HANNAH ARENDT Eichmann in Jerusalem _A Report ON THE BANALITY: OF EVIL REVISED AND ENLARGED EDITION20 Eichmann Derualen history, which tringsthistoryforward.° -j srithoui:thevindugace. cof sien?” Is, not:Msy;Hausngr.bisically sin, greementwiths!the school of historical-lay!-an-allusiqn.to: Hegelwkand haschernct shown that. whatyfthe leadérs sdo‘will-not alwaysvlsad: to, the. aim and destivationnthey wanted?c:, 2 Here thevintentiény was to destroy the Iéwishrpeople -andrievobjeetive'wasnot redbied and a new flourishing Stato’ camesintocbeing, The atgumient of the defense hid mow:eome-perilotly close to the newest anti Semitic notion; about ‘the, Elders: of. Ziony-scb forth inal fousness a fow weeks earlier in. the: Egyptian National: Asseinby, by Deputy Foreign’ Minister Hlussaiz. Zolicat Sabri Wiervwas innocent of the slaughter of. thoriJews) he was.a. victim’ of the Zionists, who.had “compelled him to’ perpetrate. crime ‘would eventually enable them to achievé-their aim=the-creation of the State of Isracl," Except that Dr.'Servitis, following the philosophy of history expounded by the’prosecutor; had put His- tory in the-place usually reseryed: for the Eldets~ot Zions Despite the intentions: of Ben-Gurion ind all the-effortsiofithe prosecution, there remained an. individual insthe dock,-a-persoh of flesh and blood;.and if Bon-Gurion-did' “not earewhat verdict is delivered. against Bichmann," it,was undeniably the’ sole task of the Jerusalem court to deliver one. _ mh Sa eee he The act a to, Adolf -sonrot Karl Adolé Bichmann and: Maca née Schet- ling, caught ina suburb of Bucnos Aires on the evening of May {/ Uty 1960, sloveto Tsraek nine days later, brought to tral in the "District: Couct.ia Jerusalem-on ‘April 41, 1961, stood nccused ‘hefifteen, courts, “together, with -others” he ‘hid committed . imes, agsinst:thp Towish peoploy crimes against inimanity, and “Nat crimes: during-the whole. period-of:the ‘Nazi xepime “and “‘etpecially: during: the period ‘of the Second “World War. ‘The | Nees -andNazi,(Collaborators (Punishment) Lav of 1950, ‘jnnder which he was tried, provides that."a person’ who.has com- ntted. one of these... . offenses .: ..is liable: tothe" death penalty.” To\each count ichmann pleaded: “Not guilty ia the «sense ofthe indictment,” jw what sease then did he think he was gilty? In the long ‘eross-exemination of tho, accused) according to him “the longest IP ever. known,”, neither the. defense nor the prosecation nor, ally, any of the three. judges ever ‘bothered to_ask him this “obvious question, His lawyer, Robert Servatius of Cologhe, hired y-Bichmann and. paid by, the Israeli government (following: the recedent ect at tho-Nuremberg Tals, where’ all attomcys' for the defense were paid by.the Tribunal of the. victorious powers), answered the question in a press interview: “Bichmana -feels Bgully;.before God, not before. phe: law,” but -this- answer ‘femained without confirmation from the. accused himself, ‘The O) delense would apparently-have preferred him to plead not guilty f ‘onthe grounds that znder the then exiting: Nazi Jogal syateut ohad not, done anything wrong, that what he wis ascased of _ Wort not crimes but-“acts of state,” over which no, other state | is jurisdiction (par in parem iniperiom non habet,'that St hid { cbeen hie! duty to -obey-and: that, in; Servatius’” words} -he- hadian eae comm ich you are decorated if you win’ and go fhe alow if you love (Ics Gobel kadar on ls eve dom in sii peat san a'r pene cals) OU el 8 Theol oC ie Calne Accleny a Bian, ded fo Wht Ihe fencer Merar ale "he telat’ olen the “oases ate ong th hstobl and ple ‘Rit tough emia potcdng), Serva wost"a ep farther, end declared that “the only legitimate criminal problem of theca alsin pronmening ucgnet aie Israeli captors, which so.far has not been donc’—a statement, Tnedesialy that Ib someybat lift esd ih repeated and widely publicized utterances in Isreel, in which’he Cac the cut ofthe wa "et epitel shovmea CStpatig favorably wis he Necoberg Pe : lca‘ om seu wa dierent Ti ef ly he lr ment for murder was wrong: “Withthe killing of Tews Irbid toting todo never ld Jey ora aonJof for at ar riled say hen bang 1 ore gve an one Sher Tew rn Jo st do ons was ater ‘to qualify this statement, “It so happened . ... that T-had-not once to do it”—for he left no doubt that he would have ‘killed +his own father if hhe had received an order to that effect.’ Hence + he repeated over and over (what he-had already stated ithe so-called Sassen documents, the interview: that: hé had givet: in {p55 u Anping oe She parse Sencar. ‘man who wes also a fugitive froin justice, and that, after Eich- ‘mana’s capture, had been ‘published in'part by Life inthis country and by Der Stern ia Germény) that he could be acoused ony efi an abeting” he elon st Jon, Wc Be ered Techn tev tea 'aun te et Fete tory of Huma The cfr pan ate ton Sichnants Sa thay, bathe prosody ch time in an unmuocessful effort 6 prove that Hichnidnr Kad ‘once, at least, killed with his own hands (a Jewish’ boy'in Huhgary), and-{tspent oven more tine, and-more waccestliy; xP ais thn Fine ademas, th, Jeny expen fn th ettan orsign Offer, hed. paibbied on’gne of the Womunieats teak wit Yoga dodng ntliphone convertion, which Had \ The dectoed 23 “Eichmann proposes shooting.” This turned out to be the only ‘order.to kill,” if that is what it was, for which there existed -evenja shred ofevidence. ir» The evidence was more questionable than it appeared to be ating the trial at which the judges accepted the prosecutor's ‘y version against Bichmann’s categoricat denial—a desial that was voiy sinefective, since he had forgotien the “brief inwident [a ‘mero eight-thousand people] which was not so striking,” as -yServatius put it ‘The incident dook place in the autumn of 1941, ‘sik months: after Germany. hed occupied. the Serbian part of Yugoslavia, The Army had-been:plagued’ by partisan wart G vever since, anti it was the military authorities who decided to Uf: vaolve.two problems at a stroke by. shooting a hundred Jews and ‘sGypalesias hostages for every dead German soldier. To be sure, ‘either Jens not Gypsies were,partisans, but; in the words of the “responsible civilian officer in the military govecnmaent, a certain ‘Stantsrat Harald ‘Tumer, ‘the “Jews we ‘had in the camps anyhow];.after all, they to9 are Serb nationals, and besides, they cibaye-to disappear” (quoted by Raul Hilborg ia The Destruction $f the European Jews, 1961). ‘The camps had been set up by General Franz Bole, militty.govornor of the region, and they 5 "housed Tewish males.only. Nelther General Bohme nor Staatsrat f.. , I know”-and, by the sate Yokel, to advance to the rank of the-most eGoperative defendant-over, (His enthusiasm was soon dampened, though’ néver ‘quite ‘extinguished, whion he.was eonfronted with eoncrete questions based on irrefutable documents.) “The best -proof-of ‘his inti boundless couidence, obviously wasted on Captain Less (who _ Said to" Harry Mulisch: “I was Mr, Eichmann’s"father-confes. sor"), was that. for the ‘first tho in bis ifé -he radmitted his carly disasters, although he must have bean aware of thstat at he thus contradicted himself on: severalimpottant. entre inallhisofeial Naxreord, aaa ys Well, the disasters were'ordinary: sigoe he “had not exactly Deen the most hard-working” pupil—or, oue-may ld, the most gifted—his father had taken him fst from high school andithen from vocational schéol; long before graduation: Hence, the:pro- fession that appears. on all hls official“documents» construction ‘engineer, had about as much connection with reaityvas the statement that.his birthplace was Palestine and that-he'svas uent in Hebrew and Yiddish—another outright ie ichniann hed loved to tell-both to his $.8: comrades:and to his Jewish Victims. Tt was in the same vein that ho. had-always pretended ‘hethad been dismissed from his job as salesmanifor the Vacirint Fs Thiedetwed « ~ i 29 | OiL-Compiny in Austria becauso'of membership in'the Netional FL ‘Socialists Party.-The version ‘he confded:t0 Captain Tess: was by less‘deauiatic, though Probably notsthe truth either:he had been fjrédsbecause it. was s-time of uniemployment,:when uimarried UP -ciuployees were: the’ frst-to'lose theic jobs. ‘(This explanation, fj, which ‘at-frst seenis plausible, is not very. sétistactory, because FF heslosthis,job in the, spring of 1993; when he had: been engaged FF foristwo: fall -years: to Veronika, -ot Vera, “iebl;, who later f) became his-wife, Why-bad ho:nbtimarried her before, when -he [js stl had a good: job? He finally married in» March,:-1935, Py probably becatse- bachelors in’ tho. $.Sy:as din‘the-Vaewum-Cil | \Gompany; were never sure-of:their jobs and could not be pro- | moted:): Clearly, bragging had: always beet" one of:his cardinal jvigesi! : |S 0Whlle young Eichmann was doing’ poorly in school, his father ) detethe Tramway and Electricity Compeny-and went into busi- [ines for himself He bought'a sll ining enterprise and pot {) his-unpromisiig. youngster to work in it'as an ‘ordinary mining 'dahorer, but only until ho found him, a job in-the sales depart- ) iment of the Oberésterreichischon Blektrobaa Company, where \Bichmann' remained for .over twa years, He'vas now: about “‘tentj-two years old’ andwithout-any prospects for acareers \sthbvonly thing he-had learned, perhaps, wis how to sell: What Jhuten. happened was what the: himself called, his Sst ‘break, of ‘iwhick,- gain, we have two rather disferent-versions, ‘In: a hand * “sritéen. Biographical, record ‘the: submitted in. 1939. to" wit \prottotion in-the SS. che described: it as follows: "I worked. ‘during the years’of.1925 to 1927 as'a salesman for the Austrian’ ‘Blekirobau Company. I left this position of my own free-will, 3s ‘the'Vacuum Oil: Company of Vienria offered me the-repréventi- ion for Upper Aostit” ‘The Koy word hte is “offered since, aseording to the story he told Captain Less in Israel, nobody ‘had‘ofered him anything; His: own mother hed died wien he ‘vas ten years oldy-and-bis fathet-had married again, A’cousla, -af his stepmother—a man he called “uncle” —who. was presi Gent of the Austian Aiitomobile Club and was matried tothe ‘daughter of a Jewish businossman in Czechoslovakia, had used |) this seonnection with the general director of the Austrian Waewsin’ Oil Compaty; a Jewish’ Mr.’ Weiss, to “obtainfor-his+ 30 Hickman in Jerulem valortunste relation a job as traveling salesman. Bickmann was properly grateful; the Jews in -his family were among ‘his private reasons” for not hating Jews. Even. in 1943 or 1944, jwhen the Final Solution was in full swing, he had not forgotten: ‘The daughter of this’ marriage, half'Jewish according to the Nuremberg Laws, .. . came to see me in order to obtain my ‘permission for her emigration into Switzerland, Of course, I granted this request, and the same uncle came also to éee mé to ask me io intervene for some Viennese Jewish couple, I mention ‘tis only.to show that T myself had no hatred for Jews, for my ‘whole education through my mother aad shy father had ‘be strictly Christian; my, mother; betause of her Jewish. relatives, ‘hold. different opinions from’ those current in SS. circles.” ‘He went to, considerable ‘lengths to prove his point:-he-had never harbored any ill feelings against his victims, ‘nd, what is ‘more, he had never made a scerct ofthat fac. "I explained this to Dr.*Léwenhers:{head of the Jewish Community in Vienna] a8-T explained it to Dr. Kastner [vice-president of the. Zionist’ Oxgan- ‘ization in Budapest); I think J told it to everybody, each of my ‘men knew it they. all heard it from me. sometime. Even:in velementary school, I had a clissmats with, whom-I spent -my ‘tee: time, and fe came to our houge; a family in Linz by: the suamo -of, Sebbs, ‘Tho last time: we ‘met .we- walked together ‘through. the streets of Linz, I already with the Party emblem of the NS.D.AP, [the Nozi Pasty] in my buttonhole, and he.did inot-think anything of it." Tad Bichmenn been. a bit lees primo ‘the police examinstion (Wwhicit refrained from crossexemination, presumably: to remain assured of his cooperation) less discreet, his ack of prejudice” might have shown itself in stil: another “| aspect, It scems shat in: Vieana, whore he wai-so extraordinarily Suocessful in arranging the “Yorced emigration” of-Jews, he hada | Jowish mistcess, on “old flame” from-Linz, : Rassenschande, ternal iercouie with Jews was probate eta cimo-a ‘member of-the 8.8. could. commit; and; though during the .war ‘the: raping of Tewish girls, became: a favorite: pastime at-the ‘ront, it. was by no means common for a Higher. S.S,.ofier,to Ihave un affair with a Jewish woman, Thus, Bichmann’s repeated violent denunciations “of Julius, Streicher, the. insane; and ‘bscene editor of Der’ Sturmer; and of: his: pornographic. anti- a4 tmitism, were perhaps’ personally inotivated; ind the. expres- sion of more than the. routiné contempt:n “enlightened” $.S. Be isian was supposed to show toward the vulgar passions of lesser ‘Party luminaries, fa?hTas-fve aid a half-yoars with the Vacuum Oil Company in ene eo eof tre aepyney py the:was stil living with his parents, except when ‘he was.out on therroad, The date-when this idyll'camo to an ond—Pentecost, 1933—wras, amnong: the few he alivays reniembered. Actually, jithings had taken atu for-the worse somewhat eatlier: At te Mend: of. 1932, he was unexpectedly’ transferred from Linz-to Salzburg} vory much, agaist his inclinations: I. lost all oy in By ny ary oo longer lke. onto mas eal” Prom such iudden-losses of Arboltsfeude Bichmann was toisuflet through qv his lifeThe worst of them occurred when he-was told:of the ihrer's order for. the tphysical-extermination of-the Jews,”/in lhe was to play such an-important role This, too, came afin caw lon overyng, aly May Woda inv all intrest was, 019 ‘pea, Blown-out.” A Earns vwiten hevwas-fred, though one nood not believe it ‘saying that ‘he had-bepn -Mvory happy” about: is dismiseal. life. Tt. wassin April ofthis year that he joined the |yNational Socialist Party-andentered the S.S., upor an invitation wcamieehiel ‘of, the Head: Ofice for “Reich Security + (the | Rélehisicherhelichaupiamt of R:S\H:A.,-as I shall eallit henco- H ifotth);»in -one :of :whose six »maim-departments~-Burean IV, {under the command of Heinrich Mller—Eichmana wes event _lljiemployed ahead of section iB-4.:In court, Bichmant’ give therinipression of atypical member of the-lower'middle classes, jandithis.impression.svas more:than borne: out by:everysentence WY horspoke or wrote while in prison, But this, was: misleading; he osinb-rather the déclassé son‘of-a sold middle-class family, and it134 -: lohan tn Jepuslem © betrayed ‘his own people:)'If-intervéntiohsyon behalfiof. “promain,” nent? Jews ‘came: from “prominent”: people, they-often' were... ie seduce! Hato | admirers; intervened for @ well-known geographer, a Profestor Philippsobm: of: Bonn, wd. was “vg ad dled cond tions ‘at Theresienstadt”;-in ‘a’ letter to: Hitler;*Hedin-thredtened’ |j]- that-this atta to Cemany' would’ be. dependent -upon. Palppcn'y tt wetrpen(asodng to HG. Ader ok on‘Theresicnatadt) Mr Philippsobn was pro vided with better quarters. ee eG In Germany today; this notion-of “prominent” Jews ‘has not yet been ‘forgotten, While’ the veterans..and: other “privileged groups are no longer! mentioned, the fato of “famous” Jews, is stil deplored at the expense of. all others."Thete are mote, than a fow people, especially among the cultural élite, who'still, 4 publicly regret the fact that Germany sent. Einstein packing, Without realizing that it was’a much greater crime to kill (4 litle Hans.Cobn from aroind the comer, even though’ he was, | no geaius. ‘ I Semportant distinction, + overtook him up on it, The well-worn cofns of “superior orders” Fh versus “acts of ate” «Bichmann: never joined sthis “moderate wing,” and) it is Posen cae eric rte ch et 8 {Ged a, Not only was he too deeply compromised and, because p [Ob his-constant” contact. with Jeiish ‘functionaries, t00 ‘well Ge kuowa; ho; was: too" primitive for “these cwell-educated. uppét- Jplddleclssgenlemen, agit whom be harbored de most nf:tesedtment up, ta-the'very end. He was oe eee ipable of talking about it-iu the appropriate-manner without [eiog_givon hiv; “Ianguago stu" In- Terusale,,withott-any Q Fles he epoko dretly of “ling” und of: “murder,” of “orimes bgilingd Uy: che, states healed a spadaa/spedo in contrast [10 counsel for the defense, whose feeling of social superiority tdBichmanm-was ‘more than: onee ia: evidenop. (Servatus? asistant-DévDieter! Weehtenbruch——a disciple, of Carl Schmitt attended the fist-few, weeks:of the ‘rial then Wwas sent, t6 :Getmany;to questiin witnesses for the defensoy. and. reappeared fofithesIst:weok inv Augist—swas realy available t0 reporters ‘of court; he.seemed to be shocked less by ishmaan’s ecines ‘by:hislack-of taste ‘and- education, “Small fy,” he said i. mut s6e how we get him over. the: huzdles!—yrle.wirsdas Wilrstcien dberdle, Runden ibringen, Servatis, himself hed existent146 (Blokmann’tn Jeruzcem f Diaiéso} « Law-Abiding Cite 147 Horjia «short ‘time “three - yeats “before “Hichmann “knew “that j Himiler’s-orders ran ditectly cotnter to.the:Futhrer's order, For Q)this, he neéded tor know no factual details, though such details would have backed him up: as the prosecution underlined inithe ‘proceedings ‘before the Supreme. Coutt;' when Hitler heard, Fithrough Kattenbrunner, of negotiations ‘td exchange Jews'for trucks, ““Himmler’s ‘position in “Hitler's eyes -was completely Wjundermined.” «And-only a-few weeks -before Himmler stopped jth extermination: at-Auschyitz, “HiNér, obviously unaware' of I) Himmler’s newest. moves, had: sent: act ultimatum to Hortby, fl ating bith che “expected: thatthe measures. against ews. it PBudapest. would mow be taken without*any: further delay 2 ‘ ‘Dietet: Wishoeny (wis monte, cad ‘perhaps yee, bore a end'began carefully preparing ah. alibi for himself at the expense} of Eichmann, to which he then treated the ‘court‘at Nutembetg where the'was'a witness for the: prosecution; Ita him no" good money vas of o“help to him.’ Othor-witnescsclitied that was Rolt-Gtiither; one of Eichmenn’s:men who plannedthis, "and that thére-existod, onthe contrary, 2° Written order frém| ‘iohmann that: the:ghetto'be Jef'inact In-any“even, theres ‘had rbecoms quite “moderate,” Bichmana’tobk"advantage: Gta ‘visit-that Mi: Paul-Dunand, of the: Swits’ Red’ Crois, paidto ‘Thsresionstadt to put it on" record that -he himself “did ‘approve of Himmler's;new lino in rogard to the Tows, 8 "That Bichmiann had’ at’ all timesdone his best to make the ‘Fiial Solutio final was: therefore not in’ dispute. The question ‘was-only. whether this was indeed proof of his faneticism) his.’ threatened, cored a telegram from Vosenses ‘to seek fajnew decision from the Filhrer,”and this telegram’ the judg- ‘ | first indication of his defeat came-in January,; 1945, when ‘sid ‘committed perjury in court when he claimed he hadvalwaiys Hy Obersturmbannfithrer Kurt Becher ‘was promoted to Standarten obefed orders, No other explanation ever occurred to this judges, fi irer, the Yery-rank Kichmann had been dreaming uboutyall dur- j)ingithe war. (Elis story, thet no-higher rank-was open-to him Gin his outhit, was a halltruth; he could have been made chief of ashe had:probably ‘never encowntered before in:his whole lit6. (Dx Wechienbruch told reporters that Eichmann fad "great § ‘confidence in Tudge Landau,” as though Landau would-be able tosott things out, and ascribed this confidence to’ Eichmann’s rieed for authorit cnt throughout the tril, and it may’ have been the reason’ judgment caused: Eichmann such- great. “diseppointmeat"y "he | ‘had mistaken humanity for softnsss.) That they never did come to understand him may be proof of the “goodness” of the’threé ‘cn; of thoit untroubled and slightly old-fashioned faith in the, morél Youndations of their profession. For the: sad and very unkomfortable truthtof the matter probably wae that it was not ‘his tamaticism but his very conscience that: prompted ‘Fichmant to adopt his uncompromising attitude duicing'the' last year of ‘the wat; it had prompted him fo move in‘the-opposite'irection Hlinmler had appointed bis enemy Becher Reickssonderkom E) missar in charge of all esneentration camps, and Eichmann svas “transferred from the desk concerned with “Jewish Airs” to-the i utterly: insignificant one concerned with the “Fight Agdinst ‘the Churches)" of which, morcover, he knew nothing. The, repiity f jot his decline during the last months of the war is.a most:telling ign of the extent to- which Hitler was right when he declared, ‘in issn Bunker, in-Api 1945, that the SS. were no Tonge reliable,1 detalis),-and. not. to become accomplices in all these crimes: by benefiting from:them\ But; God knows; they had learned how to resist temptation; - 1 Xs Deporiations from the Reich—Germany, . v,. «.. Austria, and the Protectorate Between tho ‘Wannsee Conférence "in January, 1942, whet ‘Bichintann felt like Pontius Pilate and washed his hands in intio- cence, and Hitnmler’s orders in the simmer and fall of 1944, ‘hen "behind Hitler's ‘back . the Final Solution: was: abate ‘doned as though’the massacres had-becn nothing ‘but a rogretta- stake, Eichmanh was. troubled by 20 questions of’ con science. His thoughts were entirely takea-up withthe staggécing job of crganization-and administration in-the midst not only of & BF world war but, more important for him, of, innumerable intriguet [i and fights-over: spheres of authority among the various State ‘spd-Party offices that were: busy “solving the Jewish question.” ' Hlis chief competitors were the Higher'S.S, and Police Leaders, ‘who were under’ the direct command of Himmler, had caty tovbim, aad alivays outrénked Eichmatn, Thete was also ‘the Foreign “Office, which, under its now Undersecietary ‘sf State, Dr, Mactin Luther,'a: protégé of Ribbentrop, had betomé > very active in Jewish affairs. (Luther tried to oust, Ribbentrop; in fant elaborate intrigue’ in 1943, falled, and was put into a conesn- tiation camp; under his successor, Legationsrat Eberhard von Thadden, a witness for the defense: at the trial in’ Jerusalem, became Referent in ‘Jewish affairs.) It occasionally istued’ de- jportution orders’to be carried out by its representatives abroat ‘who for reasons of prestige to work through the Higher’ S. and Police Leaders, There wete, furthermore, the ‘Army commanders int the Bastsca oécupied tersitories, who liked to solve -problems “on the'xpot;" which meant shooting; the miliary men in Western countries were, on the other hand, al- ‘ways: reluctant to"cooperate’ and to lend -their troops for the