2c.

Define seismic movement Mo op an earthquake.

The seismic movement (Mo) op an earthquake is defined as.

Mo = µAS

Where: A = Area of fractured segment

S = Displacement of the fractured segment

µ = rigidity modulus or shear modulus of the rocks adjacent to the fault.

2b.

Obtain the possible mode conversion for the Sv ξ Sʜ Sv

i. P reflection

Sv į į Sv

Sv P refraction

ii. Sv
Sv P

Sʜ wave

SH SH

i. į į

SH
 SH SH

ii.

And the angle of emergence is į1 then

P = Sinli = I critical reflection in the ray parameter

Vi Vm Sm 90ᵒ = I įi = 90ᵒ

b. Discuss two applications of palio magnetism

answer:

Result of palio magnetism measurement have confirmed local and regional tectonic motions as
well as motions of lithospheres plate.

Palio magnetic has established that this geomagnetic pole have not been stable all the time but
have moved slowly along certain paths.

Palio magnetism has established the truth of the continental drift that was postulated in the 19th
century

Question

Briefly discuss the age determination of rock sample using potassium argon (K-Ar) method.

Answer

The most common method of age determination methods in the rock is (K-Ar) radioactive dating
techniques.

The radioactive potassium 40K constitute about 0.0116% of the potassium in rocks. It undergoes
two different disintegration.
40 40
K19 Ca20 + β-k

2. By electron capture to yield 40Ar18

40 40
K19 Ca20 + β

The combined decay constant for the two processes is equal to 5.53x10-10 get year.

The imply that T1/2 =1.25x109 year.

i.e from T1/2 = 0.693/π

Since the age of the earth (4.5x109 yrs) is just about a few half life of potassium 40 i.e 40K the
element is still even in the oldest, rock on earth.

The (K-Ar) method is based on determine the amount of inert argon that has accumulated in a
given mass of a rock.

The other decay process that yield 40Ca is more probable but is not used because the original
quantity of 40Ca is unknown and so the increment would not be as certain. The age of the rock is
obtained from the (K-Ar) method using the equation.

T = 1.804x109 in (9.524 40Ar +1)

40
K

This method produces reliable result for igneous rock that has not been heated since their time of
formation. This is because hating causes the trapped argon to escape. The method is not reliable
for sedimentary and metamorphic rock or igneous rocks with complication thermal history.

Heat flow from the earth interior to the surface can be represented by thermal diffusivity
equation given as follows:

e∫c
dy 1 d
= 2
dx r dr (
k r2
dt
dr )
+ H .(r .t)

Define each terms of this equation and represent same in linear form.

Answer

e = density

c = specific heat capacity

k = thermal conductivity.
H = rate of heat generation.

Conductivity equation or diffusivity equation in linear form

dt d2 t
=k 2
dr dx

K = diffusivity

k
k=
c

These are functions of radius r or temperature.

H is a function of r or t i.e H(r,t). it is also a function of time t.

The heat flow is also a function of r or T and time t.

Question

Outline three boundary conditions that must be satisfied so as to obtain variation of T with r at
different times in the earth history.

Answer.

dT dT
1. The present heat flow and temperature gradient at the surface must coincide with
dt dt
the observed values.
2. The mantle is solid to a depth of 2900km below which there is liquid outer core and solid
inner core.
3. There is a strong concentration of radioactive elements in the continental crust but must
less in the oceanic crust.

Question

2 π −Δ £
If the fractional lost of energy per cycle is given by = , show that the amplitude
Ø £
R
−π dR
A = Aoe-π/µ ( ∫ ). This could be expressed as Ao exp(-R/D) where d is the distance
Ø O π
within which the amplitude falls to 36.8%

Answer

2 π −Δ £
=
Q £
Considering the damping of a seismic wave as a fond of the distance R. it trends, a cycle is
represent by the wavelength λ, hence the equation can be written as.
Question

The variation of temp and gradient at great depth depends on the following equation.

dTn
λnx =q−H nx−∑ ( H i−r ¿−H i ) Li −1¿ .
dx

Define each term of this equation and explain the two factors in which heat generation in a layer
depend upon.

Answer
n
dTn
λnx =q−H nx−∑ ( H i−r ¿−H i ) Li −1¿ .
dx l =2

q – Heat flow or heat flux (q = λΔT) ΔT is geothermal gradient

x – Is the depth

H – Heat it’s generate

Λn – variation of thermal conductivity

ʅn – thickness of various layers.

The heat generation in a layer depends on the two factors:

I. Heat sources
II. Heat processes

Sketch a well labeled diagram showing notations for the different seismic phases on a
seismograph and lustrate what each notation stands for.
 i. P (capital) is a P-wave that travels directly to the seismograph without having being
reflected.
ii. S is the S-wave equivalent .op (i)
iii. PP – A p-wave that has undergone one reflection
iv. SS – S-wave equivalent op(iii)
v. P(small letter P) – A p-wave whose path from the focus of the earthquake to the
seismograph point upwards to the earth surface
vi. Ps – A p-wave that is converted to an S-wave after reflection or refraction.
vii. PCP – Reflection at the core mantle boundary.
viii. PKP – A p-wave passing through the outer core
ix. SKS – S wave converted to p wave at the outer core and later converted back to S wave
x. PKCKP – I represent the reflection from the inner core boundary, (Also, we have Skiks, Skikp)
xi. PKIKP – I represents the penetration through the inner core. (Similarly SKIKS).
xii. PG – Is a p-wave that travels through the upper crystal layer
xiii. P* - Is a p-wave that travel through the lower crystal layer.
xiv. PN – Is a p-wave that has travel through the upper mantle

Question

Explain what is meant by an elastic attenuation.

Answer

This type of attenuation is as a result of the absorption of energy of seismic wave due to imperfect
elastic properties of the medium. If the particles of a medium do. Not react perfectly elastically with
the neighbours part, the energy of the wave is host frictional heat instead of being transferred in the
medium.

This type of attenuation of the seismic wave is referred to as an elastic damping.

Question

Write short notes on the following.

(i) Viscous remanent magnetization (VRM)

(ii) Deposition (Detrital) Remanent magnetization (DRM)
(iii) Chemical Remanent Magnetiation (CRM)
(iv) Thermoremanent Magnetiation (TRM)

Answer
 (I) Viscous Remanent Magnetiation (VRM)
This magnetization is acquired at temperature below curie point. This happens because of the
long time span effect on TRM and CRM. This affects the primary magnetization in two ways:
(i) The intensity of primary magnetization may decay by a process called viscous decay or
(ii) A new magnetization can be acquired during the decay process which is called VRM.

If the ambient field is different from that in which the primary magnetization acquired than both will
tend to obscure the primary magnetization because as the VRM increases and the primary component
decays, the latter will become less effective.

(II) Deposition (Detrital) Remanent Magnetiation (DRM)

A small portion of the particles which go to form a detrital sediment are usually magnetic. The
particles have been derived from the older rock and may inherit a remanent from them. Under
suitable condition, it is possible that the magnetic moment of these particles becomes statistically
aligned along the direction of the ambient field and thin alignment may be fossilized in the resulting
sediment.

There are two types of DRM:

(i) Remanent acquired at deposition due to particle alignment during sedimentation.
(ii) Remanent acquired by particle rotation into the field after deposition but prior to
consolidation.

(III) Chemical Remanent Magnetiation (CRM)

Many rocks contain magnetic minerals which were formed either at low temperature by chemical
processes initially or had been subjected to secondary alterations at temperature below their curie
points.

This effects take a variety or forms, for instance, many sediments contain iron oxide deposited
chemically sometime at the time of deposition. Sometime after, this may occur as identifiable
crystals or as fine powder disseminated through the rock.

Metamorphic rocks commonly contain pyrolite, heamatite or magnetite which might have formed at
moderate temperature.

Diffusions of ions within the crystal lattice will also occur at low temperature.

Finally, the rock may undergo surface weathering or get involve in different circumstance like
oxidation and enrichment of ions.

(IV) Thermo Remanent Magnetization (TRM)

This is the magnetization that a rock acquire during cooling through a certain temperature interval
in the presence of a magnetic field.

In a week magnetic field, the intensity of TRM is generally proportional to the field.
 If during cooling, the field is applied only between temperature internal T 1 and T2 where T2 < T1, the
field being cancelled at all other temperature, then this is called a partial TRM. It is found
experimentally in the laboratory that in a week field like that of the earth, the partial TRM acquired
at any temperature internal and is not affected by the field by subsequent internals in cooling TRM
is strongly resistant to demagnetization.

Define the terms

(i) static ellipticity

(ii) Dynamic ellipticity

Answer

(i) Static ellipticity.

It is defined as the difference between the equatorial radius and the polar radius divided by the
polar radius

a−c
f=
c

Where
a= equatorial radius
c = polar radius

(iii) Dynamic ellipticity

It is defined as the principal moment of inertia of the earth about the rotating axis (c) and
about an axis in the equatorial plane (A). is defined as
C−A
FD =
C
Because of the flattening of the earth, its moments of inertia about the two axis are not
equal.

Discuss the under listed types of magnetism

(i) Ferrimagnetisms
(ii) Paramagnetic
(iii) Diamagnetism
(iv) Ferromagnetism.