Structure of caldera and gravity anomaly.

(With 1 figure and 1 table)

IZUMI YOKOYAMA *

Caldera formation is a much-disputed problem especially f r o m

the standpoint of geology. Here, the writer wishes to make some
additional remarks from the standpoint of geophysics on the basis
of the results of gravity surveys. A practical method for gravity survey
in volcanic regions has been established after many experiences of
the surveys on 2 stratified volcanoes and 8 calderas in Japan. By
analysis of the gravity data gathered there, one may get some quan-
titative information relative to the structures of the volcanoes and
the calderas and, in addition, relative to the origins of ignimbrite.
Summarizing the result of gravity surveys on volcanoes and cal-
deras in Japan, we may group them, according to the residual values
of Bouguer gravity anomalies, into the three types, namely, the high
anomaly type, the no anomaly type and the low anomaly type.
The high gravity anomalies are observed only on the two calderas,
Oosima in Japan and Kilauea in Hawaii as far as the writer knows.
On the former the maximum residual anomaly of about 15 regal, is
observed at the centre and on the latter about 9 mgal. Analyzing
the anomaly on the Oosima caldera, one may conclude that there
m u s t be lava mass beneath the caldera to a depth of about 2 km.
Formation of this caldera was caused as a result of one kind of
convection; lava had flowed out to the earth surface from the deep
magma reservoir through a narrow path a n d accumulated about 2
km deep over the pyroclastic rocks or the country rocks and then
those rocks were depressed owing to the load of lava. Also the Kilauea
caldera might be formed in a similar way.
No anomaly which matches the ones found on the calderas, is
observed on two stratified volcanoes in Japan, Huzi (Fuji) and Asama
and Etna in Italy. This means that the structure of a stratified volcano

* Geophysical Institute, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan.

 68

%o6'

IRA

, 50km ,

|Jeeta fr~ aso C ~ . d e r a

e # 4kJ.ra Ca l d e l ' a

Fig. 1 - The Aso and the Aira calderas in Kyusyu, Japan. Numerals s h o w the lowest
gravity residuals in mgal. (Redrawn, w i t h modifications, a f t e r T. MATSU]VIOTO).
 69 m

can not stand comparison with that of a caldera gigantic in size f r o m

the view-point of density contrast as will be referred in the following.
Low gravity anomalies are observed in the cases of the other
calderas in Japan, Kuttyaro, Akan, Toya, Hakone, Aso and Aira, and
the Mono Basin in U. S.A. These calderas were all formed during
gigantic eruptions of tremendous amounts of pumice. For example,
Fig. 1 shows the distributions of ignimbrite from the Aso and the
Aira calderas in Kyusyu after T. Matsumoto (1). The volume of ignim-
brite from the Aso caldera amounts to about 200 km :~ and the rela-
tively low anomaly reaching about --20 regal and being concentric
with the caldera rim, is observed. The volume of ignimbrite found
around the Aira caldera amounts to about 230 km '~ and the residual
anomaly may reach to about --30 mgal at the centre of this caldera
which is in the middle of the bay at present. The total anomalous mass
or mass-deficiency which causes gravity anomalies can be obtained
by the theorem of Gauss which relates the integrated anomaly over
a horizontal plane to the limit of the detectable gravity anomaly in
the following form:

M __ m 1 / f x, dxdy
2.~G . .,

where G is the gravitational constant. Thus the total anomalous mass

M can uniquely be determined from the gravity values observed at
the surface while its distribution is indeterminate. By this method
mass deficiencies at the above two calderas in Kyusyu are derived
from the gravity anomalies as 4 × 10 TM and 1 × 10~ tons respectively.
For the relative difference between them, some reason may be fur-
nished by the fact that the post-caldera volcano Aso came into
existence at the centre of the caldera while the post-caldera volcano
Sakurazima did at the rim of the Aira caldera and that the Aira
caldera is much more eroded than the Aso caldera. Summarizing the
results of gravity surveys on the calderas of the low anomaly type
and taking the considerations of the effects of erosion on ejecta and
of doubtful accuracy in estimating the volume of ejecta into account,
one may generally say that the residual anomalies observed on the
calderas are almost compatible with the total mass of ignimbrite
spreading over vast areas around the calderas. Besides the above
conclusion, the following are also noticeable: low gravity anomalies
 u 70

amounting to a few score of milligals are almost concentric with the

centres of calderas and indicate existence of coarse material to the
depth of a few kilometers beneath the calderas. The faults at the
caldera rim do not stand vertically but decline aslant towards the
centre. At some calderas, the present rim was proved to be a false
one f r o m the standpoint of density contrast perhaps because the
original caldera wall has been eroded away.
Table 1 shows the dimensions, ejecta and gravity data observed
on several volcanic structures. In this table it is very noteworthy

Table 1 - Dimensions, ejecta a n d gravity data of some volcanic structures.

Total Mass deft-

Residual ciency
volume gravity
Caldera Diam. Ejecta of derived Observer
(km.) a n o m a l y f r o m gravity
ejecta (mgaL)
(kin?) ( x 10~° ton)

Oosima 4 +15 Ref. 2

Subsidence of
Kilauea 3 basaltic lavas +9 Ref. 3
Kuttyaro 22 Ignimbrite 100 --46 7.8 Ref. 4
Toya 12 2O --14 0.66 I. YOKOYAI~
Hakone 11 8 --I0 0.66

Aso 22 2OO --20 4.0 Ref. 5

Aira 25 23O --30 I0 Ref. 6
Mono Basin * 19 --20 10 Ref. 7

Height gravity
Volcano Rock anomaly Observer
(m.)

Huzi Basalt a n d andesite No Ref. 8

Asama Andesite No Ref. 9
Etna Basalt a n d andesite No Ref. 10

* This is n o t a caldera b u t a volcano-tectonic depression.

that we always observe the low gravity anomalies at the calderas

a r o u n d which tremendous amounts of ignimbrite are found. We may
say, in other words, that ignimbrite were ejected from the central
openings and as the results, these calderas were formed. Until a
 71

g r a v i t y s u r v e y o r o t h e r g e o p h y s i c a l s u r v e y h a s b e e n m a d e i t is i d l e
to discuss the origin of ignimbrite and the cause of caldera forma-
tion. When we refer the mechanism of distribution of ignimbrite
a r o u n d t h e c a l d e r a s , it is a m a t t e r o f c o u r s e t o t h i n k o f v i o l e n t a n d
dynamic eruptions.
In conclusion, the writer wishes to remark about the method
o f s t u d y i n g t h e o r i g i n o f c a l d e r a f o r m a t i o n : w e a r e in a p o s i t i o n t o
commence the quantitative studies of structure of calderas and, on
the other hand, comparison or analogy with the meteorite craters
and nuclear craters, both of which produce the similar topographic
depressions to calderas, will offer many a helpful hint.

REFERENCES

1) MATSUMOTO,T. - T h e / o u r gigantic c a m e r a v o l c a n o e s in K y u s y u - Japanese Journ.

Geol. Geogr., 19 (1943), Special number.
2) YOKOVAMA,I., a n d TAJ~IA, I t . - A g r a v i t y s u r v e y o n V o l c a n o M i h a r a , O o s h i m a
I s l a n d - Bull. Earthq. Res. Inst., 35 (1957), 23-33.
3) Kalvoy, H. L., and EATON, J. P. - P r e l i m i n a r y g r a v i t y s u r v e y o f K i l a u e a v o l c a n o ,
H a w a i i - Geological Survey Research, 1961, D-205 - D-208.
4) YOKOVAMA, I. - G r a v i t y s u r v e y o n K u t t y a r o caldera l a k e - Journ. Phys. Earth, 6
(1958), 7579.
5) Tst~BOI, C., JITSIrKAWA,A., and TAJI~IA, H. - G r a v i t y s u r v e y along t h e lines of
p r e c i s e levels t h r o u g h o u t J a p a n b y m e a n s o f a W o r d e n g r a v i m e t e r - Bull.
Earthq. Res. Inst., Suppl., 4 (1956), Part 8, 476-552.
6) YOKOYAMA,I. - G r a v i t y s u r v e y o n t h e Aira caldera, K y u s y t ~ - Japan, Nature, 191
(1961), 966-967.
7) P~.KISER,L. C., PRESS, F., and KAy, M. F . - G e o p h y s i c a l i n v e s t i g a t i o n o f M o n o B a s i n ,
California - Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., 71 (1960), 415-448.
8) YOKOYAMA,I., and TMIMA, H. - A g r a v i t y s u r v e y o n V o l c a n o H u z i , J a p a n b y m e a n s
o f a W o r d e n g r a v i m e t e r - Geofisica pura e applicata, 45 (1960), I-I2.
9) TsuaoL C., JITSC~XWA, A., and T~v[^, H. - G r a v i t y s u r v e y along t h e lines o f
p r e c i s e levels t h r o u g h o u t J a p a n b y m e a n s o f a W o r d e n g r a v i m e t e r - Bull.
Earthq. Res. Inst., Suppl., 4 (1955), Part 5, 199-310.
10) M~I, E., and Mo-REEL!, C. - R i l i e v o g r a v i m e t r i c o della Sicilia - Annali di Geofisica,
5 (1952), 209-245.

Discussion

H. KuNo: ~ Yokoyama's work is a good example of application of geophysical

methods for the interpretation of the structm'e of calderas.
The existence of the circular gravity low area in the center of caldera
would indicate that the great a m o u n t of the pumice which was deposited
around the caldera was erupted f r o m a central crater but not from some
~issul'e. ~)
 72

J. GREEN: ~ The correlation of gravity data of Japanese calderas with t h e

C a n a d i a n Brent a n d Holleford craters is interesting. Would you consider the
possibility, o n the basis of the gravity m i n i m a obtained i n both types of craters,
that the Canadian craters could be of i n t e r n a l origin? ,,
I. YOKOY~VL~: <, Of course not. Their m e c h a n i s m s of f o r m a t i o n are similar
b u t their energy-sources are different. 7~
R. W. DECKE~: • Prof. K u n o stated your data suggest central vent emission
of the negative gravity calderas rather t h a n circular fracture emission. Might
n o t the gravity m i n i m u m occur at the center in either case?
I m i g h t add that on other considerations the central emission (at least
at 1st p a r t of the collapse eruption) seems the most probable.
3. H ~ Y : <, New Zealand gravity m e a s u r e m e n t s also show negative anomalies
to coincide with calderas. Aeromagnetic m e a s u r e m e n t s have been m a d e a n d
show large positive anomalies. Has aeromagnetic work b e e n done i n the
J a p a n calderas? ,7
I. YOKOY~IA: ~ An aeromagnetic work has been done above the Oosima
caldera. I t h i n k that gravimetric methods are more useful in order to discuss
the structures of calderas 77.