a

GP 418_1 Exploration
Seismology I – Introduction

C. H. MEHTA
chmehta3@gmail.com
Lectures delivered @ Dept of Earth Sciences IIT, Bombay, Powai
6 Jan 2014
 Time Table: GP-418 1st Yr, 2nd Semester
(2014)

Time---> 8:30:00- 9:30- 9:30- 9:30-- 10:35 - 11:05- 11:35- 14:00-

Days|, 9:25:00 10:25 10:55 12:30 11:30 12:30 12:30 15:00

Monday         GP-418    
LT05  
Tuesday             GP-418
LT05
 
Wed  
Thursday GP-418            
LT05  
Friday                
 REFERENCES

 My presentations and supplementary materials that I will provide.

 Yilmaz, Oz, “Seismic Data Analysis”, SEG, USA, 1987
 Sheriff, R. E. and Geldart, L. P. Exploration seismology, Cambridge
Univ. Press 1995.
 Other references :
 “The Scientist and Engineer's Guide to Digital Signal Processing”,
Steve Smith, www.dspguide.com]
 W.M. Telford, L. P. Geldart, and R. E. Sheriff, Applied geophysics,
Cambridge Univ. Press 1990.
 M. B. Dobrin, and C.H. Savit, Introduction to geophysical
prospecting, McGraw Hill, 1988.
 Outline of the course
The items marked * may be taken up only in the 2nd year.
1 Role of Seismic in exploration of hydrocarbons – a
glimpse.
1 What is a wave? Frequency, wavelength.
Mathematical representation of a plane wave traveling
in 1-D, 2-D and 3-D. Spherical wave.
2 Elements of Digital Signal Processing:- Digital Fourier
Transforms (DFT),
3 Nyquist theorem and aliasing (in 1-D & 2-D)
2 Stress-strain relation and elastic parameters
3 Wave equations for Pressure (or Dilatational) wave
and Shear wave. Velocities and attenuations of P-
wave, S-wave.
 Outline of the course (contd)
6. Seismic Velocities and Poisson’s ratios of different
rocks
7. Surface waves
8. Seismic acquisition on-land: sources and receivers
9. Seismic reflection method, CDP technique,
Characteristic features in a land Seismic reflection
record, seismic noise,
10. Marine seismic surveys
11. Projection Systems and coordinate transformations*
12. Seismic refraction survey, velocity measurements
13. Linear systems – Impulse response, seismic wavelet
and convolution model for a seismic trace
14 Data processing - convolution, correlation, filtering,
velocity analysis, stacking and migration,
15 Seismic Data Processing in time & depth*
16 Synthetic seismograms, structural interpretation of
seismic reflection events*.
17 Rock Physics as relevant to Seismic*
18 Amplitude Vs. Offset Analysis*
19 Seismic attributes*
20 Seismic Stratigraphy* and Chrono-stratigarphy*
 Objective of the course

To expose you to the basics of

seismic prospecting.
 Prerequisite for the course

Your have a child-like curiosity and adult

perseverance for learning.
Prerequisite for the course: You are not
allergic to mathematics.

Mathematics is a language you must learn to

use if you want to be a good geophysicist;
else you will not cross the threshold of
excellence, that I guarantee.
 A fact about learning

“ A teacher can only open the doors to learning;

you must have a keen desire to enter by yourself
and explore further.” – A Chinese Proverb
Seismology – applications
1. Engineering Up to 1 km ≈ 1- 10 KHz

2. Exploration Up to say 10 kms ≈ 10 - 100 Hz

3. Earthquake Up to 100 kms ≈ .1- 1 Hz

 In Petroleum Industry, we use seismic data
for:
 Unraveling petroleum systems
- Source,
- Generation of hydrocarbons
- Migration to reservoir rocks
- Entrapment in pre-existing trap (mark the word
pre-existing)
 Inferring presence of traps for hydrocarbons
and
generating prospects
 Assessing drilling hazards
 Developing a field
 Monitoring a reservoir
More specifically, we use seismic for:

 Imaging and interpreting Structural

& stratigraphic traps
- Extracting Rock properties and lithology,
- Estimating the nature of Fluid contents and
estimating relative percentage
- Changes in fluid contents (4-D) once the field
is in production
Therefore, objectives of seismic processing
aught to be:
 To generate image of the subsurface which can be
visualized for structural and stratigraphic interpretation

 To extract velocities which can be used for:

- building velocity-depth model, and possibly for
- inferring lithological & fluid properties and geo-hazards

 To condition seismic amplitudes for inversion in

terms of elastic parameters which, in turn, can be
used for inferring lithological & fluid properties and for
monitoring a field in production
 WHAT U WILL LEARN FROM THESE
LECTURES :

 OVERVIEW OF PRINCIPLES OF SEISMIC WAVE PROPAGATION

 BRIEF IDEA ABOUT DATA ACQUISITION TECHNIQUES
 BASIC STEPS OF PROCESSING OF SINGLE COMPONENT
P-WAVE DATA (2-D & 3-D) INCLUDING DEPTH IMAGING &
VELOCITY-DEPTH MODELING*
 HOW TO QC THE PROCESSING OF DATA
 WHAT IS SEISMIC DATA
PROCESSING?

A set of mathematical operations on the input

seismic data aimed at reducing the unwanted
components and gathering the wanted
components for further use in interpretation .
 OUTPUT OF
SEISMIC DATA PROCESSING

 DIGITAL IMAGES OF SUBSURFACE

IN 2D/3D

 CONDITIONED DATA FOR INVERSION

(WHICH IS THEN USED FOR
INTERPETATION)
A few examples of seismic
outputs
AN EXAMPLE OF A 2-D SEISMIC IMAGE

3
A VELOCITY SECTION IN A THRUST ZONE
 Seismic Section
in GOM showing
salt diapers

Velocity Model
AN EXAMPLE OF 3-D DEPTH VOLUME

Source: ONGC
 Gullfaks area, Northern North Sea

Oil migration
Oil & gas 3500m
Field leaks trapped
Oil & gas

Well

Deep basin
150 km 5000 m

Source: SINTEF Petroleum Research

An interpreted section in a gas charged field - KG offshore

BRIGHT
SPOT
 Normal Incidence Reflection Coefficient
at an interface of two layers
R = reflection coefficient
1 = density of the shallower layer
V1 = velocity of the shallower layer
2 = density of the deeper layer
V2 = velocity of the deeper layer

Amplitude= 1 R
layer 1

T layer 2
ZOOM OF THE PREVIOUS SLIDE SHOWING A FLAT BRIGHT SPOT

Gas charged sediments have lower impedance --->

Greater impedance contrast across the interfaces -->
Bright spot in amplitude
A 2-D section (from a 3-D volume) showing a half
-graben filled with source rock and a structure.
What is a wave?
 A wave is a disturbance (change in a physical property of
a medium) which propagates from one part of the
medium to another. Examples: Change in pressure, local
displacement of particles, Electrical or Magnetic field,etc.

 When propagating along 1-D, the disturbance – which

could be particle displacement or change in pressure - in
a uniform medium has a general form:
f (x - c t) + g ( x + c t)
General form for a wave propagation in 1-D

 P(x,t) = f (x – ct) + g ( x + ct)

The first term denotes a wave traveling
along positive x-axis and the second term
along negative x-axis, both with velocities c,
where the functions ‘f’ and ‘g’ describe the
shape of the wave packets
What is a wave?
 In most terrestrial situations, the source which generates
a wave has a finite time duration; consequently, the
disturbance at any fixed point in space also has a finite
time duration (transient). Similarly, when we take a time
snap shot of the propagating wave, the disturbance is
confined over a finite region of the space.
 Next slides show an example of a wave packet (wavelet
or a transient) disturbance propagating in 1- D in a
uniform non-attenuating medium (hence without any
change in the shape or size of the wave packet) ----
A wave packet f(x-ct) propagating along x-axis with
speed c

x
A wave packet f(x-ct) propagating along x-axis with
speed c

x
A wave packet f(x-ct) propagating along x-axis with
speed c

x
A wave packet f(x-ct) propagating along x-axis with
speed c

x
A wave packet f(x-ct) propagating along x-axis with
speed c

x
A wave packet f(x-ct) propagating along x-axis with
speed c

x
A wave packet f(x-ct) propagating along x-axis with
speed c

x
AA wave packet f(x-ct) propagating along x-axis
with speed c

x
A wave packet f(x-ct) propagating along x-axis with
speed c

x
A wave packet f(x-ct) propagating along x-axis with
speed c

x
A wave packet f(x-ct) propagating along x-axis with
speed c

x
A wave packet f(x-ct) propagating along x-axis with
speed c

x
A wave packet f(x-ct) propagating along x-axis with
speed c

x
A wave packet f(x-ct) propagating along x-axis with
speed c

x
A wave packet f(x-ct) propagating along x-axis with
speed c

x
A wave packet f(x-ct) propagating along x-axis with
speed c

x
A wave packet f(x-ct) propagating along x-axis with
speed c

x
A wave packet f(x-ct) propagating along x-axis with
speed c

x
A wave packet f(x-ct) propagating along x-axis with
speed c

x
Sinusoidal Plane wave

 In order to analyze wave motions of transients, it

is convenient to consider sinusoidal waves
which, for a fixed point in space, are periodic in
time t, and similarly, for a fixed time, are periodic
in space.
Representation of a monochromatic sinusoidal
wave

 A sinusoidal wave (of infinite duration) with frequency ω

propagating along x-axis with velocity ω/k has a form:
f(x, t) = A sin (ωt – k x ) + B cos (ωt – k x )
Alternative forms are:
f(x,t) = C Sin (wt-kx + Φ)
Or, f(x,t) = A Exp [ i (wt-kx + Φ) ]
where Φ is called the phase.
While using a complex form for representing a wave which
is real, it is implied that one is referring to its real part.
Wavelength and velocity of a wave

 If we take a time snap-shot of a sinusoidal wave, the

wave - the change in a property - repeats itself in space
at a distance called wavelength, λ =2π/k along the
direction of the propagation of the wave.
 If we examine the disturbance for a fixed x, the

disturbance repeats itself in time at an interval called

time period T = 2π/ω.
 The speed at which any feature of the wave say, its
peak, travels along x-axis is called the velocity V = λ/T
Let’s see a sinusoidal wave propagating along one
dimension x. ------------------
Wavelength λ
A wave propagating along 1-D with a speed V = λ / T

Wavelength λ
Motivation for interest in sinusoidal waves

 What makes it possible to use sinusoidal waves for practical

analysis is the work of Fourier according to which almost any
waveform – as long as it is of finite energy (square integrable)
- can be synthesized from elementary sinusoidal waves.
 Second reason for our interest in sinusoidal waves is their
unique property that a sinusoidal input to a linear system
remains unaltered in its frequency and only its amplitude and
phase are altered. (This property is not shared by any other
form of input such as a square wave form or a triangular
waveform). Thus, in a very practical sense, we can hope to
understand a system by studying its response to sinusoids of
different frequencies.
Amplitude, Phase and frequency of oscillations

y(t) = A sin (ωt + θ)

A = Maximum displacement
from central position

T = Time period = time

required to complete one
cycle of oscillation

f = Frequency = 1 /T
y =0----
 ω = 2 π f = Angular
A frequency
θ = Phase

When the phase is non-

zero, the entire waveform
appears to be shifted in
time by the amount θ/ω
seconds. A negative value
A Simple Harmonic Oscillator
How to build a transient pulse

 Let us revisit Fourier’s lessons in a

discrete form called Discrete Fourier
Transform (DFT) – first graphically and
then mathematically.
Sinusoidal waveforms

y(t)

x=ω
t
How to build a transient pulse from sinusoidal waves
of indefinitely long duration

 Consider one oscillation of a cosine wave over its time

period T, i.e. of frequency F = 1 / T, data sampled at time
interval ΔT.
 Its discrete time samples y(n) are represented by an
expression
y(n) = cos[ 2π F (n ΔT)]
 An example of 50 samples generated in EXCEL for ΔT =
4 milli-secs and T = 0.2 sec, i.e. F= 5 Hz is shown in the
next slide.
-----
Left: One oscillation of a cosine wave of frequency
F =5 Hz, Time length = 0.2 Sec, sampled at time
interval ΔT = 4 milli-seconds. t=0 is at the center.
Cosine 2Pi (F)t; F=1/T
1.500
1.000
1
0.500
0.000
-0.500 f
0
-1.000 f =F
t=0
-1.500

Right panel shows what is called as Amplitude Spectrum, i.e., which

frequencies are contained in the left curve and in what proportion. In this
case, the spectrum has only a single frequency F =1 /T which is called the
Fundamental frequency for the time length T.
Second harmonic, i.e. the cosine wave of
frequency = 2F over the time period T.

1.5
1 Cosine 2Pi (2F)t; F=1/T
0.5 1
0
-0.5
-1 0 f
t=0

-1.5 2F
t=0

The right hand panel shows the line spectrum. In this case, it is
only a single frequency 2 F
The cosine wave of zero-frequency :

Zero frequency
1.5
1 1
0.5
0 f
1 5 9 13 17 21 25 29 33 37 41 45 49 0

t=0

The right hand panel shows the line spectrum. In this case, it has
only zero frequency.
What is the maximum possible frequency for
sampled data?

1.5 Cos (2PI *25 F t); F= 1/2DT is Max Frequency

0.5

-0.5

-1

-1.5

time sample

By definition, the wave with the maximum frequency has to complete one cycle
in precisely two samples. Thus, maximum frequency = 1/ (2DT). This is called
Nyquist frequency Nf. In the present case Nf = 1/.08 = 125 Hz = 25 F with F =
5 Hz. One can fit 25 such cycles in the recorded data of 50 samples with DT= .
04 mili-secs.
Sum of cosine waves with three frequencies, 0, F & 2F
over one time period T

3.5001 + Cosine 2Pi (F)t+ Cosine 2Pi (2F)t; F=1/T

3.000
2.500 1
2.000
1.500
1.000
0.500 0 f
0.000 F 2F
-0.500

t=0
The right hand panel shows the line spectrum. In this case, it has
three frequencies: 0, F, and 2F in equal measures.
Sum of cosine waves with four frequencies, 0, F,
2F & 3F over one time period T

1+ Cos 2Pi (F)t+ Cos 2Pi (2F)t + Cos2Pi (3F)t; F=1/T;

5.000

4.000
1
3.000

2.000
0 f
1.000 F 2F 3F
0.000

-1.000
t =0
The right hand panel shows the line spectrum. In this case, it has
four frequencies: 0, F, 2F, and 3F in equal measures.
Sum of cosine waves with five frequencies, 0, F,
2F, 3F & 4F over one time period T

sum of zero frequency and four harmonics cosine waves

6.000
5.000 1
4.000
3.000
2.000
0 f
1.000
F 4F
0.000
-1.000
t=0

The right hand panel shows the line spectrum. In this case, it has
five frequencies: 0, F, 2F, 3F and 4F in equal measures.
If we add in equal proportion all cosine waves over time
period T, we get a spike at zero time.

1 + sum of all harmonics-cosine waves

30
20 1

10
0 f
0
-10 F 2F…. 25F
t=0

The right hand panel shows the line spectrum. In this case, it has all the 25
frequencies in equal measures. That is why such a spectrum is called a
“White Spectrum”. Note that in the present case F= 5 Hz, which makes
maximum frequency 25F = 125 Hz
 What we have constructed so far were all symmetric functions
of time and hence were built using only cosine waveforms
 If we want to construct anti-symmetric waveforms, we have to
use sine waves instead of cosine waves.
Sine wave of frequency F over the same record
length of 0.2 secs

sine 2Pi (F)t; F=1/T

1.5

0.5

0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51

-0.5

-1

-1.5
Sine wave of frequency F over the same record
length of 0.2 secs
1.5

sine 2Pi (2F)t; F=1/T

1

0.5

0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51
-0.5

-1

-1.5
Sum of sine waves with frequencies F, 2F, 3F, & 4F

t=0
Sum of sine waves – all frequencies in equal
proportion

Sum of sin waves

20

15

10

0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35 37 39 41 43 45 47 49 51
-5

-10

-15

-20
 What happens if we add cosine or sine
waves in unequal proportions?
Sum of cosine waves – all frequencies in different
proportions

Sum of cos waves

10

0
1 6 11 16 21 26 31 36 41 46 51
-5 Amplitude spectrum of the cos waves being summed
1.2

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 1011121314151617181920212223242526
Frequency in units of F=1/T Hz
Sum of sine waves in different proportions

Sum of sin waves of different frequencies

10
5
0
-5
-10
Filter coefficients (amplitude) as a function of frequency
1.5
1
0.5
0

Frequency in units of F= 5 HZ
So what is the message that you derive
when you compare the time signal for a
waveform which has a white spectrum with
the waveform which has a narrow
spectrum?
 Decomposition of a waveform which is neither
symmetric nor anti-symmetric in time.
 Any waveform f (t) can always be represented as a sum of a
wave symmetric in time and a wave an anti-symmetric in
time:
f(t) = (1/2) { f(t) + f(-t)} + (1/2) { f(t) - f(-t)}
The first term is symmetric and the second term anti-
symmetric under t  - t.
Hence, any waveform can be Fourier decomposed in terms
of cos and sine waves, the cos waves giving the symmetric
part and the sine waves giving the anti-symmetric part.
Home work Exercise-1 for you:

Construct a synthesis of sine waves

(equal proportion) with frequencies
(a) F, 2F, and 3F
(b) all possible frequencies, F, 2F,….24F
where F = 5Hz. [ Take Time length = 0.2
secs, sampling interval ΔT = 4 milli–secs].