Food Reviews International Quality and P

Food Reviews International
ISSN: 8755-9129 (Print) 1525-6103 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/lfri20
Quality and Public Health Concerns of Instant

Noodles as Influenced by Raw Materials and
Processing Technology
Ololade H. Adejunwon, Afam I. O. Jideani & Kolawole O. Falade
To cite this article: Ololade H. Adejunwon, Afam I. O. Jideani & Kolawole O. Falade (2019):
Quality and Public Health Concerns of Instant Noodles as Influenced by Raw Materials and
Processing Technology, Food Reviews International, DOI: 10.1080/87559129.2019.1642348
To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/87559129.2019.1642348
Published online: 23 Jul 2019.
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FOOD REVIEWS INTERNATIONAL
https://doi.org/10.1080/87559129.2019.1642348
Quality and Public Health Concerns of Instant Noodles as

Influenced by Raw Materials and Processing Technology
Ololade H. Adejunwona, Afam I. O. Jideani b
, and Kolawole O. Faladea,c
a
Department of Food Technology, University of Ibadan, Ibadan, Nigeria; bDepartment of Food Science and
Technology, University of Venda, Thohoyandou, South Africa; cDepartment of Food Science and Technology,
Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana
ABSTRACT KEYWORDS
Noodle originated from China but has received pervasive acceptance Instant noodle; quality;
worldwide due to globalization, and the associated convenience, health concerns; raw
palatability and shelf stability of the product. Production of noodles materials; processing
technologies
basically involves mixing durum wheat with water and salt, and
extruding the dough, which may be sold raw or further dried.
Consequently, different raw materials and processing technologies
have been used to produce diverse types including gluten-free noo-
dles. Since noodles are classified based on origin, raw materials,
processing method, shape, size, packaging materials, extent of cook-
ing required and sometimes color, its nomenclature is cumbersome.
Among the various types, yellow alkaline, white salted noodles, and
most importantly instant noodles have received considerable atten-
tion. Raw material and processing techniques are responsible for the
desirable quality attributes that promote instant noodle consump-
tion. However, there are disputed perceptions on effects of instant
noodles on human health. In this review, discussions regarding the
evolution, various raw materials, production processes employed as
well as their influence on noodle quality and public health implica-
tions as revealed by microstructure study and chemical detection
analysis of dough and noodles are discussed. Exploratory research
is ongoing on potentials of natural additives, composite flours and
new processing technologies of noodles with acceptable textural
properties.
Introduction
Noodles are essential foods made from extruded wheat flour dough. Instant noodle, well-
known 20th century innovation of Japanese origin, was invented in Japan by
Mr. Momofuku Ando and a novel food manufactured by Nisshin products, named
Chicken Ramen in 1958.[1] Noodles appear as strips, strands, elbows or other shapes cut
from dough sheet manufactured from mixture of flour, common salt (or an alkaline salt
mixture) and water.[2] Generally produced mainly from wheat, noodles could however be
made from the flour or starch of other cereals, root or tuber crop, legume flours or protein
isolates and other commodities like plantain.[2] Noodles are among the processed foods of
ancient times, apparently of Asian origin, still popular in South East Asia; especially
Indonesia, Japan, Thailand China and Malaysia, and have constituted an important part
CONTACT Kolawole O. Falade kolawolefalade@yahoo.com Department of Food Technology, University of Ibadan,

Ibadan, Nigeria
© 2019 Taylor & Francis
2 O. H. ADEJUWON ET AL.
of the diet of many communities all over the world.[3] Noodles have a market share of
around 40% among products of wheat origin in countries in Asia.[4] Noodles have become
one of the main dishes in Malaysia, very popular among all the races and consumed in
different forms including alternative for rice during mealtimes or in between mealtimes.[5]
About 30% of all flour use in Malaysia is for noodles.[5] Also, during a period of five years
between 2003 and 2008, the market share for noodles and pasta in the United stated of
America increased at an annual 6.7% growth rate, the noodles and pasta market led the
dried noodles/pasta category with an estimated 76.9% share[6], and the annual per capita
noodles consumption was estimated at 304.1 g/day/person, males (334.3 g) had higher
figure than female (268.0 g).[6] According to World Instant Noodles Association[7], over
4,150 million packets of bag/cup noodles were consumed annually in the United States
between 2008 and 2012 and about 101,420 million packets were consumed around the
world till 2012. Recently, noodles have become popular and the consumption has cut
across the developed and developing economies including those in transient. In Africa,
Nigeria top the list of noodles consumers estimated at 1,650 million packets followed by
South Africa at 170 million packets during 2016.[7] The achievement of high noodles
consumption across the globe could be ascribed to its affordable low costs, enjoyable taste,
convenience of preparation, and minimal cooking time and energy.[2] In recent past,
pastas and noodles have transformed into a foremost growth sector of cereal foods
industry in many countries. The spread of noodles all over the world is estimated at
approximately 7% annual growth.[3]
Noodles are often used interchangeably with pasta around the world. However, pasta is
a broad term that comprises a range of products including egg macaroni, lasagna,
macaroni, ravioli spaghetti and vermicelli.[3] Pastas are usually prepared using Triticum
turgidum L. var. durum (durum wheat), while T. aestivum (common wheat) is used for
making bread and noodles, and these are well delineated in Table 1.
History and nomenclature

History
There have been claims that noodles were of Italian, German, Chinese, Arabian and
Mediterranean origins. However, research evidences posited that noodles originated
from China.[3,12,17,18] It has been reported[11] that the production art of noodles had
spread from China, during Asian travels, to Korea, The Philippines, Thailand and
Malaysia including Indonesia, Singapore, Burma and Vietnam through Chinese traders,
seafarers and migrants.
Many terms are used for noodles classification and may be complicated because, since
ancient times, many different types are found in markets of different regions, with
differences on the basis of nomenclature, which may be broadly called European or
Asian type, or further specified as Chinese, Japanese, Italian or German noodles with
each country having their preferred method and production raw material.[11] Sometimes,
noodles, pasta and other products fall under the same classification of cereal products. The
principal ingredient used in the preparation such as wheat, buckwheat, rice, potato, corn
flour and bean, soybean flour, yam flour, mung-bean starch, sweet potato, cassava, etc.
may also form the basis of naming noodles.[19,20] For example, soba, ramen, Japan’s
FOOD REVIEWS INTERNATIONAL 3
Table 1. Differences between pastas and noodles.

Characteristic parameter Noodles Pasta References
[8,9]
Wheat type Prepared from bread or common wheat Prepared from durum wheat
Triticum aestivum. Triticum turgidum L. var. durum
[10]
Liquid ingredients Salt/alkaline water Water
[11]
Origin Native to Asians Native to the Europeans
[3]
Shape Usually long rods shaped by waving A variety of products named by
shapes as macaroni (elbow, big or
long rods), lasagna
(flat sheets), spaghetti (long rods),
ravioli (ribbon shaped).
[3]
Processing Seldom extruded, shaped by sheeting, Traditionally shaped by extrusion
cutting and waving
[12]
Cooking & serving Cooked with seasoning powder Cooked plain, Served and
consumed with sauce
[13]
Color Naturally off-white in color, yellow Possess yellow tonality naturally
tonality acquired by use of artificial
colorant or alkaline salt
[14,15]
State at point of sale Marketed in the form of uncooked Distributed only in dried forms
(raw/fresh, dried or frozen), semi-instant
(parboiled or steamed) or instant
(steamed and fried/dried).
Cooking time Require short cooking time, usually less Cooking time is usually over 10 min. NA
than 5 min. except uncooked noodles
[16]
Packaging and material May be packaged in bag, cup or bowl Usually packaged in bags
NA = Not applicable
harusame, China’s cellophane noodles are manufactured from buckwheat flour, soybean,
rice or potato, mung bean flour, while ramen is wheat-based egg noodles.[16]
Consequently, the product may be named after the principal raw material, for instance,
wheat or rice noodles being the commonest.
Noodles made with starch from various origins are regarded as vermicelli.[21] Likewise,
appearance and color can be used to categorize noodles into white and yellow noodles.
Shape and size form another parameter or a reference point for categorization, for
example, vermicelli (short rods), lasagna (flat sheets) and ravioli (ribbon shaped).[12]
Moreover, another reference point is the packaging method, for example, bag, cup and
bowl noodles.[16] The extent of cooking required may also form a basis for the classifica-
tion of noodles; raw/fresh, frozen or dried (uncooked), semi-instant (precooked or
steamed), instant (steamed and fried) noodles.[14] Among these classification, instant
noodles have the largest widespread in global diet.
Although the basic classifications have been given, there are also subclassifications that
describe noodle types consumed in other part of the world, which intertwine basically in
terms of raw materials used and processing methods applied. For example, the yellow
alkaline type noodles are prepared using basic ingredients including water, wheat flour
and alkaline salt.[3] Also, Karim and Sultan[3] divided noodles into two major categories:
the Chinese (yellow) and Japanese (white) noodles. Japanese noodles are made from weak
strength flour containing about 9.0–11.0% protein content including water and salts.
Japanese noodles are white colored and thick compared to the thin yellow colored
Chinese noodles, both of which may be sold as dried or boiled noodles. The alkaline lye
used in yellow alkaline noodles is called kansui (mixtures of sodium or potassium
carbonate and bicarbonate). Examples of yellow alkaline noodles include Cantonese,
Hokkein and Wantan noodles.[3] Cantonese-styled noodles are used as starting material
for making others noodles which may be sold uncooked (raw) or further processed into
dried noodles. The raw Chinese noodles (Cantonese), also known as Hokkein-styled
noodles, are partially cooked to a point that leaves uncooked dough only at the center
enclosed by gelatinized dough and are also called wet/partially cooked/parboiled noodles
while Wantan-styled noodles are Chinese noodles containing eggs as part of the major
ingredients. They are sold in wet forms with egg noodles included in the brand name.
Usually sold in the wet form, yellow alkaline noodles contain about 50–60% moisture
content, which limit their shelf life to between 1 and 1.5 days.[3] However, proper handling
and packaging could extend the shelf life to 3–4 days.[22,23] Lastly, steamed raw noodles
could be dehydrated by frying, use of heating cabinet or sun-drying[5] or fried called
instant noodles. Generally, wheat flour for making Chinese noodles should contain
10–13% protein.[22] Looking at the complexity of noodles nomenclature, it may be
necessary to adopt a universally standardized classification of noodles which should
include the basic recipe to distinguish each noodle type. Figure 1 can be used to classify
noodles by processing degree.
Noodles raw materials and their roles

The various ingredients used in noodle making have their functions and play distinct role
in the final product quality. Feillet and Dexter[23] reported that of all the academic
research conducted about noodles, about 15% have been centered on the production art
while only 5% interest has been given to the process of obtaining the basic raw materials.
Ingredients
Mixing
Fried noodle Frying Resting
Sheeting
Wet/Boiled noodle Parboiling
Cutting Raw/Fresh noodle
Dry noodle Drying

Waving
Steaming
Instant dried noodle Drying Forming Deep frying Instant fried noodle
(blocks)
Figure 1. Categorization of gastro-esophageal reflux disease according to the Montreal Classification

(Modified from Am J Gastroenterology, 2006) [1].
The most popular noodles contain water, flour (wheat) and salt or kansui (mixture of
alkaline salt composed of sodium phosphate, potassium and sodium carbonate) or both as
the main ingredient.[24] Other ingredients such as starch, hydrocolloids, emulsifiers,
enzymes, coloring, flavoring, stabilizers and antioxidants are also applied to enhance
shelf life, texture and eating qualities of noodles. Recent research efforts have also been
directed toward improvement of nutritional value through fortification with protein,
minerals and vitamins.[25–27]
Wheat flour
Wheat flour has been the basic raw material traditionally used for noodles production.
There are two major types of wheat, namely, wheat (Triticum aestivum) and durum wheat
(T. turgidum L. var. durum). Generally, wheat is composed of about 80–85% mealy
endosperm, 13–17% bran and 2–3% germ with each having distinct chemical
components.[28] Interactions between these separate components like proteins, starch,
enzymes and nonstarch polysaccharides among others influence the end product
quality.[29] About noodle processing, the endosperm is the most important component
as it contains storage proteins and starch granules, which are the major components that
play the essential roles in the flour and consequently noodles or other product quality.[30]
Gluten proteins, which formed the proportion of the prolamin group of total wheat
protein store, varied between 80 and 85%, forming a continuous matrix around granules
of starch[31,32]
Table 2. Recipe for different types of noodle.

Noodle type Ingredient Formulation (%) Unit operation/Process variable References
[36]
Hokkien mee Wheat flour 100 Mixing (5 m), Sheeting, Folding/Reduction,
Water 30–38 Dusting, Cutting, Resting (30min, 25°C),
NaCl 1.4–1.7 Parboiling (98°C, 1.5 min.), Rinsing
Na2CO3 0.7–1.2
[37]
Japanese wet Wheat flour 100 Mixing (5 min.), Folding/Sheeting, Resting
Water 34 (30 min., room temp), Sheeting, Cutting
NaCl 2
[38]
Oriental dry Wheat flour 100 Mixing (5 min.), Compounding/Sheeting,
Water 30–33 Resting (30 min., room temp), Sheeting,
NaCl 2 Cutting, Drying (45oC, 10 hr.)
[39]
Oriental wet Wheat flour 100 Mixing (6 min.), Resting (1–2 hr., room temp),
Water 32 Sheeting, Cutting, Parboiling, Packaging
NaCl 2
[39]
Instant dried Wheat flour 100 Mixing (10 min.), Resting (30 min., room temp),
Water Optimal (handling) Sheeting, cutting/shaping, Steaming
NaCl 2 (conventional, 2–3 min.), Forming, Drying
(50oC, 10 hr.)
[40]
Fresh YAN Wheat flour 100 Mixing (30 sec., 300 rpm), sheeting, Cutting,
Water Handling experience Resting (1 hr., 23oC)
NaCl 1–3
Transglutaminase 2
Kansui 1
[24]
Oriental raw Wheat flour 100 Mixing (5 min.), Sheeting and Folding, Resting
Water 33 (15 min., room temp), Sheeting, Resting
NaCl 0.5–4 (30 min., room temp), Cutting
[41]
Instant fried Wheat flour 100 Mixing (5 min.), Sheeting, Cutting, Steaming
Water 1.5 (conventional steamer), Frying (170°C,
NaCl 40 1.5 min.), Cooling (room temp, 1 hr.)
The quality attributes of wheat flour are closely related to noodles’ eating quality.
Although the actual relationship that link flour characteristics and eating quality has not
been fully determined, however, research evidence exists that some parameters such as
solvent retention capacity and other protein qualities such as proportion of polymeric
proteins are positively correlated with chewiness and gumminess of noodles.[33,34] In the
investigation conducted by Li et al.[33], flour protein content considerably affected chewi-
ness of cooked noodles.
The endosperm of durum wheat had the hardest texture attribute among all wheat,
showing larger kernels and more vitreous nature than those of bread wheat.[13] There is
another classification based on genotype; wheat may be diploid, tetraploid or hexaploid,
having two, four or six sets of chromosomes in that order. Common wheat is hexaploid in
nature and could be further divided into hard or soft wheat with each having different
applications. Karim and Sultan[3] asserted that soft wheat was suitable for making white
type salted noodles while yellow alkaline type noodles were better made from hard wheat.
Many of the quality parameters used in wheat flour evaluation are a function of wheat
grade, which is determined from grain weight, broken, damaged or immature grain,
presence of other cereal/legume grains, foreign material or excreta, and insect damage,
among others.[3] The chemical and rheological parameters, most of which are dependent
on the grain quality, and physical parameters are of great importance in product quality.
The evaluation of baked goods is often considered as the most accurate method of
determining wheat quality.[35] Table 2 shows the criteria for evaluating wheat flour quality
and their effects on noodle quality.
The significance of amylose/amylopectin ratio, damaged starch, farinographic charac-
teristics and pasting properties of starches in the processing of noodles was reported by
Hatcher et al.[42] Wheat flour specifications for noodles vary by countries based on
differences in inclinations for color, texture and eating qualities of noodles among
countries.[43] Gulia and Khatkar[44] identified clever choice of wheat flour to match desired
qualities as the strategy to produce a quality product. Ash content reduces noodle
brightness.[45] Therefore, flour extracted from sound wheat grains without sprout injury
with 0.5–0.6% ash content and moderate protein content of 10–12.5% should be selected
for production of noodles.[14]
Protein of durum wheat is one of the major factors influencing cooking quality of
pasta.[14] Although noodle flour with protein content between 9.5 and 11% and medium
gluten strength would yield good noodles[46], the protein quality is of greater importance
than its quantity.[47] A measure of protein quality through sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS)
sedimentation test was found useful in predicting firmness and chewiness of noodles.[46]
Gulia et al.[27] noted that final quality of instant noodles is majorly influenced by both
protein quantity and protein quality. In addition, Gulia and Khatkar[44] established fat
uptake, noodle color, textural quality and other dough properties such water absorption
capacity and color as functions of flour properties. The protein content of wheat flour
improved cooked noodle firmness but decreased the brightness.[48] Flour containing
higher protein content and higher SDS-sedimentation values yielded instant noodles
with milder oil intake.[45,49] Farinograph parameters and SDS sedimentation volume
results showed that variations in gluten properties influenced firmness, springiness, and
smoothness in noodles.[46] Tanaka et al.[37] reported that glutenin subunits with high
molecular weight conferred greater dough strength, which in turn improved boiled
noodles’ firmness. Similarly, Yamauchi et al.[50] established a strong link between good
textural qualities (hardness and elasticity) and excellent protein quality (with high mole-
cular weight with glutenin subunits 5 + 10, 17 + 18) and high quantity.
Aside from gluten proteins, the starch granules of the endosperm are other important
components because gelatinized starch determines noodle texture to a large extent.[51]
Factors such as starch damage and amylose/amylopectin ratio[52], flour swelling
volume[53], pasting properties[54], and peak viscosity[55], all contribute to noodle proper-
ties. Eating and textural qualities of Japanese noodles were significantly influenced by flour
quality and characteristics of wheat starch.[33] The starch granule size of wheat flour
commonly ranges from 8 to 20 μm.[29] It has two different side chains: amylose and
amylopectin, which have different molecular structure and degree of polymerization.
Small quantities of phosphates also contribute substantial functional properties.[29]
While amylose retrogrades effortlessly, amylopectin is rather stable; thus, mung beans
and sago are more applicable in making starch noodles because they contain more
quantities of amylopectin, which confer good swelling characteristics and stability during
mixing and other production operations.[3] Starches containing lower proportion of
amylose are more appropriate to produce noodles.[45] Generally, the starch offers
a network of connection with gluten strand and gluten makes a strong connection in
the availability of water to form dough. Therefore, during mixing and dough development,
gluten retains absorbed water to the fullest. During heating, the starch swells and gelati-
nizes by absorbing water mainly from gluten, thus setting the gluten structure, making it
firm and consequently upholding the ultimate shape of the product.[56,57] Starch granules
perform as filler and provide building block in dough system, and thus give gluten the
necessary uniformity.
Hatcher et al.[42] found that flours that are low in gelatinization temperatures favor
rapid cooking rehydration while those having higher starch damage give poor noodle
color, excessive surface swelling and objectionable high cooking losses. Flour with small
particle size with lesser starch injury, gave better noodles cooking characteristics. Starch
granule size has been shown to dominate rheological properties of raw white salted noodle
(WSN), with smaller starch granules exhibiting high water uptake and retention when
making dough, and compact filling of starch granules within tiny gluten-strand matrix.[35]
Nevertheless, smooth surface of the starch granules had a major influence on the rheolo-
gical properties of cooked WSN, and gave rise to variations in cooking time as well as
water uptake of WSN.[35]
In conclusion, Ding and Zheng[58] found that the following flour quality standard
commonly adopted in China is adequate for noodle production: gluten content
(26–28%), farinograph stability (3–4 min.), falling number (˃ 200 sec.) and ash content
(˂ 0.55%). Unlike for bread making, which is universally prescribed to require strong and
extensible gluten, Matsuo and Irvin[56] and Dexter et al.[59] have reported that medium
gluten strength was a requirement for optimal pasta making quality. Noodle flour with
adequate proportion and quality of protein and starch is required to make dough with
good strength and extensibility that can tolerate sheeting, resist tearing, cracking and
shrinkage of during processing.
Water
Water is an indispensable component in dough making. The amount and state of water in
dough is important during preparation and in final product quality. Water is added to
flour during mixing for hydration, which is necessary for gluten development, and many
interactions and chemical reactions that occur during mixing and baking.[60] Water
hydration of gliadin and glutenin proteins is mainly responsible for formation of gluten,
and subsequently swelling to form fine strands of a continuous network, which creates the
viscoelastic properties and structure associated with dough. The stress induced during
mixing breaks bonds between protein chains, causes the chains to realign, and the new
bonds allowed relaxation of the dough. Oxidizing agents or gluten strengtheners including
ascorbic acid stimulate the formation of these new bonds. Therefore, in commercial
noodles production, the quantity of water used is dependent upon the properties of the
different ingredients in the recipe, the processing variables, processing equipment and
desired qualities of the noodle.[43]
Karim and Sultan[3] reported that the use of scanning electron microscope to analyze
dough confirmed that addition of water to make noodle dough in the range of 28–35%
water allows development of an uninterrupted gluten network, thereby, rendering them
less susceptible to gluten collapse. The consequences of water deficiency are rigid dough
that is noncohesive with minimal extensibility, which produces noodle sheets that will
resist pressure during successive sheeting and molding. Inadequate water may also result
in nonuniform white spots of flour on noodle surface while excessive water causes dough
stickiness and subsequent handling difficulties through sheeting and cutting.[61] Likewise,
the noodles shreds stretch more and promote cooking losses.[25] Optimal water uptake
could be measured with farinograph or mixograph[62,63] by a skilled person based on the
dough handling experience[37,45] or by using response surface methodology.[36] The
optimal water uptake of noodle is dependent on protein quality and quantity, physical
properties of flour particularly the starch damage.[45] During processing, magnitude of
water added could be employed to regulate the dough strength and thus, considerably
improve machinability in products requiring molding/extrusion and guarantee correct
final product texture.[64]
The presence of impurities or salts like calcium, sulfates and magnesium ions in the
water were among other factors that could affect noodle quality.[3] Although there is
a dearth of information on this aspect of noodles, a few reports have shown that hardness
of water influenced the noodles’ cooking quality, resulting in increased loss during
cooking and stickiness. Dexter et al.[65] reported higher cooking loss at higher water
alkalinity as starch solubilization increases with alkalinity. Noodles cooked in deionized
water showed better and firmer surfaces compared to noodles cooked in tap water.
Malcolmson and Mastuo[66] established that hardness of water increased cooked pasta
stickiness as revealed by the effects of tap and well water on the stickiness of cooked
spaghetti against deionized water.
Sodium chloride and alkaline salts

Normal and alkaline salts are part of the custom ingredients used in noodle making.
Generally, under high humidity and temperature environments, salts tended to slow down
Table 3. Effects of wheat and wheat flour quality on noodles.

Category Examples Quality influenced References
[34]
Grain quality Grain weight, size and Hardness, color and strength of dough.
parameters hardness index
[52,73]
Flour Physical Flour extraction/purity/ Noodle color, internal strength and firmness of noodle.
parameters yield (endosperm level)
[64]
Sedimentation test Water absorption, strength and color of dough sheet.
[74]
Pearling value Starch damage, gelatinization temp, noodle color and cooking
performance.
[52,61]
Particle size Water absorption capacity of flour, noodle texture, strength
and cooking qualities.
[34,46]
Flour chemical Wheat proteins quality Flour water absorption and color of dough sheet, fried noodle
parameters and quantity oil absorption, firmness, elasticity, gumminess and chewiness.
[27,75]
Falling number Firmness and elasticity.
[34,76]
Solvent retention Dough handling and extrusion properties, noodle volume,
capacity cooking yield and quality,
Oil absorption of noodles and dough strength.
[14,77]
Ash content Noodle color.
[34,75,76]
Amylose content Oil absorption of fried noodle.
[77]
Flour Farinograph stability Texture of cooked noodle.
[14,78]
rheological Mixograph characteristics Noodle elasticity and eating quality
[10]
parameters Amylograph peak Eating quality of boiled noodle
viscosity
oxidative discoloration processes and led to the production of noodles with more elastic
and softer textures.[17] Generally, addition of sodium chloride improved noodles
texture[67] and enhanced their flavor.[68] Sodium chloride is widely believed to reduce
water absorption[69], but it also increased the optimum period for dough
development.[70,71] Addition of NaCl in noodle making helps to impact specific taste,
improves color and other properties, such as strengthening and tightening of glutens,
which significantly increased the dough sheeting properties, particularly with higher
water.[10] It also reduced the time of cooking, enhanced flavor, provided more elastic
but softer texture, with reduced microbial growth.[72] The inhibitory effect of salt on
proteolytic enzymes may be the factor responsible for dough tightening. A number of
reports showed that not more than 2% NaCl based on flour weight should be added as
noodles ingredient for optimum benefits (Table 3). Morris et al.[79] reported that salt could
be added to noodles from 0 to 2%. However, only 1.0% concentration could produce
optimum flavor quality while higher amounts can negatively affect dough and result in
deterioration of dough characteristics. The effect of NaCl at 1% inclusion of flour weight
on the cooking qualities of Cantonese noodles had earlier been investigated by Moss
et al.[80] Cooking time and losses were 4.53 minutes and 5.32%, while 1% NaOH gave
6 minutes and 13.43%, respectively, and were highly undesirable. Furthermore, sodium
hydroxide (NaOH) was implicated to cause toughening of flour gluten as microstructure
of dough sheet containing NaOH revealed lack of continuity in protein network, which
further prevented expansion of gluten during noodle cooking, and thus, resulting in
formation of voids in the cooked noodle. Terada et al.[81] also used 1% NaCl in all noodle
dough preparation. Wu et al.[24] showed that noodles’ elastic modulus made from two
varieties of wheat flour increased with addition of sodium chloride up to 2% but decreased
significantly at 3% and 4% and affirmed that NaCl should not be used beyond 2%. Dexter
et al.[82] also reported more uniform gluten and smoother structure when 2% salt was
added to dough compared to unsalted dough. In a noodle formulation study involving
response surface methodology, Shelke et al.[36] concluded that noodle of excellent quality
could be made using 1.4–1.7% NaCl in addition to other ingredients. However, the role
played by salt during noodle making may also vary by varietal differences in flour used.
Some of the references provided in Table 3 are valuable to further explanation in this
regard.
The alkaline lye called “Kansui” is an essential ingredient of yellow alkaline noodles. It
was composed of bicarbonate or carbonate salts of sodium/potassium or a mixture of any
or all these salts.[3] The yellower coloration of noodles treated with alkaline salts was due
to the reaction with flavones contained in the flour and yielded elastic but softer texture
due to the influence of properties of gluten proteins.[17,83,84] Alkaline salt can also be
added as quality improver for instant noodles (0.1–0.3%) or for yellow alkaline noodles
(0.5–1.5%).[27] The amount and type used depend on manufacturers and both influence
noodle quality.[85] Some use sodium hydroxide, sodium silicate or even borax.[80]
However, borax with its allied products got disqualified some years ago because of the
side reactions on humans[86], while sodium silicate is not included in the Codex
Alimentarius standards for instant noodles.[87] The effects of type and amount of alkali
salt was given in some studies (Table 3). Wu et al.[24] investigated addition of NaOH or
kansui (0.1–2.0%) and salt mixtures in the following manner: NaCO3, NaCO3/NaCl (1:9),
kansui/NaCl (1:9), NaCO3/CaCl2 (1:9), NaCO3/CaCl2 (5:5) and the effects on rheological
properties (elastic modulus, viscous modulus and phase angle) are well discussed.
Combination of potassium carbonate and sodium carbonate resulted in stronger and
more elastic texture of cooked noodles than use of sodium chloride and sodium
hydroxide.[88] Conversely, use of 1% sodium hydroxide resulted in softer and slightly
sticky dough, although the yellow alkaline noodles made were the brightest and yellowest.
Sodium hydroxide was said to have detrimental effect on gluten activity by acting as
surfactant, and consequently reduced surface tension of water giving rise to less developed
dough, in agreement with the report of Moss et al.[80] Starch granules swelled to a large
degree, disrupting protein matrix.[89] Also, alkaline salts affect pH of dough, which could
principally influence the cutting stress and inherent firmness of cooked dry noodles.[89]
Terada et al.[81] reported that 0.7% of kansui (mixture of sodium and potassium carbo-
nates) to pH 9.5 followed by neutralization by drop wise addition of 5 N HCl to pH 5.8
resulted in irreversible changes in rheological properties such as increased rigidity and
reduced extensibility. Terada et al.[81] posited that alkaline condition of kansui caused
minimal oxidation of gluten in the dough, which resulted in – S-S- development from SH
groups, and – S-S- plus SH reaction interchange. Kansui in noodle dough was further
concluded to perform similar function on structural relaxation in the same manner that
potassium bromate or iodate oxidized gluten yielding new tertiary structure network in
bread dough.[81] Shelke et al.[36] evaluated the influence of the amount of alkaline salts
used on wet noodles quality, while Kruger et al.[88] established the link between the yellow
color of noodles and alkaline salts. Morris et al.[79] showed that alkali treatments produced
noodles that were yellower and brighter than those from salted type dough. The unique
yellow tonality is said to be due to an alkali-induced chromophoric shift in endogenous
flavonoids of wheat flour starch.[90] This fundamentally affected the behavioral properties
of gluten proteins and gave rise to harder, tighter and more rigid dough. The use of alkali
increased water holding capacity of noodle dough, gave firmer texture to the noodles,
raised the breaking and cutting forces[91], delayed the gelatinization of starch and
increased viscosity of starch paste.[81]
Frying oil
Vegetable oils are used to fry noodle blocks, after steaming, for further gelatinization and
dehydration to final moisture content of about 3–4%.[14] An important consideration is
that spoilage is not common or easily detected in oils as much as in carbohydrates and
proteins. Also, cases of food poisoning due to deteriorated oil consumption are not
common. Totani et al.[92] viewed that serious incidence of acute poisoning attributed to
fat or oil intake seem not to exist any longer. However, oils undergo deterioration with
time due to high temperature treatment and/or exposure to air or water, which accelerate
triglycerides hydrolysis and increase free fatty acids content.[93] Also, chronic effect of
excessive or deteriorated oils on cardio health is well documented.[94–96] During frying,
especially at high temperature, oil undergoes hydrolysis, oxidation and polymerization.[97]
Frying oils quality could be assessed from the free fatty acids, color, peroxide value, flavor,
melting point, p-anisidine values, iodine number, induction period, smoke point, polar
and polymer compounds, vitamin E and fatty acid composition.[98] Acid value/free fatty
acids (AV/FFA) and peroxide value (PV) are commonly used as indices of quality in oils
to detect the extent of oxidative deterioration and some countries have legislations for AV/
FFA and PV of oils contained in commercially processed foods.[99] Quantification of polar
and polymer compounds is also used in determining degree of deterioration in frying
oils.[100,101] The maximum allowed limit in used oil before discard in many European
countries is 25–30%[102] while some countries have a more stringent threshold such as
16% in The Netherlands and South Africa[102] and 10% in Belgium.[103]
Flavor is perhaps the quickest sensory perception of oil quality. Oil quality is the key
contributing factor to the flavor of instant fried noodles and flavor has become an
important consideration in instant noodle quality. During frying, because temperatures
are greater than water saturation temperature, there is rapid heat and mass movements,
hence substantial amount of frying oil migrate into the food to replace the expelled
moisture.[104] Therefore, oil makes up about 15–22% of the weight of instant
noodles[45,105] and is responsible for conferring a distinctive flavor to noodles. Basically,
frying of foods results in formation of a golden crust layer on food surface, and this
contributes a distinctive fried flavor[102,106] and color to the product. Therefore, heat
stability, good frying performance and availability at comparatively low cost should be
paramount considerations when selecting oil for noodles processing. During frying, the oil
quality depreciates due to chemical reactions and perpetual reheating, which may con-
stitute food safety worries and sensory failures.[97] Oils that are conventionally liquids at
room temperature including soybean, sunflower and canola oils were less stable for frying
compared to oils containing higher level of saturated fatty acids.[98] Partially hydrogenated
oils are associated with trans fatty acids and highly suitable for frying.[107] However, the
liquid fraction of palm oil (palm olein) has been found as an alternative replacement to
partially hydrogenated oils and is widely applied in frying either in pure form or mixed
with other vegetable oils[108,109] due to consistent supply at competitive price.[103,108,110]
This may be attributed to the comparative cheaper cost of palm oil production as opposed
to partially hydrogenated oils. Palm oil, palm olein and cotton seed with palm oil mixtures
are widely used in frying noodles.[2,111,112] Partially hydrogenated canola and soybean oils
are also used for frying noodles.[44] Apart from degree of saturation, other factors like
position of fatty acid in the triacylglycerol and presence of unsaponifiable constituents
including fat soluble vitamins, hydrocarbons, alcohols and phytosterols could also influ-
ence the stability of oil.[113]
Additives used in production of noodles

Hydrocolloids, starches, enzymes, polyphosphates, emulsifiers and antioxidants are com-
monly used additives in noodles making to enhance the quality and extend storage life.
Some of these additives have been applied as techniques to minimize the oil intake of
instant fried noodles including guar gum[114], transglutaminase[115] and carboxymethyl
cellulose of sodium and acetylated potato starch.[116]
Bond and internetwork formation in dough are improved by gum and starch. Various
hydrocolloids such as gum karaya (GK), xanthan and guar gums, carboxymethyl cellulose
(CMC), locust bean gum and alginates are used in the production of noodles to improve
rehydration properties and modify texture during cooking, and overall mouth-feel.[14] Use
of GK, guar gum with CMC mixture, guar gum singly and GK with CMC in that
decreasing order was shown to increase the swelling indices of pearl millet noodles
above the control made with wheat flour.[117] Addition of alginate in noodle making
increased yellowness, cutting and tensile forces and cooked weight, while cooking loss,
lightness and redness were reduced.[118] Konjac glucomannan, a hydro-colloidal polysac-
charide with a characteristic high viscosity, high level of indigestible dietary fiber, and
water-absorbing ability, was shown to have optimum effects on cohesiveness and springi-
ness of noodles when deacetylated in limewater, applied at 3% dough concentration and
incubated for 30 minutes.[119] In the same manner, use of glucomannan at 2.5%w/w was
shown to increase textural properties including tensile strength, elongation, hardness, and
cohesiveness of wheat-cassava composite noodles; it also increased dietary fiber content
and decreased caloric value, but its use above 2.5% did not give good results on
texture.[111] Because of its affinity for water and ability to swell to 138 − 200% of its
original volume, its application above 2.5% is opined to possibly defeat wheat flour in
absorbing water, hence resulting in inelastic dough due to improper gluten
development.[111,120] Application of 0.2% guar gum in company of other additives includ-
ing gluten and oil resulted in approximately 50% reduction in cooking loss of air-dried
noodles.[121] Also, Choy et al.[116] reported the influence of the combination of CMC and
acetylated potato starch (APS) primarily on instant noodles’ adhesiveness and hardness.
Conversely, use of CMC alone reduced cohesiveness of cooked instant noodles without
significantly affecting stickiness and fat absorption while APS improved noodle firmness
but with negligible influence on cohesiveness. The APS could be applied for the enhance-
ment of noodles’ eating quality, especially in lower protein flours. Shiau[122] showed that
the addition of lecithin, monoglycerides or sucrose fatty esters however could negatively
affect the strength of extruded noodles. Hymavathi et al.[117] added gums at 1–2% level
with remarkable textural improvements. Gums have high affinity and water holding
capacity, thus, they may decrease fat absorption during frying of instant noodles. It is
important to note that excess water in dough reduces functionality of gum and starch
whereas insufficient water apparently reduces cohesion in the dough.[114]
Various enzymes are a part of noodles formulations basically to enhance their texture.
Motoki and Seguro[123] showed that transglutaminase (TGase) induced formation of
polymers of high molecular weight and reinforced network structure, regardless of the
lysine deficiency in gluten proteins; it also improved the viscoelasticity of gluten and
enhanced its heat stability during subsequent heat treatment, thus increasing break
strength of dehydrated noodles and cooked noodles’ firmness by establishing gluten
crosslinks with glutamyl-lysine. The TGase showed the potential to develop and boost
the quality of nonwheat flour noodles as evidenced in the improvement of textural and
processing properties, cooking qualities and elasticity of oat noodles containing exogenous
proteins.[105] Choy et al.[115] reported that microbial TGase and sodium stearoyl lactylate
(SSL) possibly developed the structure within a low-protein noodle, resulting in better
textural properties of the noodles with no significant effect on noodles color. Earlier,
Shiau[122] reported that SSL improved elasticity, tensile and break strength of extruded
noodles. Crosbie and Ross[124] proposed that application of amylases to the peripheral
areas help reduce surface stickiness associated with precooked and packaged noodles.
However, Cato et al.[125] showed that application of alpha-amylase, both of bacterial origin
and from barley malt, to white salted noodles caused undesirable soft texture. In addition
to proven phytochemical capacity, antimicrobials from antura could be applied to extend
the noodles’ shelf life.[126]
Food colorants are added to noodles formulation to further intensify the color in
addition to the carotenoid/flavonoid pigments reaction with alkaline reagents. It is
a common practice in Southeast Asia, for instance, to include tartrazine in noodle formula
in order to deepen the yellow tint of Hokkien noodles.[124] Also, vitamin B2, a natural
coloring agent, could be used in addition to kansui in response to consumers’ desirability
of reduced quantities of salts in Chinese alkaline type noodles.[3] Because autooxidation,
also called oxidative rancidity, is majorly responsible for the reduction of shelf life of
steamed and deep-fried noodles, antioxidants including tertiary-butylhydroquinone
(TBHQ), butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), propyl gallate (PG), and butylated hydroxyto-
luene (BHT) are extensively added to eliminate problems of rancidity in instant
noodles.[67] The TBHQ has shown the greatest ability in shielding frying oils from
oxidation and it sustainably safeguarded fried products even in storage.[127] Sayed et al.[112]
investigated the effectiveness of onion skin powder as a natural antioxidant in dried and
fried noodles with significant improvements in antioxidant capacity. In the study, sub-
stitution of wheat flour up to 6% with onion skin powder gave satisfactory consumer
acceptability in addition to increased antioxidant capacities noted in phenols expressed as
garlic acid equivalent (GAE) from 105.9 (control) to 171.76 GAE mg/100 g (dried
noodles) and 93.22 GAE mg/100 g (control) to 123.18 GAE mg/100 g (fried noodles);
the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free radical eliminating (or scavenging) activity
increased between 48.6% to 76.01% (dried noodles) and 62.69% to 87.04% (fried noodles);
also dietary fiber and minerals were increased. Unlike in Asian countries, except for the
wet Chinese noodles – wantan, the standard in the United States specifies that the dough
be made from wheat flour containing egg in a proportion ≥87% solids and ≥5.5% egg
solids.[128]
Table 4. Salt requirement of different noodle types.

Type of noodle Salt used Quantity (%) Effect on noodle References
[37]
Japanese wet NaCl ~ 1.5 Adequate
[26]
White salted 2 Adequate
[38,39,52,62]
Oriental dried 2 Adequate
[36]
Hokkien mee 1.4–1.7 Optimum
[41]
Instant fried 1.5 Adequate
Oriental raw 0.5–4 Increased Gi and Gii but decreased δ of SD noodles [24]
[40]
YAN 1–3 NA
[40]
YAN Kansui 1 NA
[40]
YAN NaCl + Kansui (1:1) 2 Acceptable
[40]
YAN NaCl: Kansui (3:1) 4 Higher δmax indicative of firmer dough
YAN NaCl: Kansui (9:1) 1 Highest Gi and Gii for SD, increased δ of RB [40]
[36]
Hokkien mee Na2C03 0.7–1.2 Optimum, improved firmness and yellow tonality
Oriental raw NaOH 0.1–2 Increased Gi and Gii of SD noodles [24]
Oriental raw Kansui 0.1–2 Increased Gi and Gii of SD noodles [24]

[40]
YAN Na2CO3: NaCl (1:9) 1 Increased δ of SD and RB noodles and Gi of SD
YAN Na2CO3: CaCl (1:9) 1 Highest Gi and Gii for RB noodles [40]
[40]
YAN Na2CO3: CaCl (5:5) 1 NA
δ – phase angle, SD – Sandow wheat (8.6 ± 0.2% protein), RB – Red bicycle wheat (11.8 ± 0.2% protein), Gi – elastic
modulus, Gii – viscous modulus, kansui – Na2CO3:K2CO3(9:1), YAN – yellow alkaline noodles; NA = Not applicable
Composite flour in noodle production

The use of composite flour originally dates back to ancient times when bread and similar
products were made from cereals, roots and tuber crops and legumes and oilseeds, an idea
that came as an emergency intervention in industrialized countries during the world wars of
1914 and 1945 when wheat supplies were limited.[129] Subsequently, composite flour became
the focus of attention in the European and International Cereal Research including FAO in
the 1960s and 1970s.[130] It was also around these two decades that consumption of bread
grew in developing countries as a result of growing population and sudden change in eating
habit. Incidentally or coincidentally, wheat supply became limited and the use of starch and
composite flour, which may involve combination of wheat and nonwheat flour or entirely
nonwheat flours, and starch became popular in many communities.[131] Likewise, reports
have shown increasing demand for wheat products in Africa, but the agronomic and
weather conditions do not support commercial wheat production. The amount of annual
savings in foreign currency has been estimated to be US$480 million if wheat flour could be
replaced with 30% nonwheat flour substitution.[132] Composite flour technology thus holds
outstanding potential for developing and developed countries to produce different com-
modities including noodles and pasta. Countries with agronomic advantage of producing
large quantities of other cereals such as maize and rice among others and legumes like
cowpea, pigeon pea and soybean, which can complement the nutritional deficiencies, could
use them in the production of value-added products. The utilization and challenges in
noodle making are highlighted in Table 4. Dendy[129] reported that products baked from
composite flours were already available in Senegal, the Sudan, Kenya, Colombia, Sri Lanka
and Nigeria. Some of the well-known composite flour products available on the streets and
on supermarket shelves include bread, pastry and snack products. Additionally, the inci-
dence of allergenicity resulting from anomalous immunological responses to certain wheat
proteins has contributed to composite flour exploration. These proteins, notably gliadins
and glutenins, caused Type 1 hyper-sensitivity responses that were intermediated by
allergen-specific immunoglobulin E.[30] For example, Bakers’ asthma is a condition where
water soluble flour proteins bind to serum IgE due to flour particles inhalation.[133] Gluten-
sensitive enteropathy, also known as Celiac disease, is a condition arising from the
impairment to the small intestine, resulting in mal-absorption; indicators include abdominal
pain, poor growth and diarrhea.[30]
Adoption of composite flour is desirable and poses a major encouragement to the
agricultural sector, with the opportunity of creating wheat imports substitution in
many developing countries. Interest has grown in replacing or substituting wheat flour
with home-grown crops for bakery and pasta products including noodles. Focus has
been on starchy roots and tubers (cassava, plantain yam, sweet potato, cocoyam),
protein-rich flour (soy, pigeon pea and bambara groundnut among others), and cereal
grains like rice, maize and sorghum.[20,130] Although, Seibel[134] opined that other
crops could not attain wheat’s baking characteristics and properties of wheat, espe-
cially with pasta, which is often not made from common wheat[11] but from hard
vitreous wheat known as durum wheat. Nevertheless, a number of research efforts
including Faure[135], Ramli et al.[136], Chang and Wu[137], Li et al.[138], Sowbhagya and
Zakiuddin[11], Yoengongbuddhagal and Noomhorm[139], Hormdok and
[140] [141]
Noomhorm , Oladunmoye et al. and Tharise et al.[142] have indicated some
successes. Flaxseed can be used as a functional ingredient in noodles.[143,144] Reports
also showed that noodles are made solely from rice in China, while mung-bean, and
starches from Irish and sweet potato, and soybean flour, cassava flour[20,142] and
plantain flours[4] have been tried for noodle making. Wu et al.[145] has also reported
success with mung bean starch blends with potato, sweet potato, rice, and sorghum
starches. Likewise, Gunaratne and Corke[146] used potato and amaranth starches, while
Zhu and Corke[147] worked on sweet potato and wheat starches with remarkable
outcomes. Jacobson et al[148] showed possibility to reduce retrogradation by blending
starches of different botanical sources. Yao et al.[149] noted that blend of rice, potato,
waxy corn, hydroxypropylated potato, tapioca, hydroxypropylated tapioca and acety-
lated tapioca starches showed minimal swelling and retrogradation during storage
compared to rice starch, which could serve as retrogradation-retarding in processed
rice products. Despite these efforts, industrial utilization of other cereals aside wheat
or root/tuber crops is yet to be adopted. This calls for greater attention in developing
countries because of the agronomic and competitive advantages, low input require-
ment and energy density of these crops.
Processing technology
Basic production process of noodles
A wide variety of noodle products have been made all over the world. Table 5 shows the
basic recipe for the major types. Noodles and pasta production basically involve mixing
durum wheat semolina with water (approximately 30%) preferably under vacuum and
extruding the dough through a brass die with Teflon inserts. Pasta is thereafter dried at
70–90°C to a moisture level of 11–13% while noodles may be presented wet or dried by
frying or oven drying.[11] This art was later adopted into the local gastronomies of the
consuming countries whereby the use of raw material like flours from rice, buck-wheat
and plantain, and starches from mung bean, corn, potato, and several others have been
16
Table 5. Composite flour utilization in noodle making.
Product Substitution Recommended
O. H. ADEJUWON ET AL.
category Composite flour evaluated (%) combination Desirable features Undesirable features References
[26]
Wheat noodle Wheat flour + purple 5, 10, 15, 20 purple 5–15% yam Higher dough strength. Firmer, more elastic and High cooking loss at 20%
yam yam inclusion flour inclusion extensible noodles, no marked difference in overall
acceptability. Pleasant purple-red noodles
[41]
Wheat flour + 10, 20, 30 PDAP 10% Enhanced dough stability increased dietary fiber Less viscous and tensile noodle at
preharvest-dropped inclusion content (1.5–4.5%), reduced oil uptake (up to 42% at 20%
apple powder (PDAP) 30% PDAP level) and oil absorption index by 6–9%.
Less voids, compact/continuous surface structure of
noodle.
[105]
Wheat flour + 85:15, 90:10, 90:10 0.3% DSP or Ratio 90:10 caused darker noodle but addition of NA
acetylated potato (0.3%DSP), 90:10 DKP Inclusion phosphate salts increased yellowness and brightness.
starch (APS) (0.3% DKP), 90:10 DSP and DKP increased peak and final viscosities,
(0.03%MSP) MSP Increased PV
[150]
Wheat flour + WF: BS (100:0, WF:BS (80:20) BS increased fiber content and cooking yield, 20% BS Cooking loss increased with
breadfruit starch 80:20, 60:40, 40:60, inclusion gave superior proximate, culinary and increasing content of breadfruit
20:80) sensory qualities starch
[151]
Wheat flour+ sweet 25g/100g wheat Reduced cooking time, higher water uptake and 25% inclusion of each of SPF, CF or
potato + colocasia flour cooked weight. Superior eating quality and WCF caused greater gruel solid loss.
+water chestnut flours appearance with SPF blend SPF blend caused undesirable high
tooth packing
[152]
Wheat flour + cassava Optimized WF:CS: WF:CS:CM Improved cooking properties, cutting and biting NA
starch + cassava CM (70:29:1) (70:29:1) forces and overall tensile strength over the control.
mucilage Mucilage increased desirable color development
[140]
Gluten-free Rice flour (RF) + Rice 50% RF + 50% URS 50% RF+ 50% Textural qualities comparable to commercial noodles NA
noodle starch (untreated, 50% RF+ 50%ARS ARS in hardness, adhesiveness, chewiness and tensile
annealed or heat- 50%RF+ 50% HRS 50%RF+ 50% strength
moisture treated) HRS Increased tensile strength, extensibility and
chewiness
[153]
Rice flour (RF) + Variable RF:PF (40:60) At 40% rice flour inclusion, there was desirable Undesirable organoleptic qualities
Potato flour (PF) cooking and textural attributes, improved sensory above 40% rice flour substitution
properties, reduced cooking loss and broken rate.
[154]
Potato starch + 0.1– 1.0 curdlan 0.3–1.0 curdlan Increased syneresis, improved firmness and tensile NA
curdlan strength, enhanced lightness and yellowness
RF – Rice flour, URS – Untreated rice starch, ARS – annealed rice starch, HRS – heat-moisture treated rice starch, MSP – monosodium phosphate, DSP – Disodium phosphate, DKP –
DiPotassium phosphate, PV – peak viscosity, BS – breadfruit starch, WF – wheat flour, SPF – sweet potato flour, WCF – water chestnut flour, CF – colocasia flour, Kansui 9:1 (Sodium:
Potassium carbonate), YAN – yellow alkaline noodles
successfully utilized. Adopted processing methods are dependent on the presence of

gluten; when cereals like rice and isolated starches are used, gelatinization during proces-
sing is often required.[155] Starch-based noodles are thus made by mixing the starch with
boiling water and kneading to smoothness so that the gelatinized starch can act as binder.
The resulting dough (if gluten is present) is sheeted, rolled and cut or the batter (if gluten
is absent) is cooked and extruded. Yoenyongbuddhagal and Noohorm[139] reported that
rice vermicelli is prepared by wet-milling rice at 37% moisture and molding into an
annular cylinder, followed by steaming for 15 minutes until surface is gelatinized.
Furthermore, sample premixing by extrusion through single-screw extruder (1 cm die)
was followed thereafter with extrusion through another single-screw extruder (0.5 mm die
diameter). Extruded vermicelli was exposed to steam for 2 hours so as to attain complete
gelatinization, subsequently rested for 12 hours under ambient conditions, and then
dehydrated in air oven at 40°C for 16 hours.[139]
Chemistry of production
Ingredient mixing/dough making
The basic flow diagram for processing instant noodle is shown in Figure 1. This involves
combination of flour with water in which other weighed ingredients including salts have
been dissolved. Mixing time is usually 15–25 minutes depending on the type of mixer.[27]
Hou and Kruk[12] reported industrial mixing for 10–15 minutes in vertical or horizontal
mixer. Wheat flour quality may also influence mixing time. In weak-gluten flour, the effect
of insufficient mixing is more pronounced in form of irregular distribution and imper-
fectly developed gluten network than in strong-gluten flour.[156] Mixing is first done at low
speed followed by high speed in order to spread the ingredients evenly and to moisten the
flour particles. Gluten proteins are classified as gliadins or glutenins depending on their
ability to dissolve in alcohol or dilute acid solutions, respectively. Gliadins consist of single
molecule proteins that combine by noncovalent bonds during gluten network formation
to act as plasticizers and minimize elasticity while glutenins consist of high and low
molecular weight subunits that are interconnected by disulfide bonds.[157] Upon hydration
of wheat flour, and depending on other conditions (e.g., pH, which may be influenced by
alkaline salts), wheat protein components interact with each other resulting in a shift in
the morphology from individual fibrils to a laminar sheet-like phase that serves as the
building block for the gluten network in noodle.[158] The mixing stage facilitates distribu-
tion of moisture and other ingredients and enhances this structural foundation. The
studies of Li et al.[159] showed that the mixing process is useful in increasing the numbers
of disulfide groups, amount of amide I band and proportion of β sheets thereby improving
combination of gluten proteins and formation of its network structure.
Laboratory scale mixing may not exceed 4–5 minutes.[24,45,114] For flours having low or
poor water absorption, there is slight gluten development during mixing, but gluten
development is significant for flour having greater than 35% water absorption with long
mixing time greater than 15 minutes.[27] Liu et al.[156] showed that by mixing sheeted
dough for a period of 8 minutes, even better robust microstructure and textural properties
could be obtained. Furthermore, excessive mixing was reported to be detrimental to the
developed dough network, resulting in decreased spatial distribution and uniformity of
components, decreased macropolymer glutenin content and increased free -SH content.
Flour quality and other factors such as volume of water injection, presence of salt and lye,
temperature and humidity of processing area were noted to influence mixing.[160] High
starch damage and protein content of flour may cause uneven hydration as such flour
tended to yield larger dough crumbs during mixing.[160] Substitution of wheat flour with
purple yam flour influenced mixing tolerance as farinograph measurements of the wheat-
purple yam flour combination showed increased stability, peak time, breakdown time and
dough development time, which was suggestive of better water absorption by the flour
resulting from the yam flour inclusion.[26] This could be ascribed to availability of more
hydroxyl groups in yam flour’s mucilage and starch.[161]
Dough resting
After combining flour with water and other ingredients, the dough is allowed to rest
between 20 and 40 minutes prior to compounding.[49] Resting of dough permits gluten
structure relaxation, and further hydration or water absorption by flour particles, redis-
tribution of water and uniform penetration into dough particles, which improves further
processing and hence product quality as it further facilitates gluten formation during
sheeting.[81] Dough resting gives adequate time for proper hydration and softening of
proteins, which in turn produces smoother, less streaky and greater extensibility of
dough.[79] Also, the protein polymers are further adjusted in the dough and become well-
organized.[162]
Pronyk et al.[163] examined textural properties of Asian alkaline noodles at 20 minutes
interval for a total of 200 minutes resting period and recorded the lowest value of hardness
in a texture profile analysis (TPA) at 20 minutes resting time with a resultant effect on
chewiness which depended on hardness. Oh et al.[62] also reported increase in cooked
noodles’ surface firmness resulting from extension of dough resting period to 1 hour,
although it was noted that lengthening dough resting period could not alleviate excess
softening of noodle surface made from hard wheat flour IV due to inherent factors. In
order to eradicate any influence of dough resting on structural characteristics of noodles,
a resting period of 40 minutes was suggested.[12]
Microstructure study of rested dough revealed the establishment of more evenly
divided protein network with lesser air spaces compared to unrested dough.[3] Wu et al.[24]
indicated that resting also enables starch granules to hydrate and soak, which in turn
allows ease of swelling during steaming and thus enhances starch gelatinization during
steaming. In commercial processes, dough undergoes mixing at relatively low speed
(5–8 rpm) during the resting period in order to prevent formation of large dough
pieces.[27]
Sheeting of dough
This involves folding, compounding and compression of the crumbly dough through
a series of smooth sheeting rolls arranged in decreasing order of diameter. The thickness
of the dough decreases gradually in order to avoid surface injury to the dough and
disruption of gluten structure, until smooth dough sheet having continuous and uniform
gluten network with the desired thickness is achieved.[3,82] This process is aimed at
achieving smooth dough sheet with perfect thickness for subsequent processing operations
and premium eating quality.[17] Additionally, this process establishes permanent extension
and flexibility of dough.[164]
Gulia et al.[27] noted that the sheeting speed, roll diameter, number of passes through
rolls and reduction ratio affect dough sheet characteristics. While investigating the cook-
ing attributes of noodles of soft and hard wheat flours origin, Oh et al.[62] discovered that
higher roll speed reduced surface firmness while increased reduction percentage at
a constant roll speed increased surface firmness. Oh et al.[62] further showed the effect
of sheeting parameters on surface properties of cooked noodles, finalizing that roll gap
setting decrease of 30% and slow roll speed were parts of the most appropriate conditions
for laboratory preparation of oriental dry noodles. In mechanized plants, dough sheets are
also rested to mature the gluten structure and make it more extensible[24] usually by slow
movement through a crisscross conveyor.
Slitting and waving of dough

This is a size reduction operation used to determine the thickness, length and shape of the
noodle. Cutting and waving enhance packaging and contribute to aesthetics whereby
different shapes are used to bring variety to a meal that contains the same
ingredients.[3] Shape and other surface properties are among the various factors consid-
ered as affecting oil uptake of fried foods.[165] Noodle size may also determine the exact
amount of cooking time. Size may also influence subsequent steaming and frying time as
well as oil uptake or final noodle cooking time. Specialized cutters are used to reduce the
dough sheet into desired width, which appears usually as strands or strips that are further
cut to desired length, while the receiving conveyor speed or design may result in unique
waving of the strands. Noodles are cut into various sizes and shapes, which contribute
alongside other factors to the vast numbers of noodle types.[14] Therefore, size and shape
form part of the basis for the complex classification of noodles. The cutting rolls in
a typical instant noodle facility are labeled from 18 to 22, representing the edges’ number
located on 30 mm wide sheet. Case in point, a cutting roll of number 18 indicates 18
edges, which would give noodle strip width (1.7 mm), while number 22 cutting roll will
cut the sheet into 1.36 mm strip pieces.[27] After slitting the dough sheet into square or
round strands of desired width with slitters, the strands are cut into desired length,
marking the end of processing for Chinese raw noodles, Japanese udon noodles, chukka-
men and Thai bamee noodles. For instant noodles, the strands are subsequently waved
before cutting and steaming.[14]
Steaming of noodle strands

Steaming of noodle strands is a very important step in noodle processing, particularly
instant noodles, as it involves cooking the noodle strands to bring about starch gelatiniza-
tion. During steaming, the granular structure of dough is lost, crystallites and inherent
helices are melted, and an amorphous structure is produced.[166] In the presence of water,
the soaked starch granules swell and the high temperature of steaming causes gelatiniza-
tion of starch and coagulation of protein network. Incidentally, there is entrapment of the
gelatinized starch granules in the coagulated protein matrix to form stronger extensible
network.[167]
Steaming requires quite a number of technicalities so that optimal cooking quality
could be guaranteed.[83] Starch swelling on the noodle surface must be moderate
otherwise some processing problems would ensue in subsequent operations.
Understeaming leaves hard core inside noodles and causes cooking difficulties while
oversteaming leads to stickiness of noodle strands with subsequent frying difficulties
and resultant high oil uptake. The rehydration rate, firmness and viscoelasticity of
cooked noodle depend on the extent of starch gelatinization during the process.[27]
Hot-air dried noodle was usually steamed longer than deep fried noodles to achieve
higher degree of starch gelatinization. Gulia et al.[27] reported steaming at 100°C for
1–5 minutes for instant fried noodles while wet yellow alkaline noodles were said to be
parboiled for 45–90 seconds to bring about 80–90% starch gelatinization. Pronyk
et al.[163] reported the use of high temperature superheated steam to pre-cook and
quickly dry noodle strands, thus producing instant dry noodles without having to fry
in oil.
Frying/drying of noodles
Moisture removal from steamed noodles is essential basically for the purpose of
preservation. This could be achieved by deep-frying or hot air drying to produce
instant fried noodles or instant dehydrated noodles. Additionally, the frying process
further gelatinizes starch, which reduces the ultimate cooking time during rehydration,
and also, imparts characteristic pleasant shortening taste, mouth feel and flavor in the
final product.[14] Drying by frying involves deep-frying noodle blocks for 1–2 minutes
in metal frying baskets lowered in hot oil usually between 140°C and 160°C. This is
a faster process than hot air drying, which takes 5–8 hours for regular noodles and
30–40 minutes for steamed and air-dried instant noodles.[14,27] Typical frying condi-
tions include 180°C for 70 seconds[67] and 145°C for 90 seconds.[24] During frying,
there is further starch gelatinization, the temperature of the frying oil causes evapora-
tion of free water from the noodles surface and subsequently, water migrates from the
interior of the noodle strands to the exterior and ultimately to the atmosphere. Dana
and Saguy[168] noted that some water inherent in the noodles was ultimately substi-
tuted by oil. The frying process initiates some structural changes that are essential to
the cooking properties. For instance, considerable mass transfer occurs and results in
formation of outer and inner porosity in the noodle, which aids water permeation
during rehydration in hot water.[104] Hot air-drying process is not capable of this
characteristic structural modification; therefore, hot air oven dried noodles require
more extensive cooking time compared to fried noodles. The extent of cooking during
the steaming and subsequent frying stage determined the time required and quantity
of water for rehydration.[14] For instance, cup noodles were subjected to frying in oil
for longer periods at higher temperature than bag type noodles. Therefore, higher
degree of cooking is achieved such that cup noodles may require only addition of hot
water to achieve the desired rehydration and the noodle is ready to eat.
The effect of frying process on sensory properties during storage, fat content and
decomposition of fat and its products constitute one of the public health concerns of
noodles. For noodles that are fried in oil, oil content of the product increased
significantly[41,98], which may range from 15 to 22% in bag noodles[105] or up to
20–37% in cup noodles[5] and thus increase fat intake of instant noodle consumer.
Furthermore, the presence of agents such as heat and water accelerate the hydrolysis of
triglycerides, resulting in increased free fatty acids content with associated rancid off-
flavor in the product.[93] Ahmad Tarmizi[97] further explained the chemical reactions
occurring in oil during frying under hydrolysis, oxidation and polymerization. In the
first stage (hydrolysis), interaction between oil and water causes cleavage of triacylgly-
cerol bonds that link glycerol and fatty acids to produce diacyglycerols, monoacylgly-
cerols and free fatty acids (FFA). Interaction of oil and oxygen results in primary
oxidation involving formation of hydroperoxides and secondary oxidation involving
fission of hydroperoxides to produce peroxides, aldehydes, alcohols, hydrocarbons and
more FFA (oxidation). The polymerization process involves oxidation of the secondary
oxidation products at high temperature and alteration of oil molecules and fatty acids
by heat to form large molecules such as fatty acid monomers and dimers, polar
compounds, oxidized and polymerized triacylglycerides.[97,169] These reactions become
more complicated particularly with oil degradation products and leached food inter-
acting closely.[170] The products of these deteriorative processes are deleterious to
human health and are associated with development of rancid off flavor which reduces
the storability of fried noodles. Accumulation of these oxidation products, especially if
frying oil is not properly maintained or changed as often as necessary has constituted
consumers concern as the products pose various health risks.[2] Formation of dimeric
and polymeric compounds and glycerides increase the viscosity of used oil
considerably.[171,172] Use of antioxidants to minimize these reactions, proper main-
tenance of frying oils, quality checks and timely discard to avoid excessively prolonged
heating during reuse are some of the major interventions. Many countries have
regulatory standards for maximum allowed limit of these decomposition products
because of their potential toxicity in the human body.[102,173–177]
Cooling and packaging

The rationales for food packaging such as processing aid, protection in storage,
distribution, convenience item, material-handling tool and marketing tool have been
well documented in literature.[178–181] Cooling of hot foods prior to packaging prevents
undesirable condensation of moisture and the associated increase in water activity,
which can accelerate microbial growth and trigger hydrolytic rancidity inside the
package.[182] As often observed, fried or dried noodles can equilibrate at room tem-
perature and packaged in bag (polypropylene or polyethylene) or cup (polyester) along
with powdered or soup seasoning and in some cases dehydrated vegetables. Instant
ramen found in Chinese and Japanese supermarkets are packaged in cellophane along
with seasoning packets.[14] Efforts are made to ensure proper packaging that keeps the
noodle exclusively within the package in order to prevent oxidative changes and
formation of rancid flavor in the package.[182] Adding antioxidant to the frying oil
could be used to delay the development of rancidity. Rho et al.[67] applied 200 ppm of
three antioxidants (TBHQ, BHA and Polymeric antioxidant otherwise referred to as
Poly-A) to palm oil used to fry noodles and organoleptically investigated development
of rancidity under accelerated aging at 63°C. Results showed that TBHQ, BHA and
Poly-A delayed the onset of rancid flavor to 14, 11 and 10 days respectively, against five
days for the control, which was fried in antioxidant-free oil. TBHQ approximately
tripled while Poly-A and BHA doubled the shelf life of the noodles compared to the
antioxidant-free control. There was also remarkable improvement in noodles’ shelf life
stored in polyethylene packages containing TBHQ coating.[67] The onset of rancid
flavors in packaged noodles (polyethylene, 63°C) was approximately 18 days (control),
27 days (200 ppm TBHQ in frying oil), 37 days (additional 200 ppm coating in
package), 40 days (additional 500 ppm coating in package) and 45 days (additional
1000 ppm coating in package). The WFLO[182] noted that combination of antioxidants
with citric and/or phosphoric acid is much more effective in delaying the onset of
rancidity in foods but we did not find such trial with noodles in literature.
The presence of ultraviolet light speeds up rancidity of oily foods[182–184]; hence,
opaque packages are essentially used for foods susceptible to oxidation including noodles.
Reddish, yellowish or greenish packaging materials without any transparent parts are
apparently common with noodles. Blue is rarely used because invisible ultraviolet light
and blue components accelerated the onset of rancidity, however, the visible light com-
ponents, including yellow and red, have very little effect.[185] Morgan[186] stated that other
visible colors besides blue could be used as rancidity-retarding wrappers.
Evaluation of noodles quality

Consumer preference is the major quotient for selection of noodles quality criteria. These
factors vary greatly among different consumers; however, factors such as appearance
(color, shape and size), texture, flavor, eating quality and cooking quality are common
and dependent on raw material characteristics especially flour, ingredient formulation and
processing variables.[49,52,105,115,187] The common factors that are used to evaluate noodle
quality are explained hereunder.
Color
Color remains an important quality characteristic because it indicates the product’s first
apparent properties. Consumer color preference is major parameter used in assessing
noodle quality. It is expected that noodles be presented with bright and creamy appear-
ance or yellowish tonality.[3,53] Factors including the content of xanthophylls or lutein
pigment present in wheat flour, alkali-induced chromophoric shift of inherent
flavonoids[17,61,90] or addition of food colorant by manufacturers contribute to yellowness
in noodles while polyphenol oxidase (PPO) activity and flour ash content[52] are said to
influence noodle whiteness. Higher protein content beyond 13% in flour is said to reduce
brightness and yellowish tonality, which could be due to the activities of the proteolytic
enzymes and PPO. These usually originate from the bran fraction and initiate reaction
with the tyrosine groups in the protein in combination with phenolic components in the
flour to form dark products called melanin. This is mainly responsible for the reduction in
yellowish and brightness tone of the color.[22,90] This indicated that flour extraction rate
was another parameter of consideration as the presence of bran particles in flour is
a function of flour extraction rate.[49,52] Flour extraction rate has been shown to
significantly influence the texture and color of noodles. Ye et al.[73] noted that a simple
formulation of 35% water, 60% flour and 1% salt concentration was ideal for laboratory-
scale production of Chinese noodles. Dullness in Korean noodles was attributed to the
high protein flour, which usually contains less starch to reflect light.[3] While it may be
desirable to utilize flours with medium protein content that would yield acceptable level of
brightness in the products, additives may be used to inhibit PPO activity associated with
high protein flour.[48] Another type of darkening found in noodles is non-PPO induced
oxidation of tyrosine moieties present in wheat flour proteins. Asenstorfer et al.[188]
showed that darkening that was not due to PPO was responsible for 69% of all the
discoloration in noodles.
Noodle color could be assessed by sensory evaluation but colorimetric analysis (Hunter
Lab colorimeter) gives better evaluation using L* (lightness to blackness), a* (redness to
greenness) and b* (yellowness to blueness) parameters. The L* value of instant noodles
increased as the SDS sedimentation volume of flour increased but decreased as alcohol
and salt soluble protein levels increased in wheat flour. The SDS is a protein denaturant,
high volume in an SDS sedimentation test is an indicator of gluten strength whereby the
protein fibrils interact with each other and with flour particles to increase firmness of the
particles and resist denaturation.[189] Park and Baik[45] also reported significant relation-
ship between protein quality parameters and b* value of instant noodles.
Texture
Texture is among the noodles’ complex qualities that vary greatly by region, since factors
such as flour quality, choice and level of salt or alkaline mixtures including processing
variables like sheeting, steaming and dehydration technique employed vary by region.
With yellow alkaline noodles, for instance, Gulia et al.[27] concluded that flours with high
protein content and dough resistance but adequate starch pasting strength and lower
maltose levels produced noodles showing acceptable textural characteristics. Flour protein
content and quality affect noodles quality in quite several ways. With regards to texture,
lower protein content wheat flour yielded poor textural attributes in the final noodles.
Generally, texture of noodles may be described by the terms stickiness, smoothness,
hardness/firmness, softness, elasticity, cohesiveness, gumminess and chewiness.[78,190,191]
Like for color, both sensory as well as instrumental methods could be explored to evaluate
noodle texture, but instrumental analysis has been found more suitable to provide a more
consistent result.[62,192,193] Ross and Ohm[194] and Ross and Crosbie[195] have reviewed
different methods for analyzing noodle texture and concluded that a combination of
machine testing is more appropriate for assessing the textural structure of noodles.
Texture Profile Analysis (TPA) is a simple and suitable method of texture evaluation. It
gives a variety of textural properties including chewiness, gumminess, hardness, firmness
and cohesiveness in a solitary test yielding results that are said to be similar to what is
detected by mouth chewing.[27]
Recently, microscopy is being explored and microstructure studies have been employed
to a great extent with the view to studying the influence of ingredients and formulations as
well as processing techniques on noodles’ texture. Microstructure of Cantonese noodles
(fresh alkaline noodles) and instant noodles dough were found to be comparable[49] but
further processing conditions including, steaming, frying and final cooking have been
shown to present different microstructural changes in the noodles. Chewangkul et al.[196]

have also used confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) to monitor microstructure
changes resulting from varied processing conditions during instant noodle production.
Using CLSM, Huang and Lai[25] investigated the microstructure of noodle dough sheet
and quality attributes of white salted noodles containing different cereal starches. Their
results revealed that the rheological properties of raw WSN, made from composite of
wheat starch and cereal starches such as non- and waxy rice starches, waxy wheat and
waxy corn starches, were majorly affected by size of starch granules. However, amylose
content and smooth granules of amylopectin were significantly affected by the rheological
properties of cooked WSN.
Diep et al.[197] applied ultrasound technique to discern differences in the microstructure
of noodle dough prepared across wheat classes and between varieties. Their results showed
significant differences in ultrasound parameters which indicated effects of varietal differ-
ences on elasticity and firmness of noodles. Use of ultrasound to evaluate dough strength
was validated, while ultrasonic and farinograph dough development time and dough
stability were compared. Interestingly, their results challenged the general perception
that high gluten or higher protein content flours would yield robust doughs. Bellido and
Hatcher[40] applied ultrasonic technique to reveal effects of different ingredients on the
textural parameters of yellow alkaline noodles. Also, Bellido and Hatcher[40] found ultra-
sonic technique to reveal differences in textural characteristics of yellow alkaline noodles
manufactured from various raw materials. Many of the observable noodle quality para-
meters are consequent of these microstructural changes.
Flavor
The importance of flavor in instant noodle quality cannot be overestimated. It can provide
a satiating appeal to the palate during cooking while the presence of rancid flavor over
extended storage period could also be responsible for rejection of the product.[198–200] The
deep-frying process also contributes distinctive flavor to instant fried noodles.[45,100,201,202]
Presence of salt in the recipe and the frying process are thought to contribute to flavor
development in the raw noodles while the seasoning gives complementary effect during
cooking.[68] Oil quality is the major factor that determines whether or not the flavor of
instant fried noodles would be desirable after extended storage period.[200] The influence
of oil quality on noodle flavor has been mentioned in previous section of this review and
will be elaborated in subsequent section. It may impart a desirable shortening aroma and
mouth feel or be responsible for an objectionable rancid off flavor in noodles.
Oil absorption
During frying of instant noodles, the frying temperature causes evaporation of moisture
from the noodles and eventually some oil replaces the evaporated moisture.[41] Pinthus
and Saguy[203] noted that oil uptake in noodles could be described by capillary forces.
Apart from contributing to the development of rancid off-flavor in storage and forming
part of the public health concern resulting from high oil intake, oil absorption is of
important economic consideration in instant noodles since it can significantly increase
the production cost. Gluten content and quality are thought to have a role in oil uptake of
noodles during frying, through the role in forming a rigid structure network; therefore,
making the dough more elastic suggests that it would be less permeable to oil
absorption.[27] As discovered by Moss et al.[49], noodles manufactured from low-protein
flour absorbed more oil compared to those from high protein wheat flour. The authors
anticipated that low-protein flour would facilitate development of uneven globules during
steaming, and thus create space for oil to infiltrate the noodle easily. Furthermore, instant
noodles made from high protein wheat flours with associated high SDS sedimentation
volume or lower levels of salt soluble proteins have low levels of free lipids.[45] Perhaps this
could be due to the creation of an even and dense noodle surface arrangement during
steaming.
Starch property could be another contributor to oil absorption during frying of instant
noodles. Park and Baik[45] showed that amylose and oil content of instant noodles had
strong inverse relationship, which suggested that amylose content could trigger formation
of voids around steamed noodle strand surfaces, and thus creating pockets that promote
oil absorption and retention.
In the Asian countries where instant fried noodles represent a fast growing product and
market, there are standards for hygienic instant noodles to measure several parameters,
including oil content.[204,205] The chemical detection methods presented in these guide-
lines were reported to be costly, laborious and time-consuming procedures.[206,207] Some
research efforts have been made to obtain alternatives and especially those compatible
with routine. Subsequently, more rapid, low-cost, reliable and nondestructive analysis of
predicting specific instant noodles’ oil content now exist.[208] Chen and Qian[209] and
Chen et al.[210] used and regarded near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy analysis as a potential
method for estimating instant noodles’ oil content. Later, Chen et al.[211] found applica-
tion of wavelength transform to treat NIR spectroscopy to be more accurate in predicting
oil content of instant noodles. Lu et al.[212] developed optimal models for oil content
prediction using Fourier transform near-infrared (FT-NIR) spectroscopy and demon-
strated improvement. giving a rapid method of oil content determination with good
predictive ability.
Cooking quality
Cooking quality is a combination of factors including rehydration rate, cooking loss and
cooking time.[25,83,213] Cooked instant noodles should be able to resist disintegration
during boiling so that the total organic matter fragmented from noodles strands into
water during cooking is minimal, in addition to adequate degree of cooking and tender-
ness within a short time.[88] These are measured as cooking loss and time. Shelke et al.[36]
also indicated that short cooking time forms part of the desirable attribute of noodles. The
optimal cooking time, a period needed for disappearance of white core in the central
portion of noodle strand, is normally determined by picking noodle strand each minute
during cooking process and pressing between two glass plates until the central core has
just disappeared while cooking loss is measured by vaporizing an aliquot of the cooking
water to estimate the ratio of organic matter residue in the water during cooking to
noodles’ dry weight.[27,38,52,214,215] Cooking yield, otherwise known as cooking volume or
weight, which is the weight/volume gained by noodles based on water uptake during
cooking, was considered as a measure of cooking quality.[30,216] Starch granules swell and
are entrapped in coagulated protein matrix during cooking, to form a continuous and
strengthened network that helps to maintain the integrity in the process.[57,217] As men-
tioned earlier, the structural properties of dried noodles resemble those of pasta[15,77]; the
mode of water absorption/rehydration during cooking can also be likened except for fried
noodles, which exhibit distinct structural characteristics that facilitate moisture uptake.
Basically, dried dough absorbs water during cooking based on crystalline domains’ melting
kinetics.[218] As a plasticizer that increased polymer mobility, water would penetrate
concentrically toward the center of the noodle with increased cooking time, and would
increase the weight of the noodles, referred to as cooking weight, volume or yield.[219]
Cooking yield can be determined according to AACC standard 66–50.01[220] as percentage
weight difference between cooked and uncooked noodles.
Cooking qualities could be said to be influenced by flour quality, other ingredients,
formulation and processing. For instance, proteins are reported to form essential structural
elements during cooking of noodles[77], causing noodle strands to amalgamate and uphold
their system and thus reducing cooking loss. Method of cooking such as microwave oven
heating can also enhance cooking time and convenience.[221] The other measure of cooking
quality, rehydration rate, indicates the ease with which the noodles absorb water during
cooking. The method of dehydration of raw wet noodles, whether by frying or hot air
drying, is also affected by rate of rehydration, and consequently, cooking time of instant
noodles. For instance, there is considerable mass transfer during the frying process, which
causes formation of external and internal pores on the noodles strands thus enhancing
rehydration rate and hence reducing cooking time.[104] Hot air-drying process is not capable
of this characteristic structural modification; therefore, hot air-dried products require longer
cooking time than fried noodles. The extent of cooking during the steaming and subsequent
frying stage determines the amount of water and time required for rehydration.[14]
Public health concerns of instant noodles and intervention

The adverse effects of dietary nutrient deficiencies on health have recently become
worrisome as they result in one or more form of diseases that affect human produc-
tivity and consequently economic growth.[222] Reduction of macro- and micronutrient
deficiencies through fortification programs and nutritional education that helps people
to choose a balanced meal are perhaps the most important recommendations.[223,224]
Within the last two decades, instant noodle has had a checkered history in global
demand. According to the World Instant Noodle Association, global demand has risen
from 92,220 million servings in 2009 to 105,990 million servings in 2013[225] while the
2017 estimate has shown a decline through 2014 to 2016.[7] The era of rising con-
sumption was marked by changes in consumer perspectives and food trend as well as
increased necessity of convenience foods[226] while the reduction may be attributed to
increased nutritional awareness and diet-based health among consumers.[227]
Occasionally, instant noodle is criticized to be poor in protein, fiber and micronutrient
and high in sodium and fat content.[121,224,227,228] Long-term reliance on instant noodle
can therefore result in some diet-related diseases. Moreover, consumer attention has
recently focused on low-calorie food products with emphasis on healthy eating and
increased fiber in a balanced diet.[229] To address nutritional deficiencies and prevent
their consequences, staple foods are usually fortified. Instant noodle is a staple food
whose primary ingredient is wheat flour. Also, increasing utilization of wheat flour in
Asia has been consumption in the form of noodles.[230] Wheat undergoes nutrient
losses in the course of milling; therefore, fortification has been a well-accepted practice
globally to reduce the risk of neural tube defects caused by insufficient folic acid[231]
and anemia caused by nutritional deficiencies.[232] Instant noodles are consumed by
large numbers of people around the world because of their taste, low cost and ease of
preparation which make them appeal to busy people and the economy class. Moreover,
it holds great prospects to guarantee far-reaching food security. Therefore, it can be
promoted as a health food in addition to serving special dietary needs by modifying the
ingredients and processing methods.
However, wheat flour fortification has not been adopted everywhere in the world.[27]
Very few countries are known to have legislation regarding wheat flour fortification even
though wheat-based foods are next to rice as staple foods in most countries.[233] For
instance, in Asia where the largest proportion of wheat flour produced in many countries
is consumed as noodles, only about six countries currently have legislation for wheat flour
fortification requirement. The Philippines mandated wheat flour fortification in the year
2000, Indonesia in 2001, Fiji in 2009, the Solomon Islands in 2010, Nepal in 2012 and Viet
Nam in 2016.[234] In the United Kingdom, legislation for wheat flour fortification started
in 1995, it was revoked and replaced by the Bread and Flour Regulations 1998.[235]
Luthringer et al.[236] conducted a study of compliance and regulatory monitoring of
fortified foods across 17 countries, including Afghanistan, Bangladesh, Egypt, Ethiopia,
Ghana, Indonesia, Kazakhstan, Kenya, Kyrgyzstan, Liberia, Mozambique, Nepal, Nigeria,
Pakistan, the Philippines, Senegal and Tajikistan, results of their survey showed that only
eight of these countries mandate fortification of wheat flour while nine mandate fortifica-
tion of vegetable oil and all the countries mandate salt iodization. Vitamins A, B1, B2, B6,
niacin, folic acid, iron and casein (milk protein) fortification were introduced to instant
noodles in Indonesia in 1994 but the use has been based on freewill since it is not
regulated by any government agencies.[27] Also, almost 80% of instant noodles made in
places like Philippines were fortified voluntarily.[27]
Moving forward, enrichment of instant noodles through addition of gluten, cereal
bran, buckwheat, oats, barley, rice, potato, sweet potato and sorghum including whey
proteins, soybean flour, and other legumes have been investigated in some
regions[145,153,237–239] while some interventions have involved fortification of the noo-
dles seasoning.[227] Basically, the trend has been to improve the nutritional value
through flour enrichment and fortification practices. The process of fortification is
relatively simple, but the ability to withstand moisture and heat treatment during
noodle processing or the stability of the fortificants throughout the shelf life of the
carrier is another consideration.[27]
Park et al.[224] reported that fortification of flour used for making instant noodles with
thiamin and riboflavin increased the intake of these vitamins in a study population where
instant noodle consumers had significantly higher intake of the vitamins than noninstant
noodle consumers. There is scientific evidence that more than 75% of folate, riboflavin
and pyridoxine in fortified wheat flour are retained in cooked noodles while about 100%
of iron is retained in stored noodles; thiamin is however less stable, recording losses after
cooking in the range of 45–80%.[240,241] In the study of Dexter et al.[242], investigating
conventional low temperature drying, high temperature drying and cooking effects on
riboflavin, thiamin and niacin contents of enriched spaghetti which is similar to dried
noodle in textural characteristics, niacin and thiamin were stable throughout all the drying
cycle while some riboflavin were lost particularly during the high-temperature drying.
Analysis of the cooking water showed that the majority of the thiamin and riboflavin
losses and all niacin losses were due to leaching into the cooking water as all niacin lost
were recovered in the cooking water.[242] Since cooking seems to be a predominant factor
determining vitamin retention in pastas, cooking noodles in excess water that would be
drained off before eating can translate to considerable nutrient losses. Bronder et al.[227]
shows that instant noodles made with fortified wheat flour have potential to improve
nutrient intakes, have high retention of most nutrients, and incite little or no changes in
sensory characteristics even in storage for up to 12 months under normal conditions of
about 30°C and 50–60% RH.
High residual fat content of instant noodle and reliance on synthetic ingredients such
as MSG, colors, stabilizers, flavor enhancers, humectants, thickeners, acid regulators,
antioxidants, emulsifiers, oil, salt, preservatives and flour anticaking gents, many of
which are sodium-based, constitute another concern on public health. In many instances,
consumption of high-sodium foods have been associated with many health problems as
confirmed by various science-based studies.[243–246] Also, there is the possibility of devel-
opment of trans-fatty acids during the frying process.[97] In a Korean National Health and
Nutrition Examination survey, it was found that adults who consumed instant noodles
had significantly higher intakes of fat and sodium among few other nutrients and
significantly lower intakes of calcium, iron, phosphorus, potassium, niacin, and vitamins
A and C when compared with noninstant noodle consumers.[224] In the outcome of the
survey, sodium intake of the instant noodle consumers was >6.4 g/day, which was 3.2
times higher than the recommended Korean intake; and instant noodles was estimated to
have contributed approximately 30% of the total sodium intake. Similarly, instant noodles
have been reported to contain an average of 15–22% fat content.[105] Some of the factors
responsible for oil uptake in instant noodles have been identified to include inadequate
gluten content and quality[80] as well as high amylose content.[75] Addition of defatted soy
flour and whey protein concentrate has been reported to reduce the fat uptake of instant
noodle alongside enhancing the protein content and in vitro protein digestibility.[238] Use
of preharvest-dropped apple powder at 10% inclusion level in wheat flour has also been
shown to reduce oil absorption index by 6–9% with fewer and smaller voids that can
retain oil on noodle strands.[41] Although manipulating these factors could help to
alleviate this challenge, a major intervention had been the development of instant dried
noodles, which involves replacement of the frying process with air drying.[121] This looks
attractive from health standpoint, but acceptance of instant dried noodles is still largely
subject to the process of obtaining good textural properties, sensory and cooking qualities.
As consumers worldwide are increasingly concerned about health issues, the demand for
low fat, nonfried instant noodle has increased rapidly.[105] Therefore, addressing the
technological challenge of producing high-quality instant dried noodles with acceptable
sensory characteristics and reduced cooking time and losses calls for intervention. In the
effort to improve the acceptability of air-dried noodle, Gatade and Sahoo[121] optimized
moisture content and investigated the effect of additives such as gluten and guar gum
together with steaming treatment on the textural properties, sensory attributes, cooking
qualities and microstructure of air-dried noodles. The optimized dough prepared from
100 g flour, 40 ml moisture, 5 g oil, 2 g gluten, 0.2 g guar gum and 1 ml of 1% kansui
solution coupled with steaming treatment produced about 50% reduction in cooking loss
with reduced cooking time.[121] Moreover, the recipe produced about 70% reduction in fat
content, yet the characteristics were comparable to that of instant fried noodles.
In another development, the potential of superheated steam in developing fat-free
instant noodles was investigated; superheated steam was able to dry and create an instant
product because the steam had additional sensible heat to raise its temperature above the
corresponding saturation temperature at a given pressure.[8] Effects on adhesiveness and
gumminess were beneficial while maximum cutting stress, resistance to compression, and
surface firmness were undesirable, and they concluded that the process of obtaining good
textural properties remains challenging. Later, Pronyk et al.[163] explored how dough
resting time and saturated steam pretreatment could influence the textural properties of
superheated steam processed Asian noodles. Resting period of 20 minutes gave the least
value for hardness but 40 minutes was recommended to avoid any influence of dough
resting period on noodles textural properties, every other textural properties investigated,
including adhesiveness, springiness and resilience were not significantly different up to
200 minutes.[163] Furthermore, the authors noted that noodles pretreated with saturated
steam were slightly smaller in size (about 5%) than those that received superheated steam
directly, this was thought to be due to rapid flashing off moisture by the superheated
steam, which may result in pores of steam causing puffing of the noodles but creating less
dense noodles. Saturated steam is thought to increase the moisture content around the
noodle surface during the pretreatment, which in turn slows down the drying rate and
causes denser noodles with a corresponding increase in hardness and hence chewiness.
Some modern technologies also have good prospects that can be further explored in
alleviating issues that constitute public health concerns. For example, 4 kGy dose of ionizing
radiation inactivated L. monocytogenes and Escherichia coli in stir-fried rice noodles,
improved the pH and sensory stability and kept the product safe from microbial spoilage,
keeping the total plate count below the deterioration threshold limit of 106 CFU/g during
storage for over 4 weeks compared with a normal chilled ready meal, which had a shelf life
of 5–7 days.[9] Later, Li et al.[247] found that ozone treatment increased dough stability and
peak viscosity of wheat starch, increased the springiness, chewiness and firmness of noodles,
and reduced the growth of microorganisms and enzyme activities of Asian noodles inves-
tigated. Innovations involving the use of natural products to make high antioxidant noodles,
antimicrobial, herbal or functional noodles may be investigated. Also, processing equipment
and conditions involving nonthermal techniques such as use of ultrasonic and microwave
heating among others also require research studies to establish their prospects in commer-
cial noodle production. Investigations on the potential of noodle fortification as an effective
public health intervention and nutritional improvement are still underway.
Conclusions and suggestions

Noodles are a staple food of Asian origin, but the consumption has spread all over the
world. Instant noodles have received global acceptance because of the convenience,
excellent flavor and texture, minimal cooking time and energy, longer shelf life and
affordable price. Quality and acceptability of instant noodles are largely evaluated from
color, flavor, texture, cooking and eating qualities while nutritional value and to a larger
extent oil uptake constitute the focal point of public health implication. The basic unit
operations that form the production technology include mixing, dough resting, sheeting,
slitting and waving, steaming, frying/drying, cooling and packaging. Production of good
quality noodles have been closely linked with physicochemical and functional properties
of protein and starch of wheat flour, optimum quantities of other ingredients, especially
water and frying oil quality in the recipe; processing parameters also contribute toward
successful noodles making. Desirable wheat flour properties include low gelatinization
temperature, low starch damage, ash content below 0.55%, protein content ranging
between 13–15%, low levels of salt soluble proteins with high SDS sedimentation value,
low amylose content, farinograph stability greater than 200 seconds and low starch gel
strength.
In order to ensure healthier human consumption, hurdle technology cannot be over-
emphasized. Use of natural antioxidants and antimicrobial agents in commercialized
noodles or seasoning ingredients should be adopted by the industry and supported by
government regulations. Fortifying noodles seasoning with heat-labile nutrients rather
than the flour would be a better option because the fortificants would be protected from
heat and moisture encountered during noodle processing and because seasonings are well
packaged in smaller sachets. Also, research to justify stability of other micronutrients such
as vitamin A and C, B vitamins, niacin, iodine and folic acid during processing and
determine suitability of noodles or the seasoning as micronutrient carrier should be
intensified. To a large extent, use of composite flour hold great prospects for import
substitution of wheat flour, and to increase the nutritional value and levels of fiber,
antioxidant and antimicrobial agents in noodles. However, the search continues on the
choice of the appropriate materials, formulations and processing technology that will
produce nonwheat noodles that would meet consumers’ acceptance. Using diverse blends
of starches is a novel approach and alternative to chemical modifications, which is easy to
diversify starch functionality. Also, superheated steam application showed potential for
producing noodles with excellent cooking properties, but sustainable modification of the
process to produce desirable textural and flavor properties is important.
The basic idea regarding noodle processing would involve the correct amount of
proteins, hydrocolloids and moisture coupled with hydrothermal treatment, but research-
ers are yet to fully exploit it. During this review, we discovered psyllium seed husk as
a natural ingredient with hydrocolloid properties and source of high dietary fiber, it is
therefore proposed for use in noodles. Water yam also has good viscoelastic properties but
to be exploited in noodle making. Flaxseed could serve as functional ingredient and at the
same time contribute its antimicrobial activities. Researches to produce acceptable non-
fried instant noodles are ongoing.
This review has provided more alternatives to be explored for production of healthier
instant noodles and research ideas.
Acknowledgments
Author KOF is grateful for the financial support received from Australia-Africa Universities
Network.
ORCID
Afam I. O. Jideani http://orcid.org/0000-0002-9122-8697
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ISSN: 8755-9129 (Print) 1525-6103 (Online) Journal homepage: https://www.tandfonline.com/loi/lfri20

Quality and Public Health Concerns of Instant

Ololade H. Adejunwon, Afam I. O. Jideani & Kolawole O. Falade

To link to this article: https://doi.org/10.1080/87559129.2019.1642348

Published online: 23 Jul 2019.

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Quality and Public Health Concerns of Instant Noodles as

CONTACT Kolawole O. Falade kolawolefalade@yahoo.com Department of Food Technology, University of Ibadan,

History and nomenclature

Table 1. Diﬀerences between pastas and noodles.

Noodles raw materials and their roles

Fried noodle Frying Resting

Cutting Raw/Fresh noodle

Dry noodle Drying

Figure 1. Categorization of gastro-esophageal reﬂux disease according to the Montreal Classiﬁcation

Table 2. Recipe for diﬀerent types of noodle.

Sodium chloride and alkaline salts

Table 3. Eﬀects of wheat and wheat ﬂour quality on noodles.

Additives used in production of noodles

Table 4. Salt requirement of diﬀerent noodle types.

Oriental raw Kansui 0.1–2 Increased Gi and Gii of SD noodles [24]

Composite ﬂour in noodle production

successfully utilized. Adopted processing methods are dependent on the presence of

Slitting and waving of dough

Steaming of noodle strands

Cooling and packaging

Evaluation of noodles quality

shown to present diﬀerent microstructural changes in the noodles. Chewangkul et al.[196]

Public health concerns of instant noodles and intervention

Conclusions and suggestions

[188] Asenstorfer, R. E.; Appelbee, M. J.; Mares, D. J. Physical–Chemical Analysis of Non-

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