Pineapple Ananas Comosus

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Pineapple (Ananas comosus L. Merr.).
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Pineapple
13 (Ananas cosmosus L. Merr.)
SR Assumi, PT Singh and AK Jha
1. INTRODUCTION
It is a commercial fruit crop in the tropics and parts of the subtropics of the world. Hawaii
produces one-third of the world’s pineapples. It is a perennial monocotyledonous herb, with
a short basal stem, producing adventitious roots below and a crown of spirally arranged
leaves. It produces a single syncarpous fruit on a terminal inflorescence. The fruit is juicy
with excellent flavor and taste. Pineapple is now considered to be the third most important
fruit crop in world production after banana and citrus (Malézieux et al., 2003).
2. COMPOSITION AND USES

2.1. Composition
Pineapple is a vital source of sugars, organic acids, essential minerals, vitamins and fiber
for human nutrition. Its fruits are also rich in health promoting antioxidants such as ascorbic
acid, flavonoids and carotenoid compounds. The chemical composition of pineapple (sugars,
organic acids, minerals, fiber, aromatic compounds, vitamins, amino acids, flavonoids,
carotenoids, etc.) depends greatly on the variety. Fresh fruit has small but substantial amounts
of vitamin A, and flavonoid pigments such as ß -carotene, xanthin, lutein and ß-cryptoxanthin.
Collectively, these compounds play vital roles in antioxidant and vision functions. Vitamin
A is also required for sustaining integrity of mucosa and skin. Consumption of natural fruits
rich in vitamin A and carotenes has been found to protect from lung and oral cavity cancers.
One healthy ripe pineapple fruit can supply about 16.2% of daily requirement for vitamin C.
It is one of the rare fruits that are rich in B-complex group of vitamins. It contains very good
488 Tropical Fruit Crops: Theory to Practical
amounts of vitamin B6 (pyridoxine), niacin, riboflavin and folic acid. Moreover, pineapple
fruit is rich in minerals with high biological activity. The key elemental components present
in pineapple fruit are potassium (K) (125-178 mg/100 g fruit weight), calcium (Ca) (13
mg/100 g fw), magnesium (Mg) (12-20 mg/100 g fw) and phosphorus (P) (9-13 mg/100
g fw). Other important minerals found in pineapple in lower concentration are manganese
(Mn) (0.818-1.593 mg/100 g fw), iron (Fe) (0.25-0.28 mg/100 g fw), copper (Cu) (0.081-
0.113 mg/100 g fw) and zinc (0.08-0.20 mg/100 g fw). Also, pineapple is known for its low
sodium content (Na) (1-2 mg/100 g fw) (Table 1).
The principle amino acids in pineapple are tyrosine and tryptophan (Wen and Wrolstad,
2006). Other amino acids include asparagine, proline, aspartic acid, serine, glutamic acid,
α‐alanine, aminobutyric acid, tyrosine, valine and isoleucine. Amino acids and sugar content
play an important role in the development of maillard reaction in the products (non‐enzymatic
browning) mainly during storage and processing. The organic acid content of pineapple also
adds to the taste and flavour of pineapple products. Volatile organic acids found in pineapple
fruit are citric, malic, quinic acids, etc. but citric acid remains as the chief organic acid. The
increase in acidity is directly related to the increased concentration of citric acid in pineapple
(Saradhuldhat and Paull, 2007).
Titratable acidity (TA) in pineapple is a product of the total non‐volatile acids that
occur as free organic acids in the vacuoles. Total soluble solids (TSS) indicate the content
of soluble sugars with a contribution from the fruit acids. The ratio of TSS/TA is considered
to be the most dependable parameter index for evaluating pineapple fruit quality. High
quality pineapple fruit have TSS/TA ratio from 20 to 40 (Lu et al., 2014). Sensorial qualities
like aroma can greatly influence consumer’s preferences. Different volatile molecules
provide the characteristic flavours to the fresh fruit aroma (Liu and Liu, 2014). The main
volatile compounds identified in fresh pineapple from ‘Smooth Cayenne’ variety are methyl
3-acetoxyhexanoate (27.7 μg/100 g fw), followed by methyl 3‐methiopropanoate (12.7
μg/100 gfw) and methyl 5‐acetoxyhexanoate (11.8 μg/100 g fw). It also includes methyl
hexanoate (3.9 μg/100 g fw), ethyl hexanoate (2.0 μg/100 g fw), 3‐methylthiopropanoate
(2.8 μg/100 g fw) and 1‐(E, Z)‐3,5‐undecatriene (0.1 μg/100 g fw). These are considered
as the main volatile compounds that characterize the typical aroma of fresh pineapple fruit
(Kaewtathip and Charoenrein, 2012).
Pineapple contains a proteolytic enzyme, bromelain which helps in the digestion process
by breaking down proteins. Bromelain has anti-inflammatory, anti-clotting and anti-cancer
properties. Furthermore, it can also interact with other medications. Care should be taken
when consuming fresh pineapple with medications (antibiotics, anticoagulants, blood thinners,
anticonvulsants, barbiturates, benzodiazepines, insomnia drugs and tricyclic antidepressants)
due to the possibility of certain side effects associated with it (Amini et al., 2014).
Pineapple (Ananas cosmosus L. Merr.) 489
Table 1: Composition of pineapple fruit (per 100 g of fresh weight)
Nutrient Unit Quantity

Water g 86.45
Energy kcal 48
Protein g 0.54
Total lipid g 0.12
Carbohydrate (by difference) g 12.66
Sugar (total) g 9.35
Sucrose g 5.53
Glucose g 1.73
Fructose g 2.05
Fiber (total dietary) g 1.4
Minerals
Calcium, Ca mg 13
Iron, Fe mg 0.265
Magnesium, Mg mg 16.5
Phosphorus, P mg 11
Potassium, K mg 151.5
Sodium, Na mg 1.5
Zinc, Zn mg 0.14
Copper, Cu mg 0.097
Manganese, Mn mg 1.205
Selenium, Se mg 0.05
Vitamins
Vitamin C mg 36.65
Thiamin mg 0.079
Riboflavin mg 0.031
Niacin mg 0.306
Vitamin B6 mg 0.11
Folate, DFE μg 9.5
Vitamin A, RAE μg 3
Vitamin A, IU IU 55
Vitamin E (α-tocopherol) mg 0.01
Vitamin D (D2 + D3) μg 0.0
Vitamin D UI 0.0
Vitamin K (phyloquinone) μg 0.7
Source: USDA (2014).
2.2. Uses
Ripe pineapples are consumed as fresh. Larger fruits are cut up in various ways and eaten
fresh, as dessert, in salads, compotes and otherwise, or cooked in pies, cakes, puddings or as
a garnish on ham or made into sauces or preserves. Malayan’s people utilize the pineapple
in curries and various meat dishes. In the Philippines, the fermented pulp is made into a
popular sweetmeat called nata de pina. In Africa, tender shoots are eaten with salads. The
terminal bud and the inflorescences are eaten raw or cooked. Young shoots, called “hijos
de pina” are sold in vegetable markets of Guatemala. Pineapple juice can be used for
cleaning machete and knife blades and with sand, for scrubbing boat decks. From time to
time, crowns are fed to horses if not needed for planting. Also final pineapple waste from
the processing factories may be dehydrated as “bran” and fed to cattle, pigs and chickens.
Moreover, pineapple juice is taken as a diuretic and to expedite labour, also as a gargle in
cases of sore throat and as an antidote for sea sickness. The flesh of very young (toxic) fruits
is deliberately ingested to expel intestinal worms in animals and as a drastic treatment for
venereal diseases. It is also used for decoration with crown intact.
Green pineapple is also used for making pickles. After extraction of its juice, the left
over is used as livestock feed and also the tender leaves are used for the same purpose. In
some cases, unripe pineapple is inedible, poisonous and irritating the throat and acting as a
purgative (Hossain et al., 2015). Pineapple leaves yield 2 to 3% strong, white silky fibre, 30
to 90 cm in length which was being extracted for making pina cloth (a fine fabric). Pineapple
leaf fibre is used for spinning, weaving and industrial textiles (Pandey, 2005).
3. ORIGIN, HISTORY AND DISTRIBUTION

Pineapple is believed to be indigenous to Southern Brazil and Paraguay (perhaps especially the
Parana-Paraguay River) areas where its wild relatives occur. Pineapple is a native American
plant first seen by Columbus and his shipmates when they landed on the island of Guadeloupe
on November 4, 1493. He named it ‘piña’, due to its resemblance to a pine cone. Most of
the pineapples grown at that time were seedless types and many typical wild cultivars were
absent. This shows its early vegetation over there (Collins, 1960). Pineapple fruit was a
main food of South American Indian feasts and rites related to tribal affirmation. The fruit
then spread around the world on sailing ships that carried it as a protection against scurvy.
The Spanish brought to the Philippines early in the 16th century. The pineapple reached
England during 1660 and began to grow in greenhouses in the early 1700s for its fruits
and as well as for its ornamental purpose. Portuguese traders brought it to India from the
Moluccas in 1548 and also to the east and west coasts of Africa. The plant started growing
in China in 1594 and in South Africa from about 1655. In 1819, ‘Smooth Cayenne’ variety
from French Guyana (South America) was introduced into Europe and spread over the
world in the 19th and 20th centuries along with ‘Queen’ and ‘Singapore Spanish’ varieties
(Rohrbach et al., 2003).
Pineapple has a short shelf life and therefore early commercial trade was limited to
short transportation routes. Jams and sweets produced in Brazil, West Indies and Mexico
were the first commercial producers of pineapple. Fresh pineapples were sent from the
West Indies to Europe attached to the entire plant, which decreased the value in European
markets and led to the weakening of European glasshouse production (Radha and Mathew,
2007; Rohrbach et al., 2003). In the beginning of 19th century, canning industry was started
in Southeast Asia, Australia, South Africa, the Caribbean and Kenya. During the Second
World War, the Southeast Asian industry was devastated and Hawaii gained importance at
the end of the 1960s substitute by Côte d’Ivoire, the Philippines and Thailand (Rohrbach
and Johnson, 2003). After the Second World War, fresh fruit market started expanding since
refrigerated sea transport developed and the need for closeness to the market was reduced.
Over the past hundred years, pineapple has become one of the leading commercial
fruit crops of the tropics. Thailand, Philippines, Brazil and China are the main pineapple
producers in the world, supplying nearly 50% of the total pineapple production. Other
important producers include India, Nigeria, Kenya, Indonesia, Mexico, Costa Rica and
these countries provide most of the remaining fruit. The total annual world production of
pineapple was 2.7 million tonnes during the year 2017. India is the fifth largest producer
of pineapple with annual production of about 1.2 million tonnes. During the year 2016-17,
the estimated production was 2.03 million tons from 0.12 million ha area (NHB, 2017). In
India, the leading commercial pineapple producing states are West Bengal, Assam, Kerala,
Karnataka, Tripura, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Manipur and Bihar.
4. TAXONOMY AND BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION

4.1. Taxonomy
Ananas comosus is one of the most popular tropical fruits and a leading edible member of
the family Bromeliaceae which embraces about 2,000 species, mostly epiphytic and many
strikingly ornamental. It is the most important economic plant of the Bromeliaceae family.
From the first statement of the pineapple by European explorers to the present time, pineapple
taxonomy has varied considerably. The first botanical description of cultivated pineapple was
given by Charles Plumier at the end of the 17th century when he created the genus Bromelia for
the plants called karatas and also described Ananas as Ananas aculeatus fructuovato, carne
albida. Linnaeus in 1753 in his Species Plantarum designated the pineapple as Bromelia
ananas and Bromelia comosa. In the early 18th and 19th century, pineapple classification brings
about in a number of different names (Leal and Coppens d’Eeckenbrugge, 1996). Merrill
established the binomial Ananas comosus in 1917. In 1919, Hassler separated the genus Ananas
into two divisions Euananas and Pseudananas. In 1930, Harms raised Pseudananas to genus.
During 1934, L. B. Smith and F. Camargo again divided the genus Ananas and multiplied
into different species. This produced two different genera and nine species recognized in 1979
(Rohrbach et al., 2003). This classification was evaluated on the basis of practicality and
inconsistency with available data on reproductive performance and morphological, biochemical
and molecular characterization. The present classification (Table 2) is on the basis of new data
on reproduction, morphological, biochemical and molecular diversity.
Table 2: Classification of pineapple by Coppens d’Eeckenbrugge and Leal (2003)
S.No. Species
1 Ananas comosus (L.) Merril
Ananus comosus var. ananassoides (Baker) (formerly two
species: A. ananassoides and A. nanus)
Ananas comosus var. bracteatus (Lindl.) (formerly two species: A. bracteatus and
A. fritzmuelleri)
Ananas comosus var. comosus (formerly A. comosus)
Ananas comosus var. erectifolius (L. B. Smith) (formerly A. lucidus) (formerly
A. erectifolius)
Ananas comosus var. parguazensis (Camargo and L. B. Smith) (formerly
A. parguazensis)
2 Ananas macrodontes Morren (formerly Pseudananas sagenarius)
4.2. Botanical description

The pineapple plant is a terrestrial herb with 0.75 to 1.5 meter of height and a spread of
0.9 to 1.2 meter. The plant has a very short stout stem and a rosette of waxy and strap-like
leaves. The leaves are pointed and 50 to 80 cm 1ong with needle tip and sharp, up curved
spines on the margins. It is a perennial monocot with Crassulacean Acid Metabolism
(CAM) system (Radha and Mathew, 2007; Chadha et al., 1998). The main morphological
structures consist of roots, stem, shoots, leaves, peduncle, fruit and the crown. The above
stem is straight and erect, however the shape of the buried part depends on the material
used for planting. It is markedly curved, if derived from the stem, since the stems of these
propagules are comma‐shaped, less curved when derived from stem shoot and erect from a
crown Coppens d’Eeckenbrugge and Leal (2003). The leaves are waxy and arranged spirally
on the stem which may be all green or variously striped with red, yellow or ivory down the
middle or near the margins. Adult plants have 70 to 80 leaves, the youngest in the middle
while the oldest remains on the outside. At blooming time, the stem elongates and enlarges
near the apex and puts forth a head of small purple or red flowers, each accompanied by a
single red, yellowish or green bract.
The pineapple flower is an inflorescence that develops from the apical meristem in
an acropetal (ascending or youngest at the apex) progression. The inflorescence consists of
100 to 200 flowers arranged in a narrow compact tubular manner that means only insects or
specialized birds can enter the flower (Coppens dÉeckenbrugge et al., 2011). The flowers are
perfect, with a floral bract, three short fleshy sepals and petals, six stamens and an inferior
ovary with three locules. Normally a plant may bear 2 or 3 crowns, or as many as 12 fused
together, instead of the normal one. Anthers are bilobed, turned inwards and contain countless
pollen grains that are sticky, spheroidal in shape, bilaterally symmetrical and contain two
openings. The style remains hollow, trilobed, trifid, approximately as long as the petals and
equal or longer than the stamens. The number of ovules can vary from 16 to 71, depending
on the cultivar (Coppens d’Eeckenbrugge et al., 1993). The stigma consists of three lobes
and is located within the petals. Three nectar secreting glands are situated on the ovaries,
which will open into the flower cup at the bottom of the style charming potential pollinators
like humming birds. The bracts, adjacent ovaries and the inflorescence axis merge together
to form the fleshy compound fruit. In the family of Bromaliaceae, Ananas is in the last
subfamily with fused floral parts to form a single sorose-type parthenocarpic fruit formed
by 50 to 200 coalescent berries (Rohrbach et al., 2003).
Pineapple is a self-incompatible fruit crop which naturally favours vegetative propagation.

This may be the result of domestication and selection process they undergone for seedless
fruits (Coppens d’Eeckenbrugge et al., 1993). The self-sterility is generally due to the
inhibition of pollen tube growth in the upper third of the style (Brewbaker and Gorrez,
1967). For hybridization, breeders prefer artificial pollination methods. Hand pollination is
also possible in the absence of natural pollination.
5. CLIMATIC AND SOIL REQUIREMENTS

5.1. Climatic requirement
Pineapple grows in warm and humid climate. It thrives well in tropical and subtropical climate
extending from mild coastal climate up to an altitude of about 1000 meters, if the area is
free from frost. Temperature seems to be one of the major factors in pineapple distribution
around the world (Table 3). The optimum day and night temperatures are reported to be close
to 30 and 20°C, respectively, with an optimum mean temperature of 23 to 24°C (Neild and
Boshell, 1976). Fruits grown on plants at 26°C/22°C (day/night) mature in 198 days and 204
days, while fruits mature in 230 days when planted at 34°C/18°C environment which might
be due to optimum day temperature (Bartholomew and Maleziux, 1994). When ambient
temperature drops between 10 to 16°C, fruit growth is constrained. Plants can withstand sub-
freezing temperatures for very short periods. However, freezing injury has been reported in
the pineapple growing belt South Queensland, Australia. On the other hand, with exposure to
temperatures well over 30°C, heat damage may occur due to high respiration rate, metabolism
and impaired nutrient absorption (Bartholomew and Kadzimann, 1987). During periods of
intense sunlight and high temperature (35°C), the fruit is susceptible to sunburn.
The sunburn injury in pineapple production areas is significant when solar radiation is
high and proportions of rejected fruit because of this damage can be over 40% in a year if
preventative actions are not taken. Temperature also plays a major role in production of slips
and suckers. In Madagascar, number of suckers ranged from 0.2 inch in winter to 1.6 to 2
inch in summer. In cool climatic condition, the excessive production of slips may decrease
the yield (Py et al., 1987). In places where the temperature falls below 5°C, the plants get
damaged by cold injury and plant growth as well as fruit development is adversely affected.
Neither a diurnal temperature differential nor short days are necessary for natural flowering
in pineapple. Rather, it is the cool night temperature that regulates the natural flowering
(Bartholomew and Maleziux, 1994).
Table 3: Temperature variations in different pineapple growing regions of the world
Max. Temp. Min. Temp.

Region Latitude Mean
(°C) (°C)
Malaysia 1.22° N 35.0 18.9 26.9
Saupe, Brazil 7.5°’ S 31.2 20.6 25.9
Osorio, Brazil 29°55’ S 23.8 15.4 19.6
Brisbane, Australia 27°28’ S 25.5 9.5 20.5
Wahiawa, Hawaii 21°20’ N 30.1 14.3 22.6
Karenko, Taiwan 23°58’ S 27.1 17.3 22.2
Port Elizabeth, South Africa 33°58’ S 21.2 13.3 17.2
Malkerns, Swaziland 26°30’ S 28 4 16.8
Source: Bartholomew and Maleziux (1994).
Being a xerophytic plant, it can produce high yield in dry environments as it is well
recognized for its drought tolerance. One of the benefits of crassulacean acid metabolism (CAM)
in pineapple is enhanced water use efficiency and high tolerance to drought (Bartholomew
and Malezieux, 1994). It grows well under a wide range of rainfall, although optimum
rainfall for its commercial production is 100 to 150 cm. Water deficits can be indexed by
the relative thickness of the water storage tissue of the youngest, physiologically mature
leaf (‘D’ leaf) and by the percentage of white root tips visible on the roots in the soil. The
quantity of water applied to pineapple is low, typically about 5 cm/ha/month (Hepton, 2003).
5.2. Soil requirement

Pineapple is grown in almost every type of soil found in the tropics and subtropics including
peat soil, course sandy soil, highly aggregated clay soil and very stony clay soil provided it
is drainage free. The ideal soil type is sandy or well aggregated clay soil having a depth of
about 100 cm and with good drainage to prevent water logging and root diseases. Clay soils
that are well aggregated have good water holding capacity and will also reduce the need
for supplemental irrigation in areas where rainfall is not uniformly distributed throughout
the year. The ideal pH range for pineapple is from 4.5 to 5.5 and this acidic soil reduces
diseases such as root and heart rot caused by Phytophthora sp. (Hepton, 2003). All far and
wide grown pineapple cultivars can bear high levels of soluble aluminum and relatively
high levels of soluble manganese. Soils containing high level of manganese can result in
manganese induced iron chlorosis, although it can be easily corrected with regular fortnightly
foliar sprays of iron sulphate.
Soils containing high concentrations of sodium chloride are not considered suitable
for pineapple production. Leaf water potential, leaf elongation, plant fresh and dry weight
declined with increasing salinity from electrical conductivity 2 to 8 mmhos/cm. Increasing
salinity cause increase in uptake of Na and Cl while all the other elements decrease. Saline
irrigation water adversely affect fruit yield and quality compared with control (Alverezz et.
al., 1996). Also, inoculation of arbuscular mycorrhiza fungi (AMF) has been reported to
promote the growth of pineapple.
6. EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE

Changes in rainfall and temperatures can have negative consequences on the production of
horticultural crops. For instance, ill-timed rains during drought stress periods or temperature
above normal temperatures during flowering and fruit growth reduce yields and can cause
physiological disorders (Datta, 2013). Pineapple farmers in Uganda reported reduced yields
and increased incidence of pests and diseases in the year 2012 which were primarily due to
prolonged drought and hot temperature.
Bartholomew and Malezieux (1994) reviewed the influence of environmental factors

on the growth and fruit production in pineapple and reported that CAM system in pineapple
enhanced water use efficiency and high tolerance to drought. With respect to the photosynthetic
rate, the net CO2 fixation in light (phase JV) ranged from 0.13 to 6.3 µmol m-2s-1 in various
conditions of light levels, photo and thermo periods (80 ± 17°C mean). The intensity of CAM
(phase I) was the highest when the light/dark temperature differential was approximately
10°C and maximum night temperature was 20°C. Optimum temperature for growth of
pineapple is considered to be close to 30°C day and 20°C night with an optimum of mean
of about 24°C. At a given day temperature, an increase in the night temperature decreases
night net CO2 uptake as well as the proportion of night fixation in 24 h period. Whereas, at
a given night temperature, the fixation of total CO2 assimilation in a 24 h period that is fixed
at night increases with increasing day temperature. It has been reported that the quantity of
CO2 assimilation is affected by irradiance and the range of temperatures is influenced both
by total assimilation and the proportion fixed in the dark. Optimum nutrition in environments
having a continued night temperature of ≥25°C and in warm, humid, low altitude climates
near the equator produces plants with numerous, wide and flaccid leaves. Conversely, in
controlled environments with cool night temperatures and in cooler climates, leaves are
erect, straight, rigid, shorter and fewer in numbers.
In the cool subtropical and tropical environments, the absence of frost produces good
pineapple crop. For plants of sufficient size, sensitivity to forcing reaches a maximum during
the time of year when natural induction normally occurs. Outside this time, the sensitivity to
forcing is determined primarily by the prevailing temperature and this is true for both ‘Singapore
Spanish’ and ‘Smooth Cayenne’ pineapples. Shading due to interplant competition reduces
the weight of fruit from centre row of the three-row plantings below that of adjacent rows and
removal of plants at the time of forcing, when vegetative weight is fixed, increases the fruit
weight. The cool night temperature regulates the natural flowering to occur after attainment of
certain minimum plant size. After the inflorescence emerges and especially after anthesis begins,
fruit development is more difficult to predict. It is assumed that this is due to the absorption
of solar radiation during the day, which can significantly elevate fruit temperature above air
temperature. Therefore, direct absorption of solar radiation raises fruit temperature well above
air temperature. The rate of early development of the ‘Smooth Cayenne’ inflorescence and
fruit is determined almost entirely by the prevailing temperature of the environment where
the crop is grown. Reduction in the availability of photo-assimilates could be ascribed to the
development of low average fruit weight. In the older pineapple leaves and shaded plants,
due to the reduction in the light intensity and nitrogen content of the plants, the CAM activity
decreases compared to the younger and more sunlight receiving plants (Medina et al., 1994).
Leaf thickness was greater and plant biomass was more towards the stem and roots and less
towards the leaf for plants grown at elevated CO2.
Pineapple crop requires moisture at critical periods of growth and deficits or excesses can
have detrimental effects on the production and quality of the crop, wherein pineapple yields
were substandard and crops produced were not of acceptable quality for processing (fruits
were smaller and core larger). Due to insufficient rains during the vegetative state of growth,
early flowering initiates, just after which available of sufficient rains leads to vigorous stem
growth and large core development (De Mondonca, 2015). Optimum temperature range for
successful pineapple cultivation is cited to be between 15.6 to 32.2°C. A high temperature
at night is deleterious and a difference of at least 4°C between day and night temperatures
is found to be desirable.
Pineapple grows remarkably well under a wide range of rainfall, although an optimum
annual rainfall for its commercial cultivation is 100 to 150 cm. However, the rainfall
requirements vary with atmospheric humidity. It can be grown up to 1,100 m above mean
sea level, if the area is frost-free and grows well near sea coast as well as in the interior. So
as long as the temperature is not extreme and atmospheric humidity is high even with low
rainfall. Optimum temperature for successful cultivation is 22 to 32°C and leaves and roots
grow best at 32 and 29°C respectively and their growth ceases below 20°C and above 36°C
especially if the humidity is low (Chadha et al., 1998).
7. PLANT PROPAGATION
Pineapple is commercially propagated through vegetative means. Its propagules are crowns
(fruit top), shoots borne at the base of fruit (slips) and shoots borne at any position on
stem (suckers). Genetic variation exists among clones and cultivars for the production of
slips per plant. For ‘Smooth Cayenne’, plants having five or fewer slips had no effect on
the slip numbers of their progeny. Slip and sucker production tends to be more productive
in the warm climate of subtropical areas whereas slips are seldom produced and sucker
development is delayed in tropical regions. Suckers weighing around 500 g are the leading
source of propagules for ‘MD‐2’ and ‘Smooth Cayenne’ in the tropics since these cultivars
produce few or no slips in warm environments. ‘Queen’ clones can produce numerous slips
in any environment so planting material is easy and inexpensively harvested. Production
per plant of both propagules declines as planting density increases, although slip number
decreases more rapidly than suckers. Crowns have the utmost number of root initials and
usually root more rapidly than slips and suckers (Py et al., 1987). Irrespective of the type of
propagules, larger propagules have greater leaf area with extra storage reserves and reach
the target weight for forcing more quickly than smaller ones. Low weight of propagules,
poor nutrition, dry and cold environment all delay plant establishment and lengthens the
time necessary for a plant to reach the target forcing weight (Hepton, 2003).
A plant having high numbers of slips or suckers, along with those that produce a fruit
with more than two crowns should be rogued because the high resource demand can reduce
average fruit yield. The presence of two or three crowns on a fruit is usually due to the result
of high temperature injury during early inflorescence development. Planting material can
be treated with a fungicide or ‘air‐cured’ by drying the butt end, or both, before planting to
prevent rots. Slips can be induced artificially by treating plants with morphactin chloroflurenol
(Maintain CF‐125®; Multiprop R®) (Hepton, 2003). Planting material can also be created
by gouging and dividing of stem and also through meristem culture. Somaclonal variation
arising during production can produce off‐types which should be rogued out.
7.1. In vivo propagation

Pineapple is mostly propagated by means of asexual propagation method by use of crown,
slips, suckers and shoots without the need of incorporating new genes. These vegetative
propagules are produced naturally by the plants and are known as conventional planting
materials (Reinhardt et al., 2018). Crowns are used as one of the planting material and they
are twisted from the fruit at the time of harvest. Wounds are allowed to dry for one to two
weeks, depending on the environmental conditions, dipped in fungicides and planted. Slip is
a rudimentary fruit with an exaggerated crown which are developed from buds in the axils of
the leaves borne on the peduncle (fruit stalk). Slips become visible on the peduncle when the
fruit is about half developed. When intended for use as planting material, slips are harvested
two to five months after crop harvest that is, ten to thirteen months after slip growth starts.
When slips are not intended for use as a planting material, they are removed from the plant
to increase ratoon yield (Bartholomew et al., 2002). Suckers develop from axillary buds
on the stem and growth usually begins at floral differentiation. After fruit harvest, suckers
are cut from the stem. Suckers and slips should be preferred for planting as they come to
bearing earlier than the crown and produce larger fruits. Plants from crown bear flowers
after 3 to 20 months later than suckers and slips depending on the climatic conditions. The
availability and quality of these conventional planting materials depends on variety and
environmental factor and it is a problem in large scale production due to the difficulty in
obtaining uniform planting material as the multiplication rate of this conventional method
is very low. Methods like stem sectioning, apical growing point gouging and chemical
treatment for transformation of flowers into plantlets have been studied for rapid propagation
and increasing the availability of planting material (Reinhardt et al., 2018).
7.1.1. Stem sectioning
Apical dominance causes suppression of the lateral buds and only few buds from the shoot
develop in spite of a high number of axillary buds present in the mother plants. Sectioning of
the stem into pieces containing lateral buds released from the suppression and stipulated to
form new plantlets is done in order to break the apical dominance (Collins, 1960). Plantlets
obtained through stem sectioning are of superior quality but the size is smaller compared to
conventional planting material like slips and suckers (Reinhardt et al., 2018). Stem sectioning
is mostly exploited first for rapid production of planting materials and second to obtain
disease-free planting materials. Identification of internal symptoms of the pathogen becomes
easy by sectioning of the stem as it can be viewed visually and hence diseased planting
materials can be discarded. Stem sectioning depends on the type of raw material, the size and
infrastructure of the nursery, the local environment condition and the type of cultivar. These
entire factors affect the requirement of planting material and yield per nursery. For healthy
and productive planting materials, the stem should be removed as soon as possible as the
plant vigour declines over time since food reserves are used for the production of suckers
and ratoon crops. After selection of the appropriate planting materials, they are washed and
cleaned, the entire leaves are removed except the basal portion, peduncle and roots. Basal
leaf sheaths are left uncut so as to cover the buds preventing from sun radiation and direct
sun exposure. Sizes of the cut pieces may vary but pieces with visible buds contain more
food reserves and will develop faster compared to smaller pieces. The appropriate height
of planting materials obtained from stem section should be a minimum height of 25 cm
(Reinhardt and Cunha, 1999). Pineapple stem are harvested at 20 days from harvesting of
fruit, then sectioned into two types of cut viz. discs and longitudinal axis of the stem, with
5 cm sections in both types of cut; treated with fungicides and placed with the gems facing
upward in an open field condition filled with commercial substrate and a mixture of sand
and soil in a ratio of 1:1. Higher shoot buds are obtained with commercial substrate.
Propagation of pineapple can also be achieved through stump sectioning. Harvesting

of stumps is done at one inch open heart flowering stage or right after harvesting of fruits.
The leaves are then peeled off right from the base or cut without detaching the basal portion
from the stump. Stumps are then cut longitudinally into quarter or sixth and then cut into
wedge shaped sections, each weighing 15 to 20 g, containing at least one axillary bud in
each of the section. These sections are then planted in a well prepared, fumigated nursery
bed after the sections are treated with fungicides to prevent from rotting, which are planted
at a spacing of 2.5 cm apart and 2 cm deep inside the soil. Light mulching can be done on
top of the bed. In the case of crowns, a vertical cut is given from the top portion towards
the bottom into quarters and sixth. After which these vertical section are cut horizontally in
half between the crown base and apex, dried in the sun for one to two days and dipped in
fungicides before planting in a well prepared nursery bed at a spacing of 2.5 cm apart. For
a well developed crown, it took one year less to form the original size by crown sectioning
(Evans et al., 2002).
7.1.2. Gouging
Gouging is a mechanical method of removing the shoot apex of the developing plants.
These plants are forced to develop into plantlets by destroying the apical growing point and
releasing the axillary buds from induced dormancy (Reinhardt et al., 2018). According to
Py et al. (1987), another method of removing the growing point is by forcing the plant to
flower and later breaking off the developing inflorescence. Gouging of apical growing point
depends on the growing condition of the plants wherein plants grown inside greenhouse have
been gouged when the plants is as small as 100 g but in field condition the plants should
be at least 0.5 m tall (Hepton, 2003). The gouge or plant decapitation should be shallow
from the apex not more than 1 cm below the apex. The gouged plants are treated with
fungicides to avoid rotting. The developed gouged shoots are allowed to grow to a desired
size depending on which conditions they are to be grown. Shoots which are smaller in size
50 g or less are planted inside the greenhouse otherwise under field condition. In Sri Lanka,
Mauritius plant developed at least 31 mature leaves and 4.3 suckers per plants after 87 days
of gouging (Heenkenda, 1993). However, after gouging of cv. Kew, the production of suckers
per plant did not decrease with increasing planting density up to 70,000 plants per hectare
(Heenkenda, 1997). Rebolledo-Martinez et al. (2005) obtained a sucker greater than 30 cm
size with 200 g weight per plant at 150 days after the apical meristem gouging. Smooth
Cayenne crown of weight 200 to 300 g gouged followed by a spray of gibberellic acid and
benzylaminopurine can produce a crown of 5.2 plantlets with 35.9 cm length and 145 to 360 g
weight (Coelho et al., 2007). Santos et al. (2011) studied the inoculation of mycorrhizae
fungi in different pineapple varieties viz. Brazil-Percola, Smooth Cayenne, Jupi and obtained
a production of 23, 14 and 11 plantlets of about 10 cm length per crown in each varieties.
7.1.3. Chemical treatment
Chemical treatment of the plants during its initial phase of reproduction produces pineapple
plantlets. Plantlets formed instead of flowers and fruitlets by plant treatment with chloroflurenol
at flower initiation (Hepton, 2003). Rapid propagation of pineapple can be obtained by
spraying the plant with multiprop (mixture of methyl esters of 2-chloro-9-hydroxyfluorene-
(9)-carboxylic acid) or commonly known as chloroflurenol, 2-7-dichloro-9-hydroxy-(9)-
carboxylic acid (flurenol) and 2,7-dichloro-9-hydroxyfluorene-(9) carboxylic acid (dichlor-
flurenol) promotes the formation of plantlets. The plantlets formed on the peduncle and the
pineapple inflorescences are normal both in appearance and growth rate (Bartholomew and
Criley, 1983). Plants intended for used as planting materials, are subjected to flower induction
treatment after normal farm practices. After a week or two, it is sprayed with a solution up to
400 ppm of chlorflurenol, diluted in 3000 liter per ha. The number of propagules produced
depends on the time of thinning and the concentration of chloroflurenol. The effective time
of application of chloroflurenol was viz. one, three, six and nine weeks after flower induction
treatment which resulted propagules production over the entire infloresence, half inflorescence,
one third inflorescence or none respectively. Application of 40 ml of chloroflurenol per plant
at a concentration of 500 ppm and 1500 ppm after 15 days of flowering forcing by calcium
carbide produced 6 to 11 propagules per plant with an average weight 24 to 34 g.
Morphactins mixture is normally sprayed in aqueous forms after inflorescence induction

with ethephon, alpha naphthalene acetic acid or its sodium salt (SNAA). This treatment
stimulates the development of propagules in place of flowers and fruitlets. Time of application
of morphactins depends on the prevailing environment for a normal development of
inflorescence and also on the size and the plantlets requirement. The size and number of
propagules varies but normally they are small and produced in large numbers, may be up to
30 per plant with an average weight of about 60 g per plantlet (Py et al., 1987).
The effect of multi-prop application (6 or 12 mg a.i. per plant) for production of slips
(7 to 35 per plant after induction) compared with the usual 0 to 3, wherein the treatment
times ranged from 0 to 8 weeks has been reported. However, the maximum slip numbers
was produced at 4 to 6 weeks and also the individual slip mass decreased as slip numbers
increased. Slip production was more consistent after flower induction with ethephon or SNA
(sodium salt of naphthalene acetic acid) than with BOH (beta hydroxyethyl hydrazine) or
ethylene gas (Glennie, 1981).
7.2. Micropropagation
In vivo propagation can be considered to be easy but the multiplication rate of propagules is
low and it would take 8 years to produce enough propagules from one mother plant. Also,
suckers produced through this method are not disease-free and viruses remain a problem.
So, the need to improve the multiplication rates of elite genotypes has directed to the
development of tissue culture techniques for the pineapple (De Almeida et al., 2002). In vitro
micropropagation of pineapple plantlets has many advantages over conventional methods of
vegetative propagation. For example, this technique allows an efficient and rapid increase
of selected elite pineapple varieties. Many authors have reported successful production of
pineapple via micropropagation system during the last few years (Danso et al., 2008).
Kiss et al. (1995) demonstrated a novel micropropagation method for pineapple (Ananas
comosus L.), based on shoot elongation induced in vitro for two cultivars such as Cayenne de
Oriental and Espanola Raja in Hungary in which decapitated in vitro plantlets were used as
explants. Shoot etiolation was induced by placing explants in a Murashige and Skoog (MS)
medium containing naphthalene acetic acid (10 mM) and incubating in darkness at 28°C for
30 to 40 days. The etiolated shoots were then placed into Chu (N6) medium supplemented
with kinetin or benzyladenine (25 or 20 mM respectively) and shoots regenerated along the
nodes within 4 to 6 weeks. The highest regeneration rate was 15 and 13 plantlets per node
with 25 mM kinetin and 20 mM benzyladenine (BA) respectively. This procedure enables
the regeneration of several thousand plantlets per year.
De Almeida et al. (1997) observed that 3.0 mg/l 6-benzylaminopurine (BAP) coupled
with 2.0 mg/l indole acetic acid (IAA) produced the best results for the pineapple plantlets
production. BAP @ 0.5 mg/l was better for the pineapple number and length of shoots/
explants and IBA at 1.5 mg/l level was best for root initiation. Firoozabody and Gutterson
(2003) used a mixture of 1.5 mg/l BA and 0.5 mg/l NAA to produce the highest rate of shoot
multiplication for pineapple explants, about three to four folds monthly.
Rooting of pineapples can be improved by adding of auxins such as NAA, IBA or

combination of NAA and IBA in the medium (Danso et al., 2008). The explants were put in
polypropylene package and transfer into the nursery for hardening. The explants adapted on
polypropylene package containing 2 peats: 1 sand ratio gave the highest number of shoots. In
contrast, Amin et al. (2005) established pineapple in sand with good growth of plantlets. This
was probably attributed to genotypic differences or the type and structure of the soil mixes.
8. IMPORTANT VARIETIES
The horticultural classification of pineapple varieties of Leal and Soule (1977) is currently
followed across the globe. According to characteristics, varieties of pineapple have been
divided into 5 main groups viz. Spanish, Queen, Cayenne, Abacaxi and Maipure groups
(Table 4). Of which, Cayenne group is by far the most important group. Most of the varieties
in India may be accommodated into one of these groups. For example, Kew or Giant Kew,
synonymous with Smooth Cayenne, represents Cayenne group. It the most widely grown
cultivar which is also known by ‘Cayenne Lisse’, ‘Maipuri’, ‘Kew’, ‘Sarawak’, ‘Esmeralda’,
‘Claire’, ‘Typhoon’ and ‘Saint Michel’. The leading fresh fruit clone for export is the ‘Smooth
Cayenne’ hybrid ‘MD‐2’ (Loeillet et al., 2011). The varieties of Cayenne and Spanish group
are dual-purpose ones whereas varieties of Queen are grown exclusively for fresh fruit
market, as they are not suitable for canning due to deep eyes. ‘Singapore Spanish’ is the
second most important cultivar in importance, especially for canning purpose. The main
cultivar of Brazil for fresh fruit consumption is ‘Pernambuco’ or ‘Branco de Pernambuco’
but in Florida it has also been named ‘Abacaxi’, ‘Abakka’ and ‘Eleuthera’.
Table 4: Standard characteristics of different pineapple groups
Characteristics Group
Spanish Queen Abacaxi Cayenne Maipure
Leaves Spiny Spiny Spiny Smooth Smooth
Fruit weight (kg) 0.9-1.8 0.5-1.1 1.4 2.3 0.8-2.5
Fruit shape Globose Conical Conical Cylindrical Cylindrical
Eyes Large, deep Deep eye Flat eyes

eyes
Colour of fruit Orange, Red Yellow Yellow Orange Yellow to
orange red
Colour of flesh Pale yellow to Deep Pale yellow to Pale yellow to White to deep
white yellow white white yellow
Core Large Small Small Medium Small-medium
Taste of flesh Spicy acid, Sweeter, less Sweet, Sweet, mildly Sweeter than
fibrous acid, low fibre Tender, Juicy acid, low fibre, Cayenne,
juicy fibrous tender,
very juicy
Canning use Fair Fair Fair Very good Fair
Local market Good Good Good Good Good

Incidence of diseases Susceptible More resistant Resistant Susceptible to Unknown

to gummosis, than Cayenne mealy bug, wilt
resistant to
mealy bug
wilt
Main cultivars Red Spanish, Queen or Abacaxi, Smooth Maipure,
Singapore Common Abakka, Cayenne or Tachirense,
Spanish, Queen, Eleuthera, Cayenne, Burmanguesa,
Selengor Mauritius, Sugar Queensland Milagrena,
Green, Mac Gregor, Loaf, Pan Cayenne, Perolera,
Castilla, PRI- Natal, Ripley, de Azucar, Cayenne Mariquita,
67, Cabezona, James, V.C. Pernambuco, Guadeloupe, Amarillo,
Pina de Queen, Z. Paulista, St Dominguo Piampa,
Cumana, Queen, Perola, Yupi, Cayenne, Manzana,
Espanola Alexandra, Papelon, Cayenne de Lebrija, Monte
Roja, Nangka, Common Venezolana, Guinea, G25, G Lirio, Randon
Gandol, Rough, Pina Valera, 32-33, Charlotte
Betek, Comte Amarelo Rothschild,
Masmerah, de Paris, Baronne de
1-56, 1-57, Victoria, Rothschild
Josapine, Jaldhup, (Spiny
Maspine Lakhat leaves), Santa
Marta, Hilo,
Champaka,
Champaka 153,
Champaka
180, 53-116,
53-656, F-200,
Lisse Smooth,
Guatemalan,
St Michael,
Esmeralda,
Kew, Giant
Kew, Sarawak,
Cayenne
de Orienta,
Typhones-
1,2,3,4,5
Source: Leal and Soule (1977).

Chief characteristics of major cultivars have been described as under:
8.1. Kew
It is the leading commercial variety in India and valued particularly for canning. It is from the
Cayenne group. Fruit weights 1.5 to 2.5 kg. The shape of the fruit is cylindrical with slight
tapering at the crown with broad and shallow eyes. The colour of unripe fruit is dark blackish
green but orange-yellow with some green mottling when ripe. Flesh colour is light yellow,
it is very juicy with pleasant flavour. Leaves have short sector of spine at the tip and also at
the base. It is susceptible to mealy bug wilt and nematodes. ‘Giant Kew’ grown in states of
West Bengal, Goa and Meghalaya of India also belongs to this group. Kew cultivated in the
Northeastern states and in the Southern region of India also belongs to Cayenne member.
8.2. Queen
It is also known as common Queen which is mainly used as a fresh fruit but also for
processing and export (Paull and Duarte, 2011). It is widely grown in Australia, India and
South Africa. In India, it is grown in Tripura, Assam and Meghalaya. The fruit weights 0.9
to 1.3 kg which is rich yellow in colour. When fully matured, the fruit is golden yellow
and its internal flesh is deep golden-yellow. The flesh, although less juicy than Cayenne, is
crisp, transparent with pleasant aroma and flavour. The plants are characterized by dwarf,
compact habit of growth.
8.3. Mauritius
It is a mid-season variety of Queen group. It is grown in some parts of Meghalaya and

Kerala in India. Fruits are of medium size and are of 2 types, deep yellow and red. Fruits
of yellow variety are oblong, fibrous, and medium sweet compared to red type. Mauritius
is exclusively grown for table purpose for short distant marketing. Leaves are yellowish
green, spiny throughout the margin and crown also is spiny.
8.4. Jaldhup and Lakhat
These two varieties belong to India and are from Queen group. Indigenous to Assam, both
being named after the place of production. Fruits are a little smaller than Queen. Lakhat
is strikingly sour in taste whereas Jaldhup has its sweetness blended with acidity. One
characteristic feature of Jaldhup variety is that it has alcoholic flavour and can be easily
distinguished from other fruits of the Queen group.
Indigenous types of India also include Simhachalam, Baruipur Local and Haricharanvita
(Radha and Mathew, 2007).
8.5. Red Spanish

It is widely cultivated in West Indies, Cuba, Puerto Rico and Mexico. The plant and fruit
size is in between Cayenne and Queen. Fruit is rather square in shape and weighs between
0.9 to 1.8 kg. Flesh is pale yellow, fibrous with pleasant penetrating aroma and spicy acid
flavour. The leaves are long, about 1.2 m and spiny. Peduncle is long (20 to 25 cm) and
slender and is often not able to support the fruit upright.
8.6. PR 1-67
This is also an important cultivar of Puerto Rico, originated from an open pollinated cross
of Red Spanish. The outstanding characteristics of this cultivar are excellent flavour as a
fresh fruit, resistance to mealy bug wilt, gummosis and good size and shape.
8.7. MD-2
This is an important hybrid of pineapple originated in the breeding program of the now-
defunct Pineapple Research Institute in Hawaii. MD-2 is the standard for the international
market. This is because of its excellent fruit qualities like high brix value (17 for ripe fruit),
low acidity (0.4 to 0.45%), medium fruit size (1.5 to 2.0 kg), cylindrical shape, small core
size, exhibit very long shelf life (about 30 days) as against 21 days for the normal varieties
and is able to endure in cold storage for up to two weeks. MD-2 is resistant to internal
browning, however susceptible to fruitlet core rot and more sensitive to Phytophthora than
Smooth Cayenne. MD-2 variety fetches a premium price than other varieties. Hence, it will
be the best pineapple variety that can be imported in India for increasing the export share
of the pineapple produced in the country.
8.8. PQM-1 (It is a pineapple Queen Mutant-1)

It is a clonal selection of Queen developed from Lembucherra Farm, ICAR Research Complex
for NEH Region, Tripura Centre. Plants are more vigourous than Queen and Mauritius, with
spiny reddish leaves, similar suckers but with fewer slips than Queen. Flowering time (July
to August) and fruit maturity is late compared to Queen. Fruitlets are lesser (24% lesser eyes
per fruit) but larger than Queen, fruit is cylindrical in shape weighing about 1.3 kg slightly
heavier than Queen. Fruit colour is deep orange with yellowish golden flesh. Total soluble
solids (TSS) is 17% and titratable acidity is 0.6%. Yield is 50 to 55 tonnes/ha (Prakash et
al., 2009).
9. ORCHARD ESTABLISHMENT
Land preparation begins with thoroughly ploughing and pulverizing the soil to obtain a good
tilth. In orchards, it begins with multiple passes of heavy disc or power shredder through the
field. The objective is to speed up the process of desiccation of existing plants and to prevent
them from becoming a serious weed in the following crop. Land should be properly leveled
to avoid water stagnation and adequate drainage system should be provided. Sometimes
plants are burnt after drying, but the best practice is to incorporate the debris into the soil
through further discing or ploughing. Extra tillage may be required to break up soil clumps
to assure good plant-soil contact. Also, periodic sub-soiling is required to break down any
hard pan and to improve drainage, soil aeration and increase rooting depth. Mulching is
usually not practiced in places where pineapple is grown, however, polyethylene mulch (25µ
thickness) has some benefits in pineapple cultivation by controlling weeds, increasing soil
temperature in cool places, helps in redistributing and retaining water around developing
roots and also reduces the leaching of fertilizers.
Live crop mulch and residue mulches are beneficial wherever economical and feasible,
because they decrease evapotranspiration and erosion, enhance organic matter content in the
soil and help to keep soil cool during extremely hot weather. Crop rotations with Crotolaria
juncea also helps in controlling nematode in the field. Smallholders in West Java, Indonesia
often grow pineapple in rotation with sugarcane, cassava or other crops and in some areas,
pineapple is grown as an intercrop with cacao, coconut, oil palm and rubber (Santosa et
al., 2005).
Propagules from the same source and of uniform size are planted together in an orchard to
assure that all the plants are of similar size at the time of forcing. This uniformity checks that
the fruits that develop are consistent in size and the field ripens uniformly (Py et al., 1987).
Larger suckers have a tendency for advanced fruiting being more physiologically mature
and this happens when sucker weight exceeds 600 gm. Planting is usually done manually
with the help of a long trowel however, planting machines alike to vegetable transplanters
are in use in Queensland, Australia, Malaysia and South Africa (Rukunudin et al., 2011).
Propagules are planted from 6 to 10 cm depth into the soil to assure good plant to
soil contact, with slips and suckers being planted deeper than crowns but heart of suckers
should not be buried. Pineapple can be planted in early rains or in early winter in un-irrigated
orchards while in irrigated orchards, it can be planted anytime of the year. Before planting,
the propagules should be sun cured and dry leaf scale at the base should be removed and
basal ends dipped in 0.4% difolatan and 0.05% ekatox to prevent from fungal infection
and mealy bugs respectively. Planting can be done in single rows or double rows following
triangular or rectangular system. In Hawaii, mulching is done with plastic to help in
retaining 1,3‐dichloropropene (1,3‐D, Telone II) fumigant in the clay soil. Good nematode
control without mulch is achieved with 1,3‐D in the sandy soils of Queensland, Australia.
The fumigant reduces nematode pressure so a ratoon crop can be harvested. Fumigation of
pineapple planting material with methyl bromide was more effective against insects and
arthropod pests rather than spraying young pineapple plants after establishment or pre plant
dipping of planting material.
The traditional system of planting pineapple accommodates only about 15,000 to

20,000 plants per hectare (Double-row trench planting). High density planting is therefore,
advocated in commercial pineapple cultivation to accommodate more number of plants per
unit area. High density planting has many advantages viz. overlapping of the basal leaves
provide shade and reduces evaporation loss, as well as weed growth, due to crowding of the
plants in high density the vigorously growing leaves tend to twist and grow upright which
provide the fruits a natural covering to prevent sun scald and result in uniform coloured
and lustrous fruits.
Triangular system of planting showed high percentage of flowering and increased

yield as compared to rectangular system (Roy et al., 1980). Trials at the Indian Institute of
Horticulture Research, Bangalore have proved conclusively that dense planting in pineapple
result in high yields without affecting the quality or size of fruits. Nowadays spacing is
established by factory marking on polyethylene mulch, use of a stretched marked cord or
with a planting machine. Spacing of plants is somewhat dependent upon cultivar. Spanish
cultivars produce smaller plants but have spiny leaves so densities on some small farms
with a single row system and relatively wide spacing between plants and rows are only
15,000 to 25,000 plants/ha. Dense planting of pineapple may result in high yields without
affecting the quality or size of fruits, also minimizes mulching and lodging as plants prop
one another (Chadha et al., 1998).
Time of planting is very important for natural flowering period, which differs from
region to region. If the plant does not attain the optimum physiological maturity at the time
of natural flowering, then flowering is shifted for the next season or if flowering is induced
in the same season, the plant bear very small fruits. Hence, the ideal time of planting is
12 to 15 months before the peak flowering season under natural conditions which varies
from December to March in different regions. The plant density of 63,000 plants/ha
(22.5x60x75 cm) is ideal for subtropical and mild humid regions, whereas for hot and humid
conditions a plant density of 53,000 plants/ha (25x60x90 cm) provides high yield. In hilly
region of Northeastern states (across slopes), rain fed and fertile areas, a spacing of 30x60x90
cm is recommended to accommodate 43,500 plants/ha. In Goa, the local variety is planted
as intercrop in slopes under partial shade of cashew and other wild trees, accommodating
around 20,000 plants/ha (Devi et al., 2013). The spacing for different plant populations is
given in Tables 5 to 7.
Figure 1: Double row method of planting with zig-zag orientation of plants (Chadha
and Singh, 1993)
Table 5: Spacing for different plant populations per hectare
Spacing (cm)
Plant population
Plant to plant Row to row Trench to trench
60 90 120 15,000
30 60 120 35,000
30 60 90 43,500
25 60 90 53,300
22.5 60 75 63,400
22.5 45 90 63,500
25 30 91.5 65,900
25 30 83.5 70,500
Source: Radha and Chadha (1992).

Table 6: Population density followed for pineapple.
Growing region Plants/hectare

Bangladesh 38,345
Brazil 90,900
Hawaii 40,000 - 45,000
India 40,000 - 53,333
Kenya 47,800 - 53,800
Malaysia 71,758
Philippines 62,000
South Africa 41,250
Taiwan 45,000
Source: Radha and Mathew (2007).
Table 7: Recommended population density for different regions of India.
Growing region Plants/hectare

Bangalore and Coorg 53,333
Assam 53,333
Kerala 40,404
Konkan area 56,437
Maharashtra 53,333
Meghalaya 43,500
West Bengal 43,500 - 49,300
10. INTERCULTURAL PRACTICES

Earthing up is an essential operation which will result in good anchorage to the plants. It is
more important in ratoon crops as the base of the plants shifts up crop after crop. It involves
pushing the soil to the trench from the ridge where trench planting is a common place.
High density planting minimizes its necessity since the plants prop each other and prevent
lodging. Mulching is essential to conserve soil moisture as well as to check weed growth.
Mulching either with black polythene or saw dust results in better growth of plant. Plastic
mulch application is effective in increasing soil temperature, conserving soil moisture and
weed control. The most popular plastic mulch worldwide is black, although white-on-black
and clear mulches are also used. White-on-black and silver mulches are reported to reflect 48
and 39% of shortwave radiation respectively (Ham et al., 1993). Fruit weight increases with
increasing number of suckers per plant, while more number of slips delays fruit maturity.
Hence, de-suckering can be delayed as much as possible, while slips are recommended for
removal as soon as they attain the size required for planting.
11. IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT

Annual precipitation in areas where pineapples are produced, usually range from less than
600 mm to over 3,500 mm. However, well distributed rainfall of 1,000 to 1,500 mm during
the crop cycle is considered good for commercial production. Its capability to withstand
drought condition is well recognized. However, growth and yield were reported to be
adversely affected under water stress conditions in West Africa (Malezieux, 1988) and Hawaii
(Ekern, 1965). Both fruitlet number and fruit weight can be reduced by water stress, but the
relationships have not been quantified in ways that are useful. The potential evapotranspiration
of pineapple can reach up to 4.6 mm/day and a soil water holding capacity hardly surpasses
100 mm (Carr, 2012). So without rains, the water supply will be drained within three or
four weeks. Water deficit can be indexed by the thickness of the water storage tissue of the
youngest, physiologically mature leaf (‘D’ leaf) and also by the percentage of white root tips
observable on the roots in the soil. Fruits that mature under severe water stress are highly
susceptible to cracking if rain occurs near maturity (Malézieux et al., 2003). Therefore,
supplementary irrigation can help to produce good size fruits in such conditions. Irrigation
can also help establish an off season planting to maintain its year-round production. During
summer months, pineapple should be irrigated wherever possible at 0.6 IW/CPE ratio (50 mm
depth of water). It requires five or six irrigations during dry months at an interval of 22 days.
12. WEED MANAGEMENT

Weeds can be a serious problem in pineapple plantations and may cause crop losses. In small
orchards, it can reach up to 20 to 40% decline in yield. In India, besides the broad-leafed
weeds, monocot weeds viz. nut grass (Cyperus rotundus), Hariyali (Cyanadon dactylon),
Digitaria marginata and dicot weeds viz. Lagasca mollis, Portulaca oleraceae, Mollugo
pentaphylla are the common weeds found in pineapple plantations. Weed control is a major
cost consuming intercultural practice and is crucial to assure high yields and removal of
plants that are hosts of diseases or harbor nematodes and insects. Polyethylene and organic
mulches of the beds and inter‐beds also helps in minimizing weed growth. Weed control
in commercial plantations is achieved by weedicides unless labor is readily available. For
effective and economic weed control, weedicides should be applied. Pre-emergent spray
with diuron 3 kg or bromacil 2.5 kg in 600 litres of water per hectare completely controls
all types of weeds in pineapple plantation. If there is subsequent growth of weeds, herbicide
application may be repeated at half the above dose. Spraying should be done only when
there is adequate moisture in the soil and should be avoided during heavy rainfall (El-Swaify
et al., 1993).
13. NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT

Nitrogen (N) and potassium (K) are the main fertilizers which are applied in pineapple.
Pineapple removes 123 kg of N, 33 kg of phosphorus (P) and 308 kg of K from one hectare
of land, yielding a crop of 40 tonnes. Pineapple plants require higher amount of N and K
than P, where P did not show much influence. However in ratoon crop, phosphorus (4 g/
plant) has been reported to increase fruit yield and weight (Reddy and Prakash, 1981). These
nutrients are prone to heavy loss in soil. Hence, practices regarding time of application and
form of fertilizer determine its efficiency. In the case of commercial plantations, a small
amount of N is applied before planting and the rest is applied as foliar sprays at fortnightly
intervals after the plants are established. Pineapple plants respond well to foliar spray and
N, boron, iron, zinc and at times K is also applied in this manner. The total amount of N
applied, ranges from about 300 to 600 kg/ha for a density of 75,000 plants/ha but lesser
amounts should be applied when plants are small or growth rates are slow, as in conditions
of cool weather. Moreover, the iron and manganese ratio is more serious than the level of
either nutrient alone (Py et al., 1987). Mn induced iron chlorosis is controlled by ferrous
sulfate foliar sprays at around 17 kg/ha per application. Well decomposed FYM @ 500 g/
pit should be applied at the time of planting while N and K should be applied @ 12 g/plant.
N should be applied in two split doses, the first split dose should be given after 2 months of
planting and the second split dose after 12 months of planting. Similarly, K should be given
in 2 doses, the first half is given at the time of planting and second half after 6 months of
planting. The fertilizer rates to obtain high yield in pineapple is given in Table 8.
Table 8: Recommended fertilizer doses for pineapple
Country N P205 K20

g/plant
Australia 10 2 10
Ivory Coast 4 2 11
Sri Lanka 10 6 10
Guinea 15-20* 4.5** 8.3-16.6 ***
South Africa 10 6 10
kg/ha
Brazil 120 60 120
Hawaii 440-670 170-280 220-460
India 600 400 600
Malaysia 896 224 896
Taiwan 560 140 560
*Ammonium sulphate, **Single superphosphate, ***Potassium sulphate,
Nitrogen can be applied in the soil as well as on the leaves. The application of 16 gm
N per plant, half in the form of foliar spray as urea and other half as soil application resulted
in best growth and optimum yield with better fruits in cv. Kew. Significant increase in the
flowering, fruit weight, yield in cv. Kew was obtained with half soil plus half foliar method
of urea application (Das Biswas et al., 1983). The half soil plus half foliar method seemed
to be appropriate in respect of achieving higher yield and bigger size fruits, but full soil
method seemed to be the best when quality of fruit is of major concern. Effect of the level
and method of N application on yield and fruit quality is given in Table 9.
Table 9: Effect of different level of N and method of application on yield and fruit
quality of pineapple cv. Kew
Treatment Fruit weight Yield TSS Acidity Ascorbic acid

(kg) (t/ha) (°Brix) (%) (mg/100 ml juice)
N level (kg/ha)
200 1.63 46.7 13.2 0.94 26.32
280 1.77 56.7 13.3 0.88 34.68
360 1.95 71.9 14.4 0.64 37.10
440 1.88 69.4 12.7 0.86 30.16
560 1.72 52.9 12.7 0.86 30.16
LSD (P = 0.05) 0.12 8.3 0.91 0.21 7.81
Method
Full soil 1.48 53.1 14.9 0.71 31.10
2/3rd soil + 1/3rd foliar 1.66 53.1 14.5 0.81 37.41
½ soil + ½ foliar 2.15 67.5 13.8 0.83 30.96
1/3rd soil + 2/3rd foliar 1.99 66.9 12.9 0.81 34.12

Full foliar 1.68 56.9 11.8 0.89 31.72
LSD (P = 0.05) 0.13 9.09 0.63 NS NS
Source: Toshi (1992).
The soil application of full N was conducive for the development of higher leaf area and
the N supplied as post flowering sprays were not utilized by the plant for further development
(Radha and Chadha, 1992). Foliar spray of K (392 kg) with Mg (224 kg) per hectare on Red
Spanish pineapple resulted in a significant increase in fruit yield. However, increasing the
dose of foliar N application did not significantly increase fruit yield but reduced fruit Brix
and acidity, and increased the pH level. Spraying of micronutrients (Cu, Zn, Mn, B, Na and
Fe) in two foliar applications at the flower bud differentiation and pre-flowering stages,
caused marked increase in yield of pineapple cv. Kew.
14. FLOWERING, POLLINATION AND FRUIT SET

Normally, pineapple flowers after the attainment of vegetative growth and ripeness-to-flower
stage after 11 to 12 months of planting and formation of at least 40 leaves. A pineapple plant
can produce only one fruit during its life time and it is often seen that even after 15 to 18
months of growth under optimal nutritional and environmental conditions, only 50 to 60
percent plants comes to flowering. Hence, for induction of flowering besides the use of optimal
nitrogen and potash fertilizers, use of growth regulators is required. Bartholomew (2014) has
reviewed the history of forced induction of reproductive development of pineapple through
the use of chemicals particularly by ethylene. Forcing of plants helps to synchronize fruit
harvest, reduce harvesting costs, excites uniform sucker development required for a good
ratoon crop and also makes possible to predict harvest dates (Dubois et al., 2011; Dorey et
al., 2015). Plants are forced to flower when they have reached a sufficient size and a physical
maturity to bear a fruit that can accomplish the desired market size.
The induction of flowering with auxin was first reported in 1939. Clark and Kerns (1942)
were the first to report the response of auxinic substance (NAA) in pineapple. Later, a large
number of growth substances such as NAA, IAA, 2,4-D and ethylene releasing compounds
such as β-hydroxy-ethyl-hydrazine, ethylene chlorohydrin, ethrel, etc., have been tried for
flower induction in pineapple. The effective concentration of NAA ranges between 10 and
25 ppm. The fruit yield, juice percentage, TSS, acidity and sugar ratio were influenced by
NAA 10 and 25 ppm (Table 10). In terms of total cropping period and flowering, ethrel was
found to be superior to other growth regulators (Borah and Mohan, 1995).
Table 10: Effect of chemicals on fruit yield and quality of pineapple cv. Kew*
Treatments Fruit yield Juice TSS Acidity

(t/ha) content (%) (°Brix) (%)
Control 25.71 83.2 11.8 1.45
NAA (10 ppm) 40.83 83.6 14.9 0.70
NAA (25 ppm) 42.78 84.9 14.7 0.55
NAA (50 ppm) 32.51 83.3 14.1 0.49
Ethrel (25 ppm) + urea (2%) + Na2CO3 35.03 84.6 13.9 0.60
(0.04 %)
Calcium carbide 39.66 83.9 13.5 1.28
CD (P = 0.05) 8.82 0.14
Source: Borah and Mohan (1995).
Ethephon (2‐chloroethylphosphonic acid) is a widely used chemical to force pineapple

because of its effectiveness and ease of application. The effective concentration ranges from
500 to 1,500 μg/L and is usually applied as a water solution, containing 2 to 4% urea at
2,300 L/ha (approximately). Higher concentrations might be required to force flowering in
warm season and when forcing is expected to be difficult. Effectiveness can be improved
by raising the pH of the solution to 7.0 or above with sodium carbonate or sodium borate.
However, ethephon is not allowed to use in organic production. Hence, ethylene gas and
acetylene (calcium carbide) have been reported as alternatives to induce flowering in organic
production. Ethylene @ 800 g/ha in 6,000 to 8,000 L of water in addition with 0.5% activated
carbon or 1% bentonite yields more consistent results than ethephon. It gives best results
when applied at night or in early morning hours (Py et al., 1987). Moreover, hand forcing
with about 1 gram per plant of calcium carbide granules in contact with water produces the
ethylene analog acetylene and is used on smaller farms in Africa and certain parts of Asia.
Forcing success is more on days when the temperature is less than 30°C. Higher N level
at the time of forcing may reduce forcing success in warm weather. However, withholding
nitrogen fertilizer for 4 to 6 weeks before forcing can improve induction of ethylene. Ethrel
@ 0.025 ml/L + 2% urea + 0.04% sodium carbonate induce more than 90% flowering, as urea
helps in better absorption of sodium carbonate and increases release of ethylene. For 1,000
plants, 50 litres of solution has to be prepared by dissolving 1.25 ml of ethrel + 1 kg of urea
+ 20 g of sodium carbonate. Around 50 ml of this solution has to be poured in the centre of
crown. Similarly, 95 percent of flowering within 56 days could be induced by applying 50
ml of solution containing calcium carbide (1%) and urea (2%) at the age of 12 months (Devi
et al., 2013). In ratoon crop of Giant Kew, calcium carbide (1%) and urea (2%) applied in
the whorl of plants during September to October induced flowering within one month and
the fruits were ready for harvesting in first week of March to end of May. The planting and
flower induction schedule can be planned (Table11) so as to accomplish staggered harvest
and unbroken market availability throughout the season i.e., from October to May.
Table 11: Flower regulation for staggered harvest
Month of Month of application of Months taken Harvesting month

planting growth regulators for flower
(1st year) (2nd year) induction
April March-April 1-2 October-November
May April-May 1-2 November-December
August July-August 1-2 February-March
September August-September 1-2 March-April
October September-October 1-2 April-May
November October-November 1-2 May-June
Source: Devi et al. (2013).
In an attempt to understand plant growth regulator that could inhibit environmental

induction (EI) of inflorescence development, Min and Bartholomew (1996) observed that
propionic acid, paclobrutazol and uniconazole delayed or inhibited EI which might be
ascribed to inhibit growth and ethylene production by leaf-basal white tissues. The flowers
are usually pollinated by humming birds and these flowers usually develop small and hard
seeds. Seeds are generally not found in commercially grown pineapple since the flowers are
normally self-sterile and fruit development is parthenocarpic. Wind pollination is not known
to occur, while humming birds, honeybees, bees (Trigona spp.) and ants have occasionally
been observed visiting pineapple flowers, probably for the nectar and may play a secondary
role in cross-pollination. However, sexual reproduction is rare in its nature.
15. PHYSIOLOGY OF FLOWERING

Pineapple is a CAM plant. Nocturnal fixation of CO2 takes place by the cytosolic enzyme
phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase (PEPCase) resulting in the formation of malate. It is stored
in the vacuolar cells of the chlorenchyma. The decarboxylation of the accumulated malic
acid releases CO2, which is assimilated into carbohydrates using 1,5‐ribulose bisphosphate
carboxylase/oxygenase (Rubisco). The C3 photosynthetic carbon reduction cycle completes
during the day. This mechanism boosts the activity of photosynthesis which prevents a rapid
loss of water due to transpiration from open stomata during the night (Smith and Winter, 1996).
Min and Bartholomew (1997) observed that the production of ethylene and the activity
of the ethylene biosynthetic enzyme (ACC oxidase) in the stem and leaf tissues of pineapple
plants cultivated at 30/30ºC (day/night) were lower than that of plants grown at 30/20ºC.
Initiation of pineapple flower depends on the physiological state and nutritional reserve of the
plant, day length and temperature (Bartholomew and Malezieux, 1994). High flowering rate
is observed at photoperiod of eight hours compared to photoperiod of 16 hours if the plants
are exposed to a constant temperature of 25°C. The occurrence of natural flowering varies
from 20 to 80% (Scott, 1993; Rebolledo-Martínez et al., 1997). Scott (1993) reported that
2-(3-chlorophenoxy) propionic acid (Fruitone CPA) applied at 50 ppm active constituent in
3000 L ha-1 in mid to late March in Queensland limited sucker growth rate to a degree that
natural flowering was inhibited to reduce the incidence of precocious fruiting (an average
8.2 to 48.5%) the following summer treatment. With a dose of 100 mg L-1 of fruitone CPA,
split in three applications at 15 days interval during autumn season in Mexico, inhibited
the flowering at 76 and 82% in 33,000 and 46,000 plants per hectare, respectively, while
the control plants had 95% of natural flowering in the low density and 82% in the higher
density of planting (Rebolledo-Martínez et al., 1997). Hundred percent natural flowering
in pineapple plants has also been observed when plants were maintained at less than 20ºC
for 10 to 12 weeks. However, the direct effect of low temperature is not yet elucidated and
observed that the rate of ACC (precursor of ethylene) increased about 40% during winter
when the average low temperature reached 14.5ºC.
Flowering in pineapple is also influenced by different plant densities and nutrition.

Higher plant densities delayed flowering both in plants and ratoon crops, and increased
the total fruit yield although the fruit size was smaller. Increase in nitrogen and potassium
also brought about an improvement in the flowering and yield at all plant densities (Das et
al., 2000). Flowering in pineapple is affected with application of ethrel wherein 1,000 ppm
ethrel concentration resulted enhanced flowering and fruit set whereas least number of days
to flowering was observed with application of 1,000 ppm ethrel (Rojas and Solidum, 1990).
Floral integrator genes such as FT (Flowering Locus T), SOC1 (Suppressor of
Overexpression of constans 1) and AGL24 (Agamous- like 24) activates the floral identity
genes such as LFY, AP1, SEP3 and FUL which confer the transition to the floral meristem
(Honma and Goto, 2001). In pineapple, flowering is triggered by a burst of ethylene
production in response to various cues, in which the AcACS2 plays an important role. Four
ethylene receptors genes (AcERS1b, AcERS1b, AcETR2a and AcETR2b) have been cloned
and expression analysis showed that AcERS1b, AcETR2a, and AcETR2b play key roles
in pineapple flowering (Li et al., 2016). The ethylene levels of plants were increased and
the GA3 level were decreased during first 24 hours after flowering forcing using ethephon,
coupled with the up regulation of GA2ox1 (Ga2oxidase1) and PI (Espinosa et al., 2017).
Illumina sequencing was utilized to integrate transcriptomic changes shoot apical meristems
of floral buds in response to ethylene, indicating that LTI, FT, and VRN1 involved in the
process of floral development (Liu and Fan, 2016). Isoform sequencing (iso-seq), Illumina
short-reads sequencing and whole-genome bisulfite sequencing (WGBS) explore the early
changes of transcriptomic and DNA methylation in pineapple following high-concentration
ethylene (HE)- 20 ml of 1200 mg/L ethephon solution and low-concentration ethylene (LE)-
20 ml of 600 mg/L of ethephon solution treatments. Iso-seq produced 122,338 transcripts,
including 26,893 alternative splicing isoforms 8,090 novel transcripts and 12,536 candidate
long non-coding RNAs. The WGBS results suggested a decrease in CG (Cysteine Guanine)
methylation and increase in CHH (H=Adenine, Thiamine, Cysteine) methylation following
HE treatment. The LE and HE treatments induced drastic changes in transcriptome and DNA
methylome with LE inducing the initial response to flower induction and HE inducing the
subsequent response (Wang et al., 2017).
16. CROP PROTECTION

16.1. Insect-pests and their management
Pineapple does not suffer much on account of pest damage but insects as vector of viral
diseases may take heavy toll. In India, mealy bug is considered as the most destructive
insect-pests of pineapple. Other pests like thrips, slugs, termites and black palm beetle are
of minor importance which has been discussed here as under.
16.1.1. Mealy bug (Dysmicoccus brevipes)
Mealy bug is responsible for causing wilt diseases in pineapple. Illingworth (1931)
demonstrated the linkage of ants and mealy bugs with wilt disease, wherein he observed
that the ants present in the field aid in multiplication of mealy bugs. Experiments have
confirmed that ants control reduces mealy bug population. The ants nourish on the mealy
bug honeydew, guard the mealy bugs from natural enemies and carry them to new areas.
Mealy bugs cause wilting of the plants either by feeding, injecting toxins or by introducing
virus into the plants. It can be controlled by the following practices.
»» Collect planting material from the unaffected leaves.

»» Dip the planting material before use in 0.02 to 0.04 % solution of methyl parathion.
»» Apply thimet 10 G @ 17.5 kg/ha at an interval of 100 to 225 days or apply disulfon
@ 20 kg/ha 45 days after harvest and after planting.
»» Control ants.
16.1.2. Root-knot nematodes (Meloidogyne species)
Like many other fruit crops, nematodes limit the production of pineapple. Nearly 200
nematodes species belonging to 26 genera have been reported to be associated with pineapple
in the world. However, in India Meloidogyne species and Rotylenchulus reniformis cause
economic loss to pineapple. Root-knot nematodes occur widespread in pineapple production
countries like Queensland, Puerto Rico, Mexico, South Africa, Zimbabwe, Ivory Coast,
Hawaii, Thailand and some areas of the Philippines. Meloidogyne javanica and M. incognita
are the two main species associated with pineapple.
Severe infections may result in a stunted root system, poor anchorage and plants
are more vulnerable to moisture and nutrient stress. Damage thresholds are usually low
at 1 nematode per cm3 soil at planting or greater than 1 to 5 juveniles per 200 cm3 soil 12
months after planting (Sipes and Schmitt, 2000). M. incognita has been reported to feed on
pineapple roots and it may cause 40 to 50 percent yield loss in certain localities. Root growth
is gradually reduced as a result plant, leaf and fruit weight is also reduced. The growth of
the roots is stopped and this produces many secondary roots. The management practices
are mentioned as follows:
»» Infested planting materials should be destroyed.

»» Soil fumigation with ethylene dibromide (EDB) 100 kg/ha, 2 to 3 weeks, before
planting.
»» Nematicides with systemic action can be employed @ 0.2 g/plant at 2 months interval.
16.1.3. Reniform nematodes (Rotylenchus reniformis)
The reniform nematode, Rotylenchus reniformis remains the most economically destructive
nematode on pineapple in Hawaii, Asia and the Caribbean. R. parvus which is a related
nematode has been observed in pineapple in Southern Africa but is not associated with
economic loss. Reniform nematode may cause reduction of crop yield by up to 83%. Root
damage affected by reniform nematodes is usually less severe than that caused by root-
knot nematode. However, damage is distributed evenly over a larger area. Varieties like,
Venezolana and Ananas ananasoides and their hybrids have been reported to be resistant
to reniform nematodes, which do not allow even the initial infestation in the plants. The
management practices are mentioned as follows:
»» Fumigate nursery with methyl bromide, DD, EDB, choloropicrin, etc.

»» Shift the nursery site.
»» Use certified planting material.
»» Intercropping with marigold and Crotolaria should be done.
»» Hot water treatment of the planting material as nematodes does not survive at
temperature above 40°C.
»» Treating the planting material with nematicides dip like phorate, diazinon and
zinophos.
»» Application of oil seed cakes of castor, mustard, neem, karanj, etc., use of sawdust
and wood chips around the tree basin and use of black polyethylene as mulch.
»» Apply nematicides such as aldicarb, nemagone or carbofuran in the plantations.
»» Use of bioagents like predaceous fungi such as Dactylaria brochophaga and
D.candila to keep the population of nematodes under control.
Pineapple bug (Carpophilus hemipterus), pineapple mite (Stigmacus floridanas),

scale insect (Diaspis bromeliae), stem borer (Metamasius ritchiei), pineapple fruit borer
(Strymon megarus), pineapple fruit fly (Melanoloma canopilosum, M. viatrix), pineapple
mite (Dolichotetranychus floridanus), pineapple weevil (Cholus spinipes, C. vaurieae,
Diastethus bromeliarum Champion, Cactophagus lojamus, C. miniatopunctatus, Metamasius
dimidiatipennis), thrips (Holopothrips ananasi), termite (Mastotermes darwiniensis), white
grub (larval stage of several beetle species infest the roots of pineapple plant), sugarcane
midget (Elaphira nucicolora), banana bath moth (Opogona sacchari (Bojer)), fig beetle
(Cotinis murabilis) are some other pests infesting pineapple.
Rodents, squirrel and jungle crow often cause losses to pineapple plantations. Rodents
damage the mature as well as ripe fruits particularly in Nagaland and Mizoram. This can be
controlled by smoking the rodent holes manually or baiting with zinc sulphide.
16.2. Diseases and their management

16.2.1. Mealy bug wilt
Mealy bug wilt is one of the most serious and devastating diseases in pineapple (Rohrbach
and Johnson, 2003). It is a complex and multi-component disease involving mealy bug,
ants and a virus. Illingworth (1931) demonstrated the linkage of ants and mealy bug with
wilt disease, wherein he noted that ants, the natural enemies already present in the field
might aid in multiplication of mealy bugs and suggested that controlling ants might be an
effective way of preventing mealybug wilt disease of pineapple. Experimental results have
confirmed that ant control reduces mealy bug population and hence reduce mealy bug wilt
disease (Jahn et al., 2003). The ants nourish on the mealy bug honeydew, guard the mealy
bugs from natural enemies and carry them to new areas. A closterovirus was identified over
50 years after mealy bugs were associated with wilt from an infected pineapple (Gunasinghe
and German, 1989). The mealy bug not only vector the virus but their nursing is required
for mealy bug to develop. It is believed that mealy bug inject an agent while feeding that
suppresses the pineapple plant’s tolerance to the virus (Sether and Hu, 2002). It is mostly
susceptible to Cayenne and Red Spanish while Queen being the resistant. Mealy bug cause
wilting of the plants either by feeding, injecting toxins or by introducing virus into the plants.
Most prominent symptom is the wilting of leaves at the tips with reddish yellow colour in
the wilting areas. The management practices are mentioned as follows:
»» Collect planting material from the unaffected leaves.

»» Dip the planting material before use in 0.02 to 0.04 % solution of methyl parathion.
»» Apply thimet 10 G @17.5 kg/ha at an interval of 100 to 225 days or apply disulfon
@20 kg/ha 45 days after harvest and after planting.
»» Ant control has proven to be much more effective. When ants are controlled, the
parasitoid, Anagyrus ananatis, and other biological control agents retain populations
of mealy bug below economic threshold level.
16.2.2. Heart rot or Stem rot or Root rot
Heart rots are caused by several pathogens such as Phytophthora nicotianae, Phytophthora
cinnamomi and Phytophthora palmivora. Heart rot caused by these oomycetes are associated
with wet environmental conditions and more prevalent in high rainfall areas. Plant damage due
to heart rot can reach up to 100% depending on the soil type, pH and rainfall. P. nicotianae
and P. palmivora causes heart rot at warmer and lower elevations compared to P. cinnamomi
that occurs at cooler and higher elevations (Rohrbach and Schmitt, 2003).
Infected plants will primarily show a failure of young leaves to elongate, progressing
to yellowing of the leaves that can be easily pulled from the plant. The tips of leaves turn
brown and their basal portions show signs of rotting with a foul odour. Eventually the entire
center and growing point of the pineapple rots away. It is a common disease in the north-
eastern hilly region of India.
It can be controlled by dipping the planting material in 0.4% difolatan at the time of
planting and maintenance of proper drainage of fields. Affected plantations should be sprayed
with difolatan or captan. Application of fosetyl aluminum is an effective pre‐plant dip and
as post-plant foliar application.
16.2.3. Base rot or Fruit rot or Butt rot or Black rot or White leaf spot
The causal fungus is Ceratostomella paradoxa which is widespread in different pineapple

growing areas of the world. It is associated with a soft rot and blackening of the basal portion
of the pineapple stem tissue. White leaf spot are found on the tips of the pineapple shoots.
The growth of infected planting material occurs slowly and plant remains stunted due to
loss of stem tissue containing carbohydrate reserves and the initial roots.
Control of rot can be achieved by proper postharvest handling to reduce injury. Dipping
in an approved fungicide followed by refrigeration at 9°C reduce loss due to black rot
(Rohrbach and Johnson, 2003). Substitutes to fungicidal dips include acetic acid dips, hot
water treatments and application of biological control fungus, Trichoderma.
16.2.4. Fusariosis or Fusarium stem rot
Fusarium guttiforme is the causal organism of fusariosis or fusarium stem rot. Fusariosisis
mainly causes losses in Brazil on cultivars such as ‘Smooth Cayenne’ and ‘Perola’. Stem
infection take place at leaf bases resulting in rosetting and curving of the plant due to portions
of the stem being wounded or killed. Infections may spread into flowers and also to fruits
through wounds created by the pineapple borer, Thecla basilides. As soon as the developing
fruit is infected, there is a chance of secondary infections on the developing slips or suckers.
The fungus is spread within infested fields by insects or wind but it cannot survive for longer
period in the soil (Rohrbach and Schmitt, 2003).
Less susceptible cultivars should be used in areas where fusariosis is present. Moreover,
using pathogen free planting material can limit disease introduction into the field. Suitable
insect control and fungicides can also be used to control the disease. Lately, yeasts such as
Candida krusei and Kloeckera apis have proven to inhibit F. guttiforme which can be used
as biological control agent (Korres et al., 2011).
16.2.5. Bacterial heart rot
Bacterial heart rot of pineapple is caused by Dickeya sp. (formerly called as Erwinia
chrysanthemi) (Marrero et al., 2013). Dickeya sp. is the only strain of bacteria that is known
to cause disease in pineapple. Infected young leaves in the central appear water-soaked.
These water-soaked areas will form brown streaks and eventually transform into blister like
lesions. After a few days, the meristem will be dead. Inoculum is assumed to have come from
the infested juice of collapsed fruit. Ants, wind and wind-blown rain brings the bacteria into
the stomata of nearby pineapple plants. Losses due to bacterial heart rot differ from cultivar-
to-cultivar with ‘Smooth Cayenne’ being more resistant than the Spanish type cultivars.
Sanitation is one of the most important measures for preventing the introduction of
the bacteria into new areas and in avoiding low incidences of bacterial heart rot in a field
from creating an epidemic. Infected plants should be destroyed or removed fully from the
field. Crowns or slips from plants with symptoms of heart rot or from an area having high
incidence of heart rot should not be used as planting material. Chemical control is reportedly
not an option (Rohrbach and Johnson, 2003).
Leaf blotch (Pestalotia microspora), anthracnose (Colletotrichum ananas), leaf spot

(Phytophthora spp.), yellow spot (tomato spotted wilt virus transmitted by thrips from
alternate weed host like Emilia sanchifolia) are some other diseases infecting pineapple.
17. PHYSIOLOGICAL DISORDER AND THEIR MANAGEMENT

17.1. Fasciation
Fruits and crown becomes deformed. It is a non-pathogenic physiological disorder and
caused mainly due to high vigour of plants, warm weather and high soil fertility. Normally
pineapple bear a single crown, but in some cases it bears more than one, sometimes even up
to 25 crowns. Consequently, the top of the fruits get flattened, broad and becomes unfit for
use. The incidence of fasciation increases with advancing ratoons. Occurrence of fasciation
can be avoided by restricting the growth.
17.2. Sunscald
The peduncle bearing the fruit leans or falls on one side which exposes the fruit to direct
sunlight. Thereby the cells under the peel of the exposed surface get damaged. It is very
serious in widely spaced plants compared to dense plants. It can be reduced by shading of
branches, painting of exposed surfaces with lime paste and by wrapping straw or hay around
the tree trunk. This disorder does not occur in high-density plantings.
17.3. Black heart

It is also known as internal browning or endogenous brown spot. Initially, some brown
translucent spots are developed at the base of fruit, close to the core. Later, these spots turn
black and may cover the entire center of the fruit. Exogenous applications of gibberellic
acid and low temperature have been reported to induce this disorder.
17.4. Flesh translucency

It is also called as porosity. Such fruits are more sensitive to mechanical injury. Its incidence
is high when the maximum and minimum temperature of the preceding three months before
harvest is lower i.e., 23 and 15°C, respectively. Waxing of fruit can reduce the rate of
translucency developed after the harvest.
Other abnormalities and diorders of pineapple includes Crown without fruit, Multiple
crowns, Collar of slips, Long Tom, Deep eye, Shell surface pitting, Seediness, Broken and
hollow core, Crown dehydration, Dry fruit and Bottle neck.
18. MATURITY, HARVESTING AND YIELD

Pineapple plant flowers at 10 to 12 months and fruits become ready for harvest in about 15
to 18 months after planting. In India, under natural conditions, pineapple comes to harvest
during May to August. With the application of ethephon and fertilizers, the first yield is
obtained within 11 to 12 months. Fruits which mature in winter are commonly acidic in
taste. Ripening and senescence of the fruit on the plant is indicated by the reduction in shell
chlorophyll, starting from the base of the fruit. Generally, the half‐yellow stage is considered
as ripe and at this stage, the total soluble solids, a measure of sugars, has reached a maximum
and the titratable acidity has begun to decline (Saradhuldhat and Paull, 2007).
Observing the colour change is the most commonly followed indices of maturity in
pineapple. It is judged by yellowing of the basal portion as follows:
1. ½ to 2/3rd portion yellowing for local market.

2. 1/3 to 1/4th portion yellowing for distant market.
3. 1/3 to ½ portion yellowing for canning purpose.
Pineapple fruit is mostly hand harvested. Small farmers generally harvest the fruit by
hand with a sharp knife making a clean cut at the fruit stalk (retaining 2 to 3 cm long stalk)
and place in to a basket on their back. The crown is left attached and care is taken to avoid
injury to these leaves. Fruit maturity uniformity governs harvest peak and the number of
harvest rounds needed to achieve maximum yield from a field. Attempts have been made
to mechanically harvest the fruit but in vain, with problems being found in localizing the
fruit and evaluating stage of ripeness and overall appearance. For canning purpose, fruits
are harvested with a slight colour change at the base of the developing fruits. For table
purpose, fruits could be retained till they developed golden yellow colour. Fruits for fresh
fruit market are often marketed with crowns. The fruits harvested with the crown can be
kept for 10 to 15 days.
The yield in pineapple varies depending on the variety, climatic conditions, cultivation
techniques employed, type of planting material used and the planting density (spacing). The
average yield of pineapple in India is 10 to 15 tonnes/ha, an estimate given by the Indian
Institute of Foreign Trade, New Delhi (Radha and Mathew, 2007). This low productivity is
mainly attributed to wider spacing in commercial plantations. However, by increasing the
population density per hectare yield is reported to increase does not have adverse effect on
fruit size, quality and canning recovery. The yield of 70 to 105 tonnes/ha may be obtained
under high-density planting, the increase in yield per unit area being in the tune of 45 to
85 tonnes/ha. Enhanced yield of more than 50 tonnes/ha can be achieved by population
density of above 40,000 plants/ha. A large proportion of assimilates is allocated to the
inflorescence and the crown which means that the more assimilates are available at flower
induction the higher would be the fruit weight. Plant growth characteristics can be a basis
for predicting yield of pineapple crop. The indices used are the numbers of leaves one year
after planting and number of suckers in a plant. Size of the fruit can be predicted with the
equation mentioned as follows (Chadha et al., 1998).
1. Fruit weight in kg = 1,3978 + (0.0028 × No. of leaves).

2. Fruit weight in kg = 1,238 + (0.2520 × No. of suckers).
19. POST HARVEST MANAGEMENT

Pineapple is the second harvest of importance after banana, contributing to over 20 percent
of the world production of tropical fruits. By definition, postharvest handling begins at
harvest. The harvested fruit should be deposited in drawers and transported to the packing
plant, where it is submerged in the disinfectant trays. Another alternative process consists
of submerging the fruits completely in antifungal solution. This process is used especially
for export to United States and Europe. A careful crop handling and postharvest contributes
to the maintenance of the quality of the produce.
19.1. Selection and care

Pineapple fruit must be well ripened, good formation, well developed eyes, free of
decomposition, scald caused by sun, free of injuries caused by contusions, burns, insects
or mechanical injuries. The base should be well cut with a sharp knife. The leaves should
be of the same colour, singular, more or less right, well stuck to the fruit, there should not
be more than five per each crown. The longitude of the leaves should not be less than ten
centimeters or more than double the size of the fruit. The fruit is initially assessed by external
appearance, it should be fresh, clear and shiny. When it is completely ripe, the leaves of the
crown must be of a light green colour, the crown must be very green and well developed.
19.2. Grading
After pre-grading, washing, waxing and fungicide treatment, the pineapple fruits are left to
dry and then graded for packing. Graders remove any fruit that show signs of damage or
any of the conditions that qualify the fruit for rejection in the pre-grading stage. Remaining
pineapples are classified for packing based on size, stage of ripeness and if applicable,
shape (Table 12).
The main criteria for export of fresh fruits to the European Union are by fruit weight
as follows (Radha and Mathew, 2007).
Extra class : ≥ 1500 g

I class : 1,100 to 1,500 g
II class : 800 to 1,100 g
III class : < 800 g
Table 12: Details of sizing in pineapple fruit as per AGMARK standard
Size code Average weight (g) with crown Average weight (g) without crown
A 2750 2280
B 2300 1910
C 1900 1580
D 1600 1330
E 1400 1160
F 1200 1000
G 1000 830
H 700 560
I <700 <560
Source: APEDA (2019).
19.3. Packing
The preferred method of packing is to place the fruit vertically on the base and then to place
dividers between the fruits to prevent rubbing and movement. With some corrugated fibre
boards (CFB), this is not possible and fruit are laid horizontally in alternating directions where
two layers of fruit are packed and a layer of card is placed between the layers depending on
weight of the fruit mentioned as follows.
1. 6 count layer for 1.75 kg fruit (3.8 lb).
3. 12 count for 1.00 kg fruit (2.2 lb).
Fruits are normally packed to a net weight of 10 to 15 kg (22 to 33 lb) depending on

the carton and the market. High value small pineapples may be shipped in some instances
at 6 kg (13 lb), whereas the large fruit in some cases may be packed up to 20 kg (45 lb)
(Medina and Garcia, 2005). An important characteristic in this stage is that the boxes should
have holes with lengthened form in all sides for the ventilation, because it allows a quick
exit of the heat emitted from the fruits. The pineapple fruits should be fixed inside the box,
in order to avoid wounds in the shell and/or the crown.
Fruits are also packed in woven bamboo baskets commonly cushioned with paddy straw.
In Northeast India, pineapple fruits are rarely packed for marketing. The fruits are loaded
in open truck and unloaded in to heaps/piles at market places and sold as such. Eventually,
the post-harvest loss is very high. Improved corrugated fibre board boxes for pineapple has
been developed for long distant transportation by truck (1000 km) and rail (2500 km). This
CFB boxes drastically reduced the losses during transportation (Deka et al., 2008).
Table 13: Technical specifications of CFB boxes for pineapple
S. No. Parameters CFB box

1 Internal dimension (L×W×H) in mm 685×380×258
2 No. of ply 5
3 Bursting strength (kg/cm2) 15.00
4 Compression strength (kg) 300
5 Breathing holes 6 nos. of oval shaped holes
6 Capacity 12 nos. of pineapple
7 Stack load 120 kg
8 Drop test No damage up to 10 drops from 1 m height
Source: Deka et al. (2008).
19.4. Storage
Fruits are pre-cooled to remove field heat and slow down the physiological processes. Low
temperature storage extends the shelf life of fresh pineapple fruits. In tropical climate,
pineapple could be stored for more than 20 days at 10 to 13°C. Ginsburg and Visagie (1979)
reported that fruits of Cayenne and Queen harvested at the optimum stage stored well at 10°C
for 7 weeks with a shelf life of 10 to 14 days. The ascorbic acid content of pineapple fruits
decreased with duration of storage at room temperature. Treatment of fruits with NAA at
100 ppm immediately after picking resulted in prolonged storage life even at unfavourable
temperature. The storage condition of pineapple fruits harvested at different stage of maturity
is shown in Table 14.
Table 14: Ideal storage conditions for pineapple fruits
Stage of fruit Temperature (°C) Relative humidity (%) Duration (weeks)

Mature green 10-13 90 3-4
Turning 7-10 90 3-4
Ripe 7 90 2-4
Source: Snowdown (1990).

20. PROCESSING AND VALUE ADDITION

Traditionally pineapple is consumed fresh or canned fruit. However, pineapple is now consumed
in the form of single strength or concentrated juice, dehydrated and/or sugared, canned in slices
or bits. Among the newer developments are dried chips, cocktail type drinks, dried powdered,
isotonic mixtures and wine; there are also new canned forms as whole fruit, bars, flakes and
cubes. Pineapple pieces can be mixed with other fruits to prepare fruit cocktails, which entail
another commercial alternative. Processing plants reject fruits with bruises, defective heart or
multiple crowns. Porosity should be minimal, the total soluble solids (°Brix) to acidity ratio
should be near 20 and acidity should be kept close to 0.75%. In average, the yield in processing
ranges from 45 to 55%. Adequate thermal treatment and final pH value of the product are key
factors to assure product quality. There is a wide range of packaging materials that can be
employed for packaging purpose viz. cans, glass jars, tetra packs, low density polyethylene,
high density polyethylene, polypropylene, metalized polyester, etc. (COVECA, 2002).
20.1. Dried pineapple

In this product, most of the free water of the fruit is eliminated. Usually, chunks or slices
are prepared for better presentation and make handling easier. Final moisture is near 5%
which allows the dried fruit longer shelf life. Proper packing and storage is done in a fresh
and cool place.
20.2. Juice, nectar and concentrated frozen juice

Pineapple juice is obtained from crushing fruit pieces and proper physical separation of the
solids. Juice must be pasteurized and packed to extend its shelf life and a preservative or
refrigerated storage may be used as additional barriers to microbial spoilage. Juice from
other fruits can be blended with pineapple to make interesting mixtures for development
of novel products. Concentrated frozen juice is prepared by direct application of heat to
pineapple juice to reduce its water content. No chemical additives are used.
20.3. Concentrated frozen and aseptic pulp

It is the product prepared by thermal treatment of the pulp from which at least 50% of the
initial water is removed. Concentration and freezing are applied to preserve the pulp for
extended period of time. The concentrated pulp is stable without the addition of chemicals
as long as it is kept frozen. Upon reconstitution (by replenishing the previously eliminated
water), the pulp should have the same qualities as the original pulp. Aseptic pulp is the pulp
that is heat-sterilized and packed aseptically. No chemicals are added and it has a long shelf
life. There are specific equipments to perform these processes and it is considered to be at
the cutting edge of technology.
20.4. Jelly, jam and marmalade

Jelly, jam and marmalade fall in the group of fruit preserve which are defined as semi-
solid. Usually, jellies are prepared from fruit juice and a gel-type product is obtained. Jam
is prepared from fruit pulp and marmalade is semi-fluid which contains fruit pieces. Final
textural firmness is dependent of the type of gel-forming agent as pectin which is added
under controlled acidity and solid content to assure the proper texture of the product. To
assure proper shelf life at ambient temperature, preservatives may be added.
20.5. Filling, preserve and candy

Pineapple pieces mixed with bakery cream may be used as cake fillings for institutional
service and large-scale production of bakery goods. Due to its high nutrient and water content,
shelf life is not very long. Pineapple is very suitable to make preserve and candy which are
impregnated with heavy sugar syrup and subsequently drained free from syrup and dried.
In case of preserve, the fruit pieces become tender and transparent.
20.6. Wine and vinegar

Pineapple makes a flavourful wine which is obtained by fermentation of the juice. Peel
and pineapple by-products from processing can be used as raw materials to prepare natural
vinegar, by acetic fermentation which makes a proper use of residuals.
20.7. Valorizing waste

The waste from pineapple processing industry constitutes 50% of the total fruit and includes
crown, peel, core, pomace (after juice extraction), trimmings and shreds. The solid waste
and liquid sludge rich in organic material, carbohydrates and fibre poses an environmental
problem with its disposal, and has been largely investigated for extraction of bromelain,
ethanol, vinegar, citric acid, methane and antioxidant compounds (Kumar et al., 2003;
Omojasola et al., 2008). Pineapple bran, the dried rag of pulp after juice extraction is
reported to be good cattle feed. Densification of pineapple waste with roughage based crop
residues can be achieved to deveop compact blocks foe use as animal feed. This process has
huge potential as an alternative livestock feed resource (Assumi et al., 2018).
21. INDUSTRIAL AND EXPORT POTENTIAL

Fruits harvested from the field are placed in trucks crown side down and up to 3 layers from
top to bottom. It is essential to avoid fruit overheating both in the field as well as during
transport and handling. Harvested fruits are brought to the packing plant, cleaned and coated
with a mixture of fungicide and liquid wax. For global market, pineapple is categorized as:
1. US select (10 fruits of 1.40 to 1.80 kg)

2. No. 1 (8 fruits of 1.81 to 2.00 kg)
3. No. 2 (6 fruits of 2.01 to 2.50 Kg)
Packing for export market is done in a one-piece box build of telescopic fiber which is
capable of holding 9 kg (20 lb) or 18 kg (40 lb). To get better fruit strength during transport
and prevent any mechanical damages, pineapple which are at 1/4th ripening stage (yellow
colour at the base of the fruit covering around 25% of the surface) are selected. Transportation
temperature and relative humidity should be 7 to 13°C and 85 to 90%, respectively. Care
should be taken to avoid chilling injury which occurs at below 7°C storage temperature.
Pineapples that are meant for export must meet the following requirements:
i. Uniform shape and size.
ii. Good firmness.
iii. Free of rotting, sunburn, crack, bruise, internal breakdown, endogenous brown spot,
gummosis and damage caused by insects.
iv. Crown leaves should be green, medium length and erect.
v. Total soluble solids should fall between 11 and 18%, titratable acidity as citric
acid from 0.5 to 1.6% and ascorbic acid between 20 and 65 mg/100g of fresh
weight, depending on the cultivar and stage of maturity.
Waxing can be done for the fruits to change internal O2 and CO2 concentrations of
the fruit in such a way to reduce the occurrence and severity of endogenous brown spot.
Marine transportation is the main form of managing pineapple for international trade. It is
the most economical and specialized means for handling large amount of fresh produce.
Depending on the quantity, it can be done in reefers (refrigerated ships) or in containers
fitted with cooling systems.
Reefers are generally large capacity containers (>4,000 tons) and are equipped with
efficient air circulation systems with control of air velocity and exchange. Loading is made
through side small hatch or by continuous conveyors installed from the pier to the cargo
warehouses. The reefers are specialized forms of transport built with good thermal insulation
and ducts designed for cold air circulation, as supplied by the refrigeration system or with
autonomous cooling system connected to the electrical network. The main benefit for the
use of the containers is the flexibility of treating the refrigerated fruit as part of any shipment
in container carriers which in turn are normally equipped with electric supply and outlets
thus, containers have the independence to self-contain the cargo with no need of additional
facilities to keep the storage temperature constant. Also, there are refrigerated containers
with controlled atmosphere which can regulate levels of O2, CO2, N, relative humidity and
temperature. Refrigerated containers are constructed with standard dimensions of 8x8 feet
wide and either 10, 20, 30 or 40 feet long. The most widely used containers are those with
40 feet long and then with piers 20 feet long. Transport by truck (shipping door to door) is
a preferred way of handling pineapple but differing to the other systems in smaller volume
and relatively shorter distances. Transportation of international cargo by ground is used for
moving products between neighboring countries and as a supplement to sea transport to
mobilize containers to/from shipping ports.
22. ECONOMICS OF CULTIVATION

The total cost of cultivation, total return, net return over cost per acre were of the tune of Rs.
1,19,104.23, Rs.1,49,750.62 and Rs.30,646.30, respectively. Return-cost ratios estimated
at following stages were of the order of 1.64, 1.57, 1.29 and 1.26 when all sample farmers
were taken together (Chakraborty and Bera, 2008). A detailed study of economics for three
years of pineapple cultivation from one acre and one hectare in variety Mauritius at a spacing
of 30x45x120 cm, number of plants 10,000 per acre and 25,000 per hectare with wages for
men @ Rs.400/day and woman @ Rs.300/day is presented in Table 15.
Table 15: Economics of pineapple cultivation.
S. Items Expense per acre (Rs.) Total Expense per hectare (Rs.) Total
No. (Rs.) (Rs.)
1st year 2nd 3rd 1st 2nd 3rd
year year year year year
Labour requirement
1 Land preparation 20000 - - 20000 50000 - - 50000
& planting
2 Manuring 7600 7600 7600 22800 19000 19000 19000 57000
3 Weeding 15000 12000 12000 39000 37500 30000 30000 97500
4 Plant protection 2000 2000 2000 6000 5000 5000 5000 15000
& ethephon
application
5 Mulching 2400 3200 3200 8800 6000 8000 8000 22000
6 Harvesting and 6000 7000 8000 21000 15000 17500 2000 52500
marketing
Total 53000 31800 32800 117600 132500 79500 82000 294000
Input cost
1 Planting material 40000 - - 40000 - - - 40000
2 Organic manure 10000 10000 10000 30000 25000 25000 25000 75000
3 Chemical 15600 15600 15600 16800 39000 39000 39000 117000

fertilizers
4 Plant protection 10000 5000 5000 20000 25000 12500 12500 50000
chemicals
5 Tools, 4000 4000 4000 12000 10000 10000 10000 30000
Implements
Total 79600 34600 34600 148800 199000 86500 86500 372000
Lease amount
1 Total lease 40000 40000 40000 120000 100000 100000 100000 300000
Total expenditure 172600 106400 107400 386400 431500 266000 268500 966000
Yield/Income
1 Fruit yield (kg) 10000 10000 7000 27000 25000 25000 17500 67500
2 Average price 20 18 16 18 20 18 16 18
(Rs./kg)
3 Income from 200000 180000 112000 492000 500000 450000 280000 1230000
fruits
4 Income from - 10000 8000 18000 - 25000 2000 45000
suckers
Total income 200000 190000 120000 510000 500000 475000 300000 1275000
Total expenditure 172600 106400 107400 386400 431500 266000 268500 966000
Profit/Loss 27400 83600 12600 123600 68500 209000 31500 309000
Source: Pineapple Research Station (KAU).
23. TRADE AND MARKETING

Transnational’s most often have their commercial representations in recipient countries or
groups of recipient countries for their produce so they integrate to form an entire circuit,
from production to marketing. This integration enables better control of quality and has
a direct hold on recipient markets with large volume under their control, they will have
different dealings with the big distribution groups. This market scheme covers the majority of
pineapple volume on the market. Self-governing producers that do not market their fruits via
big groups, follow a short circuit, shipping their produce and products to an importer which
will handle distribution to the supermarket sector and also to wholesalers. The processed
produce market structure is different from the fresh produce market structure and marketing
takes place downstream to the supermarket sector and also to the wholesalers (Figure 2).
Figure 2: Market structure in pineapple
The main countries supplying pineapple to the international trade have been presented
in Table 16 and 17. In case of fresh pineapple, exports come primarily from Latin America
and to a lesser extent from Philippines and West Africa. The processed pineapples (canned or
concentrated juice) are mainly supplied by Asian countries, more predominantly by Thailand
and Philippines. Plain juice is distributed between Asia and Latin America, with clearly
more modest volumes than for canned pineapple or concentrated juice, which signify the
majority of processed pineapple. Although pineapple production and processing are centered
in Latin America and Asia, consumption is concentrated in North America and Europe. The
leading European recipient countries are characterized either in term of entry points into the
European Union, especially for fresh produce or in terms of major processing industries.
Table 16: Exporting countries of fresh and processed pineapple
Fresh Canned Concentrated Plain pineapple

pineapple pineapple pineapple juice juice
Costa Rica Thailand Thailand Costa Rica
Philippines Philippines Philippines Philippines
Panama Indonesia Costa Rica El Salvador
Ecuador Kenya Indonesia Thailand
Honduras China South Africa
Mexico Vietnam
Cote d’Ivoire Malaysia

Ghana
Guatemala
Malaysia
Source: United Nations (2016).
Table 17: Importing countries of fresh and processed pineapple

Canned Concentrated Plain pineapple
Fresh pineapple
pineapple pineapple juice juice
United States United States United States United States
Netherlands Germany Netherlands Netherlands
Belgium Russia Spain Belgium
Germany Spain Italy France
Japan Netherlands France Germany
United Kingdom Japan Russia Spain
Italy United Kingdom United Kingdom United Kingdom
Spain China Belgium Italy
Canada France Germany Portugal
France Canada Japan Czech Republic
Source: United Nations (2016).
24. FUTURE RESEARCH THRUST

»» There is need to give more emphasis on development of varieties with early fruiting
characteristics with aim of developing a variety that is strictly annual with less than
one year cropping cycle.
»» There is also a need to breed variety with high sugar (>18% total soluble solids) content
wherein a new product may be developed with natural juice and no added sugar.
»» Technologies are required for increasing the sweetness of fruits harvested during
winter season.
»» In exporting of fresh pineapple produce main problems are black heart disorder,
diseases and crown deterioration after a certain period of storage at low temperature.
Therefore, there is need for development of black heart disorder resistant varieties.
»» Many products have been developed in pineapple however, development of minimally

processed products are required which can open market sector for convenience
processed food items.
»» The current research need on enhancing the shelf life, improving packing quality
and presentation for higher consumer acceptability.
»» Marketing is still the biggest obstacle in the growth of this industry. Therefore,
establishment of market infrastructure and marketing channel will further boost
this potentially growing industry.
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Pineapple (Ananas comosus L. Merr.).

Chapter · April 2021

Anjani Kumar Jha

Understanding and enhancing the storability of underutilized fruits. View project

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

SR Assumi, PT Singh and AK Jha

2. COMPOSITION AND USES

Table 1: Composition of pineapple fruit (per 100 g of fresh weight)

Nutrient Unit Quantity

3. ORIGIN, HISTORY AND DISTRIBUTION

4. TAXONOMY AND BOTANICAL DESCRIPTION

Table 2: Classification of pineapple by Coppens d’Eeckenbrugge and Leal (2003)

4.2. Botanical description

Pineapple is a self-incompatible fruit crop which naturally favours vegetative propagation.

5. CLIMATIC AND SOIL REQUIREMENTS

Table 3: Temperature variations in different pineapple growing regions of the world

Max. Temp. Min. Temp.

Source: Bartholomew and Maleziux (1994).

5.2. Soil requirement

6. EFFECTS OF CLIMATE CHANGE

Bartholomew and Malezieux (1994) reviewed the influence of environmental factors

7.1. In vivo propagation

7.1.1. Stem sectioning

Propagation of pineapple can also be achieved through stump sectioning. Harvesting

7.1.3. Chemical treatment

Morphactins mixture is normally sprayed in aqueous forms after inflorescence induction

Rooting of pineapples can be improved by adding of auxins such as NAA, IBA or

Table 4: Standard characteristics of different pineapple groups

Leaves Spiny Spiny Spiny Smooth Smooth

Fruit weight (kg) 0.9-1.8 0.5-1.1 1.4 2.3 0.8-2.5

Fruit shape Globose Conical Conical Cylindrical Cylindrical

Eyes Large, deep Deep eye Flat eyes

Local market Good Good Good Good Good

Incidence of diseases Susceptible More resistant Resistant Susceptible to Unknown

Source: Leal and Soule (1977).

Chief characteristics of major cultivars have been described as under:

It is a mid-season variety of Queen group. It is grown in some parts of Meghalaya and

8.4. Jaldhup and Lakhat

8.5. Red Spanish

8.8. PQM-1 (It is a pineapple Queen Mutant-1)

The traditional system of planting pineapple accommodates only about 15,000 to

Triangular system of planting showed high percentage of flowering and increased

Table 5: Spacing for different plant populations per hectare

Source: Radha and Chadha (1992).

Table 6: Population density followed for pineapple.

Growing region Plants/hectare

Source: Radha and Mathew (2007).

Table 7: Recommended population density for different regions of India.

Growing region Plants/hectare

Source: Radha and Mathew (2007).

10. INTERCULTURAL PRACTICES

11. IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT

12. WEED MANAGEMENT

13. NUTRIENT MANAGEMENT

Table 8: Recommended fertilizer doses for pineapple

Country N P205 K20

Source: Radha and Mathew (2007).

*Ammonium sulphate, **Single superphosphate, ***Potassium sulphate,

Treatment Fruit weight Yield TSS Acidity Ascorbic acid

1/3rd soil + 2/3rd foliar 1.99 66.9 12.9 0.81 34.12

14. FLOWERING, POLLINATION AND FRUIT SET

Treatments Fruit yield Juice TSS Acidity

Ethephon (2‐chloroethylphosphonic acid) is a widely used chemical to force pineapple

Ammonium sulphate, Single superphosphate, Potassium sulphate,