumnavigated the stormfield five times ; in this case
22
p = 10,7 = 10 x And the distance run (s) was found to be
7
1,300 miles.
..
S 1,300 x 7 = 41.36 .
0 22 x 10

That is, the vortex was about 41 miles distant from the vessel . And
thus the account goes on . “ In performing this singular feat, the ship
had kept at the end of a radius of about 40 miles, and had run
through the water a distance of 1,300 miles , though her real change
of place , the joint result of the onward movement of the vortex and
the current (i.e., rotation of the wind ), did not much exceed 500
miles .”
We may notice further as a curious illustration of the contrasts
afforded by the variety of nature when classified under general prin
ciples, that this curve is alike that described by a flower in the hem
of a lady's dress as she waltzes round 6.
an oval saloon, and the course which
-certain relations being given be
tween the velocities- the moon fulfils
as she perpetually encircles the elliptic
orbit of the earth . So that we may call
this locus, the lunar or waltz curve ( 6) .
Thus we have a new class of lines forming festoons around those
which are more familiar, and of which the equations are more easily
analysed.
In this class of curves the Cycloid is the Festoon of a straight
line (except that the circumference and not the centre of the
Generating circle moves on the Directing straight line) ; the
Cyclonoid is the Festoon of a Parabola and the Waltz curve of the
Ellipse. The Hyperbola, the Catenary, and others will all have
Festoons, as we have just observed .
Such are a few, and these the simplest, of the infinite number of
 80

curves wherewith nature abounds. They form the chief portion of

those which have yielded to analysis, but they are far, indeed, from
exhausting the almost inexhaustible subject. " All nature is in
motion ," and every motion has its own peculiar curve. The curling
waves , the leaves of trees , the varied flowers and fruits, the minaret
and arch of Goth or Turk , the exquisite and changeful outline of
animal form , nay , the perfection of the human figure itself, all
depend for their elegance upon the suppleness and grace of their
delineating curves . So that, in fact, it may be justly said, that
delicacy of outline is to the painter what accuracy of time is to the
musician , the secret difficulty but chief beauty of his glorious art.

CHAPTER X X VIII ,

CONTACT.

ONE property we must not forget, which is common to all the

curves we have been considering, viz.,—Contact. We have already
seen that the circle and straight line may have two points in
common , and that these may be consecutive. And, in general,
any two curves, one of which can be made to pass through a
greater number of points than the other, may have as many points
in common with it as the latter can be made to pass through. And
all these points may be consecutive. Thus a circle may be made
to pass through three points of an ellipse. And when these three
points are consecutive, the circle is called the Circle of Curvature,
and measures the amount of its deviation from a circle, at any
point, as a tangent measures its deflection from a straight line.
 81

CHAPTER XXXIX .

MEANS OF DETERMINING SUCCESSIVE POSITIONS OF A POINT WHEN THE

LAW OF MOTION IS GIVEN.

( Differential Calculus.)

In the case of the circle and straight line it was easy to discover
whether aa line was one or the other by trying whether the angle
between any three consecutive points contained 180 degrees or not,
But such a inethod is plainly inapplicable to curves in general,
inasmuch as the number of points which two curves in general may
have in common varies with the kind of curve . At the same time
the form of the curve must evidently be definite if the motion from
every point in the curve to the succeeding point be known. Some
device, therefore, becomes necessary by which we may be enabled
to express, not merely the relation which exists between the co
ordinates in general, but also that between every two successive
positions of a point moving in any given curve.. It is afforded by
the application of the problem, the results of which we are still dis
cussing, to the method of Rectangular Co-ordinates.
For let P and Q be two consecutive posi
tions of a point moving in any curve P
whatsoever. Then the portion of the curve
PQ may be considered a straight line
(chap. x. ). Let O be the origin ;
OM and MP be the co-ordinates of P ;
ON and NQ be the co-ordinates of Q ; 0 M N

and let PR be drawn parallel to ON, then MN equals PR, and

PQ2 = PR2 + RQ? And thus PQ is definite as well as PR and RQ.
And since Q is the next point in the curve to P, the increase of
its co-ordinates is due only to the motion of the point. That is to
say, PR (or MN) and RQ are the amount by which the co -ordinates
G
 82

of any point are increased by the motion of the point from any one
position in the curve to the next. And we have seen in a pre
ceding chapter that the relation between the co-ordinates of the
points in any given curve remains unchanged, and may be expressed
by means of an equation. If, then, the equation which expresses
this relation be given for any particular curve - say for an ellipse
we are enabled, by introducing the modifications due to the fact that
PQ, PR, RQ are all infinitesimal, to calculate the relations which ex
ist between them. In other words, given the law of motion, we are
enabled to calculate the increase, or rather the “ increments ," of the
co-ordinates due to the motion of the point, from any one position in
the curve to the next. Thus we obtain two equations - one which
expresses the relation of the co-ordinates of any one point in the
curve to those of any other ; the other expressing the relation of the
co-ordinates of any one point in the curve to those of the succeeding
point, this latter equation being in truth the former, modified by the
fact that the relation it expresses is between infinitesimals. Hence it
is “ derived ” from the former by means of the rules of the Differ
ential Calculus, and is called the “ Derived equation to the curve. "
Given then the equation to a curve, it is possible, by the rules just
mentioned, to find the “ derived equation.” And similarly, if the
derived equation to a curve were known, and means for reversing
the processes of the Differential Calculus were obtained, it would be
possible from the derived equation to deduce the equation for the
whole motion. This problem will be found in the next chapter.
Again, since PQ is a tangent to the curve R

( ch . xv.), and the angle QPR which equals R

the angle PTM is calculable by reason
of the same proposition (see ch . xxxiv.), we
are enabled to determine the angle be
tween the curve and the axis, that is, to
measure the inclination of the curve at
M
any point to the axis.
 83

CHAPTER XL .

MEANS OF ASCERTAINING THE GENERAL LAW OF MOTION WHEN THAT

FOR ANY TWO SUCCESSIVE POSITIONS OF THE POINT IS GIVEN.

( Integral Calculus.)

Lastly, let us consider the case of a body moving in an orbit, the

law of which is unknown to us, and the equation of which, therefore,
we have no means of forming. Let us conceive, however, that by
numerous observations of the successive positions of the moving
body, its motion during any instantaneous period of time ( i.e., its
motion from point to point) has been ascertained ; in other words
(see preceding chapter ), that the angle which the curve makes with
the axis at any point in general has been determined by observation .
Then the form of the orbit evidently is fixed, and may be calculated
in the following manner :
Taking the same points (P and Q) and the same co-ordinates
( OM, MP, and ON, NQ ) as before, we have
now the angle PTM , and therefore the angle
QPR, which is equal to it. of definite size.
And as before, when the relation between
QR and PR was given, the angle QPR
could be calculated , so now, by virtue of the
same proposition, the angle QPR being OT M V
known, the relation between QR and PR can be determined. Thus
we obtain aa relation between the infinitesimal increments of the co
ordinates due to the motion of the body from point to point along
the course . And this relation can be no other than that which exists
between the co -ordinates of every point in the curve, modified only by
the fact that PR and RQ are infinitesimal. In other words, it must
be the derived equation to the curve. What we require, therefore,
will be the exact converse of the method described in the last
 84

chapter. Then the relation which existed between the co -ordinates

of every point in the orbit was given , and the form which that
relation assumed when the motion was for an infinitesimal portion
of time was deduced. Now the relation being given when the
motion lasts for an infinitesimal portion of time, it is required to
ascertain what it is throughout the whole orbit ; and the rules for
effecting this are supplied by the Integral Calculus, which is the
exact converse in every respect of the method of infinitesimals.
Thus, as by the principles of the last chapter, we were endeavour
ing, on the one hand, when the law is given according to which a
body moves, to trace its course from point to point-i.e. , to calculate
its motion for an infinitesimal period of time ; so can we, on the
other hand, by those of the present chapter, determine the law which
regulates the whole orbit, when its motion from point to point has
been duly ascertained by observation. The latter is, of course, the
method we are obliged to pursue in analysing the phenomena of
nature, for the examination of which the path now begins to be
clear. For, when the physical laws which cause a body to assume
a particular shape or to move in a particular curve are known, the
results of such a form or such a motion may, to a certain extent au
least, and in some few cases, be calculated. In some few cases, I
say, for the variety of forms which every day meet the eye, and
might, could the mind attain to it, be reduced to measurement, have
been already shown to be well nigh infinite. Our knowledge, on
the contrary, is so limited in extent and so slow in growth, that the
curves which can be put to any practical use have almost all been
mentioned in these pages, and even these have taken thousands of
years for their examination. Little by little, however, natural
science does progress : and who shall say to what limit it may
attain, especially when we compare the advances made since the
days of Kepler and of Newton with those of former generations ?
With regard to both these chapters, the Treatise of Mr. Price on
Infinitesimal Calculus contains the full elucidation of the principles
 85

contained in them and their application to Geometry, as well as

to Statics, Dynamics, &c. Gregory's Examples will give a great
number of suitable Problems ; but Rögner's “ Materialien aus
der höheren Analyse, " published at Leipsic, is fuller, and requires
but a very slight knowledge of German. There are many French
books also, which are said to be clearer than those by English authors,
but I am only acquainted with one or two of them . But Mr. Price's
Treatise appears to have the special advantage that the preliminary
subjects of Trigonometry and Algebraic Geometry being mastered,
the student may read the Treatise, comprehensive as it is, almost
without a guide. Ofcourse it will require some Mathematical talent
and a good deal of application ; but it is astonishing to mark in how
many students the taste and power for Mathematics are developed,
when once the dreary commencement is over. The terrible mind
of Euclid — that vultus instantis tyranni — so far removed from all
sympathy, from all dulness and error, keeps a perpetual watch,
awes us at the very threshold of the temple, and not till we have
penetrated some way within its chambers, and have become familiar
with some of its riches, do we feel the full consciousness of our own
powers. Yet, after all, Euclid and Newton were once students
puzzled at the first problems of Geometry. What then should
prevent the student, now puzzled at the first problems of Geometry,
but that he may himself become a Newton or an Euclid ?

CHAPTER XLI

CONCLUSION .

( Philosophy of the Treatise .)

The sketch we have given in the preceding chapters, slight as it is,
contains all that a work so elementary as the present can endeavour
to describe with regard to the means possessed by modern mathe
maticians, of tracing the laws of motion in general. But in
 86

presenting to the public a work which deals with the difficulties

of the first processes of reasoning, it may not be out of character to
give some account of the steps by which it was itself thought out,
and at the same time to offer to those readers who may be already
acquainted with mathematics, the reasons which have induced me
to follow methods and principles which sometimes, in appearance
at least, differ considerably from those ordinarily pursuel. It would
doubtless be more usual to place such remark at the beginning
than the end of the treatise ; but it appeared strange to preface a
work the essence of which is, that it should not require any mathe
matical knowledge whatever, with observations which would demand
a tolerably familiar acquaintance with the subject.
The first germ of the idea, if I recollect rightly, sprang up when,
as a boy, I was studying the fifth proposition of Euclid's first book,
and found that the meaning, which had been very obscure to me
when merely illustrated in the usual manner, became at once quite
clear when diagrams were drawn by a friend, showing each step of
the process. A question then suggested itself as to what difficulty
had been removed by the diagrams. Upon examination, I found
that three difficulties had been removed. First, I had not under
stood the meaning of the expression, " the angles at the base of an
isosceles triangle ;” secondly, I had not perceived how the same
lines and angles could form part of two different triangles ; and
thirdly, I had fancied that the base of a triangle must be level. In
the further course of study similar difficulties occasionally presented
themselves ; and it occurred to me that it might be useful to others
were I to enumerate the errors into which I myself had fallen, and
thus make a list, as it were, of the weeds which spring up of
themselves in the mind, and which must be eradicated before any
seed can bear fruit.
But before long it turned out that the list was by no means
so easy to make as it had appeared at first. Principles were
involved in the explanation of some of the difficulties which
 87

extended far and wide ; sometimes into the regions of Metaphysics,

as, for example, in the idea of Extension, sometimes into those of
Logic, as in the case of Definition, but far more frequently into the
wide-spreading department of Infinitesimal Calculus. To take a
single instance of the latter : The number of straight lines which
can be drawn through any one point is infinite. But from the
ordinary diagrams and from the use of the expression, “ tangent
at a point,” a notion was created in my mind that a tangent had but
one point in common with a circle, thereby differing from a secant,
which had two. And yet, as Euclid proves, there can be but one
tangent to a circle at any given point, and not an infinite number.
How could these apparent contradictions be reconciled ? The prin.
ciples of motion and infinitesimal growth alone can give the explana
tion. For by them the definition of a tangent becomes the straight
line which has tvo consecutive points in common with the circle.”
And as not more than one straight line can pass through two given
points, the difficulty is at once removed .
The principles upon which this little treatise is based, are as
follows :-I take it for granted that whatever the truth may be
with regard to “ innate ideas, ” that is to say, whether we obtain
our notions, of space for example, from “ intuition ; ” or again as to
abstract ideas, as, whether we can form a conception of " length "
independently of “ breadth " or not ; yet that as it is certainly pos
sible to apply geometrical notions to natural phenomena, so it must be
possible also from natural phenomena to conceive geometrical notions.
In other words, Reason is the Father, but Observation the Mother
of Mathematics.
It is in fact intended to be a carrying out in Geometry of Lord
Bacon's fundamental maxim of science : “ Homo naturæ minister
et interpres tantum facit et intelligit quantum de naturæ ordine re
vel mente observaverit : nec amplius scit aut potest."' a Thus I

a Nov. Org. I.
 88

have made the first conception of a line to spring up from observing

the distance between two trees :—the notion of “ Limits " and its
"
correlative idea of “ Loci ” from experiments with a pack of cards, the
definitions both of a straight line and circle, from similar operations
with a pair of compasses : while the idea of Space itself is empirically
deduced by generalising from particular instances of figure and ex
tension, in accordance with the observation of Sir W. Hamilton,
that such a mode of obtaining it is quite conceivable, and in no
way contrary to the a priori conception, which he considers Kant to
have proved to be a necessary condition of human thought.
Accordingly I have been led to sketch the process which I should
conceive to have taken place were a man at the dawn of geometrical
science to have thought out for himself, alone, and in a natural
sequence, what in reality numbers of thinkers have only attained
hy the labour of centuries. For a child may run now where
Socrates could with difficulty walk . Thus the senses have been
made the primary source of every geometrical idea and principle ;
and I have endeavoured never either to define the one or to enun
ciate the other until it has already sprung up in the mind from the
effects of reasoning upon what has been observed .
Whether such an attempt be philosophical or not, is a question
best answered, in my opinion, by the result : and upon this subject
therefore I will only hazard two observations. First, it seems to me
difficult to account for the different quickness with which different
persons grasp and apply these “ intuitive" ideas, unless we conceive
them, as Professor Stewart did, to be simply the result of a process
of reasoning so rapid as to escape our consciousness,c but varying
of course in quickness in different individuals. And secondly, if
these geometrical lines, figures, &c. , be absolutely ideal, and derived
solely, from within , as Dr. Whewell and others would have it, so far
as I can understand them , bywhat process do we apply the truths

b Dr. Reid's Works, p. 126, c Ph. H. M. p. 333.

 89

we demonstrate concerning them to those external physical pheno

mena, with which, by the hypothesis, they do not correspond ?
But in carrying out the principle just laid down, I found that the
sole way in which Geometry could appeal to the senses was by means
of Motion ; and consequently Motion has been the fundamental idea
of the treatise. An example is easily found in the case of the circle.
The readiness with which its definition as a Locus adapts itself to
the physical method of drawing it with a pair of compasses, or
whirling round a lighted stick , is at once evident; while the defi
nition of Euclid is illustrated only by a property of the figure when
drawn, and throws no light on its mode of generation. Other in
stances will be found in chapters ix. and xxxvii. But as the intro
duction of Motion and Loci at the outset is certainly somewhat novel,
I will quote the authority of Mr. Price in the Treatise on Infini
tesimals, to which reference has been already made. “ If,” says he,
“ motion will be found to illustrate, as it does, our geometrical
results, it is only a servile adherence to an ordinary though inferior
method which prevents us from introducing it." d . And if any one
should still object that motion was never contemplated by Euclid as
an element of geometrical reasoning, let me urge that though indeed
he never alludes to it with regard to plane figures, yet he makes use
of it often in defining Solids of Revolution .
The idea of Motion then, and by consequence its antithesis
Rest, being admitted into Geometry, it became necessary to examine
as far as possible in what order it were more natural to the mind to
form the two conceptions — another question closely bordering upon
Metaphysics. And somewhat contrary perhaps to the usual order, I
have treated Motion as the primary, Rest as the secondary, or de
rived idea : Rest indeed being considered only the particular case
when the motion is zero . Hence, the treatise divides itself into two

d Price's Inf. Calc .

 90

parts ,the first on the Motion, the second on the Rest, or Arrest of
a Moving Point.
In the First Part a principle has been chiefly used, which readily
suits, and I had almost said necessarily flows from , the principle of
Motion. It is that of Limits, and was given by Leibnitz, as the
fundamental principle of Infinitesimal Calculus. M. Comte, indeed,
in his “ Philosophy of Mathematics,” takes exception to it as being
unphilosophical, and reducing the whole Calculus to a mere system
of approximation ; but his own words in regard to those magnitudes
with which we have been chiefly concerned, appear founded upon
the very same principle which he reprehends. “ Although it is
evidently impossible," he says, “to conceive any extension abso
lutely deprived of any one of the three fundamental dimensions, it
is no less incontestable that in a great number of occasions even of
immediate utility, geometrical questions depend only on two dimen
sions considered separately from a third, or on a single dimension
considered separately from the other two." Now, as wherever a
dimension is appreciable, there it must form an element in the cal
culation, these words can only apply when the dimension is inap
preciable. Hence it would appear that M. Comte is content to
consider a dimension which is inappreciable as having no existence
whatever when compared with an appreciable dimension.
The result of this method would seem to be, that whereas hitherto
our conceptions have been confined to a system of numbers lying (at
perceptible intervals) between positive and negative infinity, and
appreciable in a concrete form to our senses ; now they are ex
tended to an infinite series of systems, each of infinite extent,
and all either too great or too small for our senses to appreciate,
wherein the individuals of each system bear distinct relations to the
other individuals of the same system , similar to the relations be
tween the individuals of the ordinary system , and subject only to

e Comte's Philosophy of Mathematics, p. 182.

 91

those modifications which it is the province of Infinitesimal Calculus

to ascertain . The enormous range of Calculation which such a
method must afford is of course evident at sight ; and the in
vention is perhaps the most lofty idea, numbers and letters alone
excepted, which was ever conceived by the mere intellect of man.
And to these exceptions, some have assigned an origin not human,
but divine.
There is another portion of the first part which appears to me to
require some remark, namely, the endeavour I have made, in ac
cordance with our fundamental maxim , to trace to the sources of
observation and definition, those well-known axioms concerning
equality and parallelism , which , Nile- like, seem to be perpetually
deluding the enquirer into the belief that he has found their origin
only to hide themselves further and further yet in the mountains
and the clouds.
As to the former of these, the stress laid by Professor Dugald
Stewart upon the definitions as the source of geometrical truth ,I will
perhaps excuse the definition of a straight line and a boundary point
which I have ventured to suggest, and the use I have made of them ;
and Mr. Mill will, I think, bear me out yet further in regard to the
axioms of equality, and in part as to that concerning enclosure of
space.g This last appears to be no more than the inability of two
straight lines from their very definition to fulfil the conditions which
are shown to be required for the enclosure of space, which conditions
are in fact simply tantamount to a definition of the word “ Enclosed . ”
And thus the axiom is reduced to aa theorem flowing from the nature
of the two definitions. In following out the same idea with regard
to parallel straight lines, I have been led to innovate somewhat by
assuming a proposition from which the theorem concerning the
three angles of a triangle immediately follows, and then deducing
from it the proposition concerning parallelism , which Euclid assumes

Ph. H. M. pt. II. ch. 1 . 9 Mill's Logic, i. ch. 6.

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as an axiom. In reality, however, if I may venture an opinion,

where Mr. Mill and Dr. Whewell disagree, it would seem to me
that the difficulty arises entirely from the commonly received dis
tinction between geometry and the physical sciences, viz., that the
truths of the latter depend upon laws, the knowledge of which is
derived from experience, while the knowledge of the former is the
offspring of the intellect alone.
Why this distinction should be made, or how it can be upheld, I
confess myself at a loss to perceive.
The fact that the three angles of a triangle are always equal to
180°, whatever be the shape of the triangle, appears to me to be pre
cisely on a par with the fact that every particle of matter attracts
every other particle. It is just as much a proposition pregnant with
results in its own subject-matter ; it is just as much a law derived
from observation ; it is just as much aa fact capable of being tested
by experiment, and, so far as I can see, it is just as much a principle
incapable of being referred to any more general idea. At any rate it
is difficult to see how, if the general and constantly occurring form
be considered to require proof, the particular case in which one apex
of the triangle is immeasurably distant can in any way be held to be
self-evident.”
The leading idea of the Second Part, in which the Point con
sidered in the First to be moving in any continuous line is arrested
by the introduction of a fresh geometrical condition, was suggested
by the analogy of Virtual Velocities. For, as by that beautiful
device the laws of Equilibrium, or Statics, become only a particular
case (viz., when the Force ceases) of the more simple and general
notion of Dynamics ; so here the law of motion in a straight line
having been ascertained , the further idea of arrest is introduced by
considering what condition is necessary that the motion may become
zero. By this means the three straight lines which bound a
Triangle may be considered as one of those lines which Descartes
called “ Mechanical,” as distinct from “ Geometrical,” and Leibnitz
 93

more accurately " Transcendental," as distinct from “ Algebraical."

That is to say, the three straight lines form but one Transcendental ”
line, the law of which is the result of the two laws, one by which the
point moves along a straight line, and the other by which it departs
from and returns to it. Thus, simple as the notion of a Triangle
seems, we find no less than four laws involved in it, besides the idea
of a Point as the limit of geometrical magnitude.
1. The general law of motion, viz., A line is the Locus of a Point
(ch. viii.).
2. The particular law of motion in a straight line, viz., A straight
line is the Locus of a Point which moves in such a manner that the
angle between each three consecutive points is 180° (ch . ix. and xvi .).
3. The first law of continuity, as we have, perhaps improperly,
>

called it, viz., That there should be three points, the sum of the
angles at which should be equal to 180° (ch. xvii. ).
And 4. The second law of continuity, viz., That no point in the
enclosing lines should be at an infinite distance ; in other words,
that the sum of the angles at every two of the boundary points
should be less than 180° (ch. xxi.). But perhaps to this latter
law alone should be assigned the name of Continuity, and to the
former that of Discontinuity.
And when the triangle is to be of definite shape, a fifth law must
be added, viz., that some one set of the conditions mentioned in
chap. xxxi. must be fulfilled. Hence, clearly, the notion of rest is
more complicated than that of motion, since in the former case five
laws are involved, to only two of which the point is subject in the
latter.
Finally, in section v., it is conceived that every curve is made
up of a series of infinitesimal straight lines ; and each of these
straight lines is considered to be the hypothenuse of an infini
tesimal right-angled triangle. Now in every triangle thus formed,
the sides which contain the right angle are found to be the incre
ments of the co-ordinates due to the motion of the point along the
 94

hypothenuse; and the other angles are those which the tangent at
the point (being the hypothenuse produced ) makes with the axes of
x and y respectively. And we have seen in section iv., what set
of parts in any triangle must be definite, in order that the other
part may be definite also. That is to say, since one angle of the
triangle is 90°, and therefore of course detinite, we are enabled,
either if the increments of the co-ordinates due to the motion from
point to point, or, in other words, if the sides containing
the right angle be given, to determine the hypothenuse or
infinitesimal arc of the curve, and the angles which the tangent
makes with the axes. Or, if the infinitesimal arc of the curve, and
the angle which the tangent makes with one axis be given, we
can determine the sides of the infinitesimal triangle, that is, the
increments of the co - ordinates due to the motion during an instan
taneous period of time. The former is the problem in ch. xxxix .,
where the law for the whole motion being given, that for the
motion from point to point is deduced by means of Differential Cal
culus. The latter, sometimes called the method of Tangents, is the
converse problem discussed in ch . xl., and performed by the pro
cesses of Integration. And this is the meaning of the assertion which
we made at the outset, that the forty - seventh proposition of Euclid's
first book is the foundation of all geometrical measurement.
Such is the outline which I have endeavoured to trace, and such
the means I have employed. In many cases I can scarcely hope to
have been successful, and I advance much, particularly in the third
and fifth sections, with no small diffidence. The difficulties of the
subject have been many, not the least among them being the ease
with which in such a treatise one may fall into arguing in (as well
as on) a circle — an error which it is almost impossible for the author
himself to detect.
There remains but one word to be said. It may appear to the
student that the point we have reached is, after all, but a slight and
unsatisfactory progress, and that the goal he would attain seems as
 95

far or further than ever. If so, let me renind him in parting that
such is ever the case with regard to scientific advancement.
Ergo vivida vis animi prorupit et extra
Præcessit longe flammantia mænia mundi.

In the philosopher, in the discoverer, nay, in the child who has

tasted the delight of grasping some new principle, the “ living force
of Mind ” is as potent now as in the days of Lucretius ; and not
“ the glowing barriers of the universe ” itself can stay it. 66 The eye
is not satisfied with seeing, neither is the ear filled with hearing."
When Newton was asked whether he were not content with the
vastness of the knowledge he possessed, “ I feel,” said he, “ like a
child playing upon the sea -shore.” Step by step we have endea
' voured to lead the student to a spot whence he may catch a glimpse
of that ocean of science ;
Et nunc tempus equûm fumantia solvere colla.

Nor let him complain that by this course lie has been led to
engage at the very outset with difficulties which need not have been
met until he was well advanced on his road . It is by such en
counter alone that he can learn to sympathise with those who
first overcame in them , and that he is placed in “ connection with
that chain of conducting minds " who have brought science to its
piesent condition. “ Life ,” says Emerson , " acquires a very high
value when once we have begun to perceive its beauty .” And
surely there can scarcely be any pleasure more exquisite of its kind
than to trace the influence of minds long passed away upon the
present condition of society ; to see the hard dry problems of
Geometry gradually expand into those wide-embracing laws - so
rigid to the ignorant, so flexible to the skilful hand - which are the
glory of physical and animal mechanics ; to watch the theories of
the old Greek mathematicians, which some have derided as barren
and abstruse, blossoming into flower and fruit after their long winter
 96

of twenty centuries, for the benefit of mankind to the end of time ;

and then to observe—what is so vividly brought before us in the
Cyclone—the innumerable subtleties of the laws involved in the
simplest natural phenomenon, and the tremendous power which
even the rudest knowledge of those laws can confer.
Thus I have thrown open, as it were, the windows of the work
room, and while showing the student, at the outset, the full scope
and area which he will have to traverse, I have endeavoured to
point out how the dull and lifeless metal on which he is labouring
may be fashioned, on the one hand, into instruments for the service
of man, and, on the other, into keys that may unlock the secrets of
nature ; and thus to allure him to this beautiful study by two of
the most powerful incentives to human exertion. If such an
interest has been in any degree aroused, my object has been in the
same measure accomplished ; but if not, let us hope that some one
else may be found to pursue the same path with greater diligence
and success than may have been my lot to attain.

THE END .

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